Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

4.0 C OMPASS SURVEYING (7 hours)

[Introduction; Brunton compass, Bearings, Azimuths; Local attraction, Magnetic declination,
Typical compass problem; Compass traversing, Errors and adjustment; Traverse plotting]

4.1 Introduction
A compass is any magnetically sensitive device capable of indicating the direction of the
magnetic north. Compass has been used by navigators and explorers for many centuries to
determine directions. Magnetic compass measures directions with reference to magnetic
meridian.
Compass surveying is a branch of surveying in which directions of the survey line are
determined with a compass, and the length of the survey lines are measured by tapes.
Compass does not provide a very accurate determination of the bearing of a line as the
compass needle aligns itself to the earth’s magnetic field. Compass is still useful for
preliminary engineering survey although the importance of compass has been reduced after
the invention of theodolite. The direction of survey line may be determined in two ways: (1)
Relative to angles between two consecutive survey lines, (2) Relative to bearings or some
reference direction measured with a compass.

4.2 Brunton compass, Bearings, Azimuths

Brunton compass
Brunton compass is a pocket transit compass. In 1894 the original design was patented by a
Canadian geologist named D.W. Brunton. Brunton provides a precise sighting clinometer and
hand level capability, and can be used at both waist and eye levels. The Brunton® compass is
used by more geologists for detailed field measurement of geological objects, such as fold
hinge line, axial trace, and axial plane, and basic geological field mapping in remote areas.
The pocket transit design has proven to be extremely rugged and versatile. Holding the
compass at waist-height, the user looks down into the mirror and lines up the target, needle,
and guide line that is on the mirror. Once all three are lined up and the compass is level, the
reading for that azimuth can be made. Most frequently Brunton is used in the field for the
calculation of the strike and dip of geological features (faults, contacts, foliation,
sedimentary strata, etc.).
Brunton compasses have three main parts, box, sighting arm, and lid. The box contains most
of the components: the needle; bull's eye level (round level to read horizontal angles);
clinometer level (barrel-shaped) and clinometer scale (for reading vertical angles); damping
mechanism (to more efficiently stabilizing the needle); lift pin (to lock the needle); side brass
screw and index pin (to set and display the declination); graduated circle or card (to read the
bearing). The direction of a line on the ground is given by the bearing of the line, which is the
horizontal angle between the line and a reference, commonly north in the quadrant scale, or
0o 0´ 0˝ in the azimuth scale. The reference, however, can also be the south (S) in the
quadrant scale.

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

Bearings
Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between the line and the reference meridian. The
north – south axis is the principal direction to which bearings are related. Types of bearing
are:
1. Whole-circle bearing, and
2. Quadrantal or reduced bearing
Whole-circle bearing (W.C.B.): Whole-circle bearing of a line is always measured clockwise
from the north towards the line. Whole-circle bearing of a line is measured by prismatic
compass or theodolite, and the bearing may have any value between 0° and 360°.
Quadrantal bearing (Q.B.): Quadrantal bearing of a line is always measured eastward or
westward from the north or south whichever is nearer to the line. Therefore, it is absolutely
necessary to state the direction either eastward or westward from the north or south from
which the angle is measured. The letters ‘N’ for north, ‘S’ for south, ‘E’ for east, and ‘W’ for
west are used to show the quadrants. First quadrant is denoted by N. E., second quadrant is
denoted by S. E., third quadrant is denoted by S. W., and fourth quadrant is denoted by N. W.
Quadrantal bearing of a line varies from 0° to 90°. Quadrantal bearings are observed from
the surveyor’s compass. The bearing of this system is known as reduced bearing.
Reduced bearing (R.B.): When the whole-circle bearing of a line exceeds 90°, it must be
reduced to the corresponding angle less than 90°. This angle is known as reduced bearing.
The bearing of a line can be converted from one system to another. Conversion of whole-
circle bearing into reduced bearing is given below:
Case W.C.B. between Rule for R.B. Quadrant
N. E. 0° to 90° R.B. = W.C.B. I
S. E. 90° to 180° R.B. = 180° - W.C.B. II
S. W. 180° to 270° R.B. = W.C.B. - 180° III
N. W. 270° to 360° R.B. = 360° - W.C.B. IV

Fore bearing and back bearing

Fore bearing: The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of the survey is called the fore
bearing (F.B.). If the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B, it is known as the
fore bearing of the line AB.
Back bearing: The bearing of a line in the reverse direction of progress of the survey is
called the back bearing (F.B.). If the bearing of a line AB is measured from B towards A, it is
known as the back bearing of the line AB.
Relationship between fore bearing and back bearing:
1. In whole-circle bearing system,
B.B. = F.B. ± 180° [use plus sign if F.B. ˂ 180°, and minus sign if F.B. ˃ 180°. In general, the
difference between F.B. and B.B. is exactly 180°.
2. In quadrantal bearing system,
B.B. = numerically equal to F.B.

