Engineering Surveying-I Course instructor: Shoaib Ahmed

Batch: 17-18
FE Civil

ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION: Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

depends on the observation of angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by
azimuths and bearings. Angles measured in surveying are classified as either horizontal or
vertical, depending on the plane in which they are observed. Horizontal angles are the basic
observations needed for determining the bearings and azimuths. Vertical angles are used in
trigonometric leveling, tacheometry and for reducing slope distances to horizontal.

Angles are most often directly observed in the field with total station
instruments, although in the past transits, theodolites, and
compasses have been used. Three basic requirements determine an
angle. As shown in Fig. 1, they are (1) reference or starting line, (2)
direction of turning, and (3) angular distance (value of the angle).

UNITS: Angular distance have units of:

i. Degree (in decimal number)
ii. Degree, minutes, seconds
iii. Radians
1 rad = 57.3o
Fig. 1 Basic requirements in
determining angles

2. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly

observed in surveying are (1) interior angles, (2) angles to the right, and (3) deflection angles.
Because they differ considerably, the kind used must be clearly indicated in field notes.

2.1 Interior angles: Interior angles, shown in Fig. 2(a), are observed on the inside of a closed
polygon. Normally the angle at each apex within the polygon is measured. Then a check can be
made on their values because the sum of all interior angles in any polygon must equal (n – 2)180o
where n is the number of angles.

Exterior angles are located outside a closed polygon, are explements of interior angles. The
advantage to be gained by observing them is their use as another check, since the sum of the
interior and exterior angles at any station must total 360°.

2.2 Angles to the right: Angles to the right are

measured clockwise from the rear to the forward
station. “As a survey progresses, stations are
commonly identified by consecutive alphabetical
letters (as in Fig. 2(a)), or by increasing numbers”.
Thus, the interior angles of Fig. 2(a) are also angles to
the right.

Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the

rear station. A serious mistake can occur if
counterclockwise angles are observed and recorded
or assumed to be clockwise. To avoid this confusion, it
is recommended that a uniform procedure of always
observing angles to the right be adopted and the
direction of turning noted in the field book with a Fig. 2(a) Closed polygon, clockwise
sketch. interior angles (Angles to the right)

2.3 Deflection angles: These are observed from an extension of the back line to the forward
station (Fig. 2(b)). They are used principally on the long linear alignments of route surveys. As

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illustrated in the figure, deflection angles may be observed to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) depending on the direction of the route. Clockwise angles are considered

plus, and counterclockwise ones minus, as shown in the figure.

Deflection angles are always smaller than 180° and appending an
R or L to the numerical value identifies the direction of turning.
Thus the angle at B in Fig. 2(b) is (R), and that at C is (L). Deflection
angles are the only exception where counterclockwise observation
of angles should be made.

Fig. 2(b) Deflection angles

3. DIRECTION OF A LINE: The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between
the line and an arbitrarily chosen reference line called a meridian.

4. AZIMUTHS: Azimuths are horizontal angles observed

clockwise from any reference meridian. In plane surveying,
azimuths are generally observed from north. Examples of
azimuths observed from north are shown in Fig. 3. As
illustrated, they can range from 0° to 360° in value. Thus
the azimuth of OA is 70°; of OB, 145°; of OC, 235°; and of
OD, 330°.

A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward

azimuth, and its reverse direction by its back azimuth. In
plane surveying, forward azimuths are converted to back
azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 180°.
For example, if the azimuth of OA is 70°, the azimuth of AO
is 70° + 180° = 250°. If the azimuth of OC is 235°, the
azimuth of CO is 235° - 180° = 55°. Fig. 3 Azimuths

5. BEARINGS: Bearings are another system for designating directions of lines. There are two
types of bearings, 1) whole circle bearing and 2) quadrant bearing.

5.1 Whole Circle Bearing: The system used to define a direction is called the whole circle
bearing system (WCB). Azimuths and WCB is represents the same quantity. In UK it is
referred to as WCB while in US it is azimuth.
Fig. 4(a) shows the WCB of the lines as follows:
WCB OA = 40°
WCB OB = 120°
WCB OC = 195°
WCB OD = 330°

Fig. 4(a) Whole Circle Bearing(WCB) Fig. 4(b) Quadrant Bearing (QB)

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5.2 Quadrant Bearing: The Quadrant Bearing (QB) of a line is defined as the acute horizontal
angle between a reference meridian and the line. The angle is observed from either the north
or south toward the east or west, to give a reading smaller than 90°.The letter N or S
preceding the angle, and E or W following it shows the proper quadrant. Thus, a properly
expressed bearing includes quadrant letters and an angular value. An example is N80°E. In
Fig. 4(b), all bearings in quadrant NOE are measured clockwise from the meridian. Thus the
bearing of line OA is N70°E. All bearings in quadrant SOE are counterclockwise from the
meridian, so OB is S35°E. Similarly, the bearing of OC is S55°W and that of OD, N30°W.When
lines are in the cardinal directions, the bearings should be listed as “Due North,” “Due East,”
“Due South,” or “Due West.”

In Fig. 4(c) assume that a compass is set up successively at points A, B, C, and D and bearings
read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, and DC. As previously noted, bearings AB, BC, and CD are
forward bearings; those of BA, CB, and DC, back bearings. Back bearings should have the
same numerical values as forward bearings but opposite letters. Thus if bearing AB is N44°E,
bearing BA is S44°W.