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

But, F.B. and B.B. are in opposite directions, i.e. N is replaced by S or vice versa, and E is
replaced by W or vice versa. For example, if the bearing of a line AB is N 30° E, its back
bearing will be S 30° W.
It is advised to draw a rough sketch to determine the required bearing directly by
computation.

Calculation of included angle from bearing

The included angle between two lines may be either interior angle or exterior angle. When
traversing is done anticlockwise the included angles are interior, and when traversing is done
clockwise the included angles are exterior.
1. Whole Circle Bearing of lines given
i. If the WCB of the two (adjacent) lines are measured from a common point,
Included angle = Difference between the bearings of two lines.
For example, in fig. a., Included angle α between the lines AC and AB = F.B. of AC -
F.B. of AB, both bearings are measured from a common point A.
B
Ө1

B
α
C Ө2
Ө1
α
A

Fig. (a) A Fig. (b) C

Figure: Calculation of included angle from bearing

ii. When the WCB of the two (adjacent) lines are not measured from a common point,
Apply the rules of back bearing to convert the bearings of the adjacent line as it has
been measured from a common point. It means, if the bearings of AB and BC are
given, the bearing of BA must be determined.
For example, in fig. b., Included angle α between the lines AB and BC = F.B. of BA - F.B. of
BC. Or, α = (Ө1 + 180°) – Ө2.
2. Reduced Bearing of lines given
i. If the two lines are on the same side of the meridian and in the same quadrant,
Included angle = Difference between the bearings of two lines.
ii. If the two lines are on the same side of the meridian but in different quadrants,
Included angle = 180° - sum of the R.B. of the two lines.
iii. If the two lines are on the opposite sides of the meridian and in the opposite
quadrants,
Included angle = 180° - difference of the R.B. of the two lines,
iv. If the two lines are on the opposite sides of the meridian, but in the adjacent
quadrants,

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

Included angle = sum of the R.B. of the two lines.

While computing the included angle it is better to draw a sketch showing directions
of the line.

Calculation of bearing from included angle

Starting from the known bearings of one line and the included angles of a traverse, the
whole circle bearings of all other lines of that traverse can be computed.
Rule: WCB of a line at a station = WCB of previous line + clockwise included angle at the
station ± 180°.
1. If the sum is greater than 180°, subtract 180.
2. If the sum is less than 180°, add 180°.
3. If the sum is more than 540°, subtract 540°.
In some cases the sum of the bearing and the included angle is greater than 540°. In such
a case, 180° should be subtracted as usual and the result being greater than 360°, deduct
360° to get the bearing.
Note: The rule is applicable for included angles measured clockwise from the back
station.

Azimuths
Azimuths are angles measured clockwise from any reference direction, usually the northern
point of the horizon, to the point where a vertical circle through a celestial body intersects
the horizon. Azimuths are generally measured from the north in plane surveying and they
may be measured from the south in geodetic and astronomical surveying. Thus it becomes
necessary to specify whether an azimuth is from the north or from the south.
Azimuths have values ranging from 0° to 360°. Thus, in fact azimuths are whole circle
bearings. In practice, the term ‘bearing’ is used in plane surveying and the term ‘azimuth’ in
geodetic and astronomical surveying.

4.3 Local attraction, Magnetic declination, Typical compass problem

Local attraction
Sometimes the magnetic needle of compass does not point to the true magnetic meridian
when compass is used in the vicinity of magnetic substances. Interference with the
magnetic field caused by electric cables, iron pipes, steel structures, and iron ore deflects the
magnetic needle of the compass. Magnetic substance reduces the accuracy of compass
bearing. The amount of deviation of the magnetic needle is the measure of local attraction.
The local attraction is detected by observing the fore bearing and back bearing of the lines. If
the difference between the fore bearing and back bearing measurement is exactly 180°,
both the end stations are free from local attraction, provided the compass is devoid of any

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

instrumental errors. Local attraction affects all the magnetic bearings observed at that
station.