Fig. 4(c) Understanding forward and back bearing

Q1: The whole circle bearing of a boundary line is 128o13’46’’. Convert this to a quadrant
bearing? (Ans: S51o46’14’’E)
(See lecture notes for solution)

Q2: The first course of a boundary survey is written as N37°13’W. What is its equivalent whole
circle bearing? (Ans: 322°47’)
(See lecture notes for solution)

6. MAGNETIC DECLINATION: Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the
geodetic meridian to the magnetic meridian. Navigators call this angle variation of the compass.
An east declination exists if the magnetic meridian is east of geodetic north; a west declination
occurs if it is west of geodetic north. East declinations are considered positive and west
declinations negative. The relationship between geodetic north, magnetic north, and magnetic
declination is given by the expression:

geodetic azimuth = magnetic azimuth ± magnetic declination

Q3: Assume the magnetic bearing of a property line was recorded as S43 °30’E in 1862. At that
time the magnetic declination at the survey location was 3°15’W. What geodetic bearing is
needed for a subdivision property plan? (Ans: 133°15’ or S46°45’E)
(See lecture notes for solution)

Q4: Assume the magnetic bearing of line AB read in 1878 was N26°15’E. The declination at the
time and place was 7°15’W. In 2000, the declination was 4°30’E. What was the magnetic bearing
in year 2000? (Ans: N14o30’E)
(See lecture notes for solution)

7. LOCAL ATTRACTION: Metallic objects and direct-current electricity, both of which cause a
local attraction, affect the main magnetic field. As an example, when set up beside an old time
streetcar with overhead power lines, the compass needle would swing toward the car as it
approached, then follow it until it was out of effective range. If the source of an artificial

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disturbance is fixed, all bearings from a given station will be in error by the same amount.
However, angles calculated from bearings taken at the station will be correct.

Q5: Following bearings were observed in running a compass traverse (readings taken from
compass). Apply correction for local attraction.
Line Fore bearing (F.B) Back bearing (B.B)
AB 44°30’ 226°30’
BC 124°30’ 303°15’
CD 181°00’ 1°00’
DA 289°30’ 108°45’

Q6: Apply the correction for local attraction:

Line Fore bearing (F.B) Back bearing (B.B)
LM 66°30’ 246°30’
MN 142°00’ 320°00’
NO 255°30’ 79°00’
OL 357°00’ 175°30’

8. SURVEYOR’S COMPASS: Figure 5(a) shows the surveyor’s compass. The instrument consists
of a metal baseplate (A) with two sight vanes (B) at the ends. The compass box (C) and two small
level vials (D) are mounted on the baseplate, the level vials being perpendicular to each other.
When the compass is set up and the bubbles are in the vials centered, the compass box is
horizontal and ready for use.
A single leg called a Jacob staff supported early compasses. A ball-and socket joint and a clamp
were used to rotate the instrument and clamp it in its horizontal position. Later versions, such as
that shown in Figure 5(a), were mounted on a tripod. This arrangement provided greater
stability. The compass box of the surveyor’s compass was covered with glass to protect the
magnetized steel needle inside. The needle was mounted on a pivot at the center of a circle that
was graduated in degrees. A top view of a surveyor’s compass box with its graduations is
illustrated in Figure 5(b). In the figure, the zero graduations are at the north and south points of
the compass and in line with the two sight-vane slits that comprise the line of sight. Graduations
are numbered in multiples of 10° clockwise and counter clockwise from 0° at the north and
south, to 90° at the east and west.

Fig. 5(a) Surveyor’s compass Fig. 5(b) Compass box

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9. PRISMATIC COMPASS: Figure 7 shows the cross-section of a typical prismatic compass [see
plate 13.1 also]. A magnetic needle of broad form (1) is balanced on a hard and pointed steel
pivot (2). The top of the pointed pivot is protected with agate cap (3). An aluminium graduated
disk (4) is fixed to the top of the needle. The graduations are from zero to 360° in clockwise
direction when read from top. The direction of north is treated as zero degrees, east as 90°, south
as 180° and west as 270°. However, while taking the readings observations are at the other end
of line of sight. Hence, the readings are shifted by 180° and graduations are marked as shown in
Fig. 6. The graduations are marked inverted because they are read through a prism.

Fig. 6 Graduation marking

The line of sight consists of object unit and the reading unit. Object unit consists of a slit metal
frame (5) hinged to the box. In the centre the slit is provided with a horse hair or a fine wire or
thread (6). The metal frame is provided with a hinged mirror (7), which can be placed upward or
downward on the frame. It can be slided along the frame. The mirror can be adjusted to view
objects too high or too low from the position of compass. Reading unit is provided at
diametrically opposite edge. It consists of a prism (8) with a sighting eye vane (9). The prism
magnifies the readings on the graduation disk just below it. For focussing, the prism is lowered or
raised on the frame carrying it and then fixed with the stud (10). Dark sunglasses (11) provided
near the line of sight can be interposed if the object to be sighted is bright (e.g., sun).

The bottom of the box (12) which is about 85 mm to 110 mm supports the pivot of needle firmly
at its centre. The object vane and the prism are supported on the sides of the box. The box is
provided with a glass (13) lid which protects the graduation disc at the same time permit the
direct reading from the top. When the object vane is folded on the glass top it presses a lifting pin
(14) which activates lifting lever (15) lifts the needle off the pivot. Thus, it prevents undue wear
of pivot point. While taking reading, if graduation disc vibrates, it can be dampened with a spring
(16). For pressing spring a knob or brake pin (17) is provided on the box. When not in use prism
can be folded over the edge of the box. The box is provided with a lid to close it when the
compass is not in use. The box is provided with a socket to fit it on the top of a tripod.

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Fig. 7 Prismatic compass

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