Elimination of local attraction

There are two methods for eliminating the effect of local attraction. (a) By calculating the
local attraction at each station, and (b) By included angles
a. By calculating the local attraction at each station: This method is most suitable for an
open traverse. This method is unsuitable when the sum of observed included angles do
not equal to the theoretical sum of a closed traverse. Steps involved in the elimination of
local attraction are:
1. Observe a line whose fore and back bearing differs exactly by 180°.
2. End stations of a line whose fore and back bearing differs exactly by 180° are free from
local attraction, and bearings observed from such station are free from local attraction.
3. The back bearing of the preceding line or the fore bearing of the next line will also be
correct, since these are observed from the stations which are free from local attraction.
The correct F.B. of the preceding line or B.B. of the next line may be computed by
adding or subtracting 180° as the case may be. Thus correct bearing is obtained.
4. If the observed bearing is more than that of the correct bearing, the correction will be
subtractive and vice versa. The bearing of the lines are thus corrected one by one, in
succession.
b. By included angles: This method is most suitable for a closed traverse. The included
angles deduced even from the bearings affected by local attraction will be the true
included angles at the affected stations. Steps involved to correct the affected bearings
are:
1. Calculate the included angles of the traverse and check their sum against theoretical
sum equal to (2n ± 4) x 90°.
2. If discrepancy occurs between the observed and theoretical sum of included angles,
distribute the error equally to all included angles.
3. Locate the line whose fore and bearings differ by 180°.
4. Compute the correct bearing from the correct angles.

Example 3.11, S K Duggal: The bearings observed in traversing with a compass at a place
where local attraction was suspected are given below:
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB S 45° 30´ E N 45° 30´ W
BC S 60° 00´ E N 60° 40´ W
CD N 03° 20´ E S 5° 30´ W
DA S 85° 00´ W N 83° 30´ E
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected bearings of the lines.
Solution:

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

The numerical value of F.B. and B.B. of the line AB is same. Hence, stations A and B are free
from local attraction. Therefore F.B. of line BC and B.B. of line AB observed at station B is
correct.

Magnetic declination
Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north. The
declination is eastern or positive when the magnetic meridian is on the eastern side of true
meridian. Similarly, if the magnetic meridian is on the western side of true meridian, the
declination is western or negative. Magnetic declination is zero when true and magnetic
meridian coincides.
True bearing = Magnetic bearing ± Magnetic declination E/W
Note: Use plus sign, if declination is in the east and minus sign, if declination is in the west.
Lines joining the places of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic line, and those
joining the place of zero declination are termed as agonic lines.

Variation in magnetic declination

Magnetic declination at a place does not remain constant, but it changes from time to time.
Four types of variation in the magnetic declination are: diurnal variation, annual variation,
secular variation, and irregular variation.
1. Diurnal variation: The magnetic declination varies due to the rotation of the earth on its
own axis in 24 hours. This variation is known as diurnal variation or daily variation. The
amount of variation is about 3 to 12minutes.
2. Annual Variation: The magnetic declination varies due to the rotation of the earth with its
axis inclined in an elliptical path around the sun during a year. This variation is known as
annual variation. It varies from place to place and the amount of variation is about 1 to 2
minutes.
3. Secular variation: The magnetic meridian swings like a pendulum with respect to the true
meridian. After every 250 years or so, it swings from one direction to the opposite
direction, and hence the declination varies. This variation is known as secular variation.
The amount of variation is about 10° W to 24° E depending on the place.
4. Irregular variation: The magnetic declination varies suddenly due to magnetic storms,
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and the amount of variation may be up to 1
degree. This variation is known as irregular variation.

Typical compass problem

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

4.4 Compass traversing, Errors and adjustment

Compass traversing
Principle of compass surveying is traversing. Traversing is a method of control surveying. A
series of survey lines connected to the control points (stations) is known as ‘traverse’. The
sides of the traverse are known as traverse legs. Traverse survey consists of the
measurement of (a) angles between successive lines (or bearings of each of the survey lines),
and (b) measurement of the length of each line. Bearings of each of the survey lines are
measured by compass, and the distances of the traverse legs are measured by tapes.
Observed bearings are verified and necessary corrections are made for local attraction.
Compass traversing does not require the formation of a network of triangles. Traverse may
be of two types: closed traverse and open traverse.
1. Closed traverse: Closed traverse is a figure in which both the starting point and the end
point of survey coincides forming a circuit or a polygon. In closed traverse, it is easy to
have an independent check and easy to apply corrections. A closed traverse survey may
be used for the framework of surveys for housing or factory sites, and the determination
of the perimeter of lakes.
In route survey, the starting point and the end point of survey do not coincide as a result
of which geometric verification is not possible. But if the position of the starting point and
the end point is previously determined or co-ordinates are known in such a case route
survey becomes a closed traverse. When co-ordinates are known, it becomes possible to
have an independent check and apply corrections.
2. Open traverse: In open traverse, a series of survey lines connected to the control points
extend along a direction and does not return to the starting point. Open traverse is
suitable when the survey is comparatively long and narrow such as survey of roads, pipe
line, sewer, railway construction.
Steps in compass traversing
1. Reconnaissance of the field to be surveyed
2. Determination of the directions: Magnetic bearing of survey lines can be measured.
Included angles can be measured either clockwise or counter-clockwise but it is better to
measure all angles clockwise. When the direction of progress of survey is counter-
clockwise, the angles measured clockwise are the interior angles. When the direction of
progress round the survey is clockwise, the angles measured clockwise are exterior
angles.
3. Measurement of the traverse leg:
4. Taking offsets:

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

Errors and adjustment

Check on angular measurements
1. Traverse by included angles
Sum of interior angles of a polygon = (n - 2) x 180°, where n = number of sides of
polygon.
Sum of exterior angles of a polygon = (n + 2) x 180°
In general the sum of measured angles of polygon do not equal the theoretical sum of
included angles, there will be a small discrepancy which is known as angular error of
closure. Permissible limit of angular error of closure = C √n. Where, C = least count of the
instrument.
2. If the discrepancy is within the permissible limit, correction will be distributed equally
among all the angles. If some of the lines of the traverse are short, they are more liable
to errors than others.

4.5 Traverse plotting

Before commencing the plotting of a traverse survey, the observed bearings must be
corrected. A neat sketch of the traverse roughly to scale is prepared before starting the
actual plotting of a traverse survey on a drawing sheet. Neat sketch of the traverse roughly
to scale helps to ascertain the shape, size and orientation of the plan on the drawing sheet
and appropriate choice of the scale to be used. Compass traverse can be plotted by various
methods as follows:
1. Plotting by Parallel meridian 2. Plotting by Included angle
3. Plotting by Rectangular co-ordinate 4. Plotting by chords
5. Plotting by Paper protractor 6. 6. Plotting by Tangents

1. Plotting by Parallel meridian method

a. The position of starting station (say A) is fixed on a drawing sheet and a line
representing the magnetic meridian is drawn through A.
b. The bearing of the line AB is plotted with a protractor. The length of the line AB is
marked off with the scale and thus the position of station B is fixed.
c. Now the magnetic meridian line is drawn through station B. The bearing of the
line BC is plotted. The length of the line BC is marked off with the scale and thus
the position of station C is fixed.
d. The process is repeated at each of the succeeding stations. If the traverse is
closed one, the last line should end on the station A. If the last station does not
coincide with the starting station, there is a closing error. The closing error should
be adjusted.

2. Plotting by Included angle method

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

a. The magnetic meridian line is drawn through starting station (say A). The bearing
of the line AB is plotted and the length of the line AB is marked off with the scale
and thus the position of station B is fixed.
b. At the point B, the included angle ABC is plotted with a protractor and the length
of the line BC is marked off with the scale. Thus the position of station C is fixed.
c. The process is repeated at each of the succeeding stations till the last line has
been drawn.

3. Plotting by Rectangular co-ordinate method

This is the most accurate method for plotting a traverse. It is essential to compute co-
ordinate of all the stations to start plotting a traverse. Co-ordinates are computed
from the linear and angular measurements taken during traverse survey. This
method is commonly used to plot a traverse for a theodolite survey.

4. Plotting by Tangents method

The position of the starting station (say A) is fixed and a magnetic meridian line is
drawn through point A. To plot the bearing of the lines following procedure is
adopted.
D

B1 B2

B C

Tan ө = B1B2 ÷ AB1

A

a. Let AB be the line whose bearing is to be plotted.

b. Take AB1 = 20 cm on the magnetic meridian.
c. Draw B1B2 perpendicular to the magnetic meridian and a length equal to 20
times the length of the tangent of the bearing of the line AB.
d. Join A and B2, which gives the direction of the first line AB of the traverse.
Measured length AB is plotted to the scale and thus the position of the point
B is fixed.
e. The line AB is then produced to C1 making BC1 equal to 20 cm. At C1, a
perpendicular is erected and the distance C1C2 equal to 20 times tangent of
the deflection angle at B is scaled off on the perpendicular. The line BC1 gives
the direction of the line BC.
f. To mark the point C, the length of BC is marked off with the scale on BC2.
g. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.

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 Surveying I: 4 Compass Surveying: IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

5. Plotting by chords method

This method is similar to the method of tangents. The position of the starting station
(say A) is fixed and a magnetic meridian line is drawn through point A. To plot the
bearing of the lines following procedure is adopted.

a. Let AB be the line whose bearing is to be plotted.

b. Take AB1 equal to 10 cm on the magnetic meridian.
c. With A as center and AB1 as radius draw an arc.
d. The chord length B1B2 equal to 2 x 10 Sin ө/2 is cut on the arc.
e. Join A and B2, which gives the direction of the line AB of the traverse. Draw AB
to the scale along the direction AB2.
f. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.

6. Plotting by Paper protractor method

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