11th Physics EM Slow Learners Study Materials English Medium PDF Download

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XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 1

SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
N Neett N Neett
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS
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STUDY MATERIAL
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
SRI RAMANA MAHARSHI MATRIC HR SEC SCHOOL,
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TIRUVANNAMALAI DISTRICT – 606 603.
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1. Briefly explain the types of physical quantities.
Physical quantities are classified into two types. They are fundamental
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e and derived quantities.
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Fundamental or base quantities are quantities which cannot be
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expressed in terms of any other physical quantities.
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These are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous
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intensity and amount of substance.
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Quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities
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are called derived quantities. For example, area, volume, velocity,
acceleration, force.
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2. Write the rules for determining significant figures.
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1.
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t four significant figures
l a
l i
a .i. 2. All zeros between two non-zerolaladigits i .i. are significant. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 3.
a dd
All zeros to the right
a as s
Ex. 2008 has four significant
a aa figures.
a
of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point
a ddaassaa
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.without a decimal point, the terminal or w
are significant. Ex. 30700. has five significant figures.
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4. number trailing zero(s)

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All zeros are significant if they come from a measurement
Ex. 30700 m has five significant figures
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If the number is less than 1, the zero (s) on the right of the decimal point
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l a
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but to left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
a
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Ex. 0.00345 has three significant figures.
6.
ddaass ddaass
All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of non-zero digit
aa aa
w.
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five significant figures. w
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are significant. Ex. 40.00 has four significant figures and 0.030400 has
7. w
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The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of
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units used 1.53 cm, 0.0153 m, 0.0000153 km, all have three
significant figures.
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t are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
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e
l a
l i
a .i. 1. This method gives no information l a
la i.iabout
. the dimensionless constants lalai.
assaa 2.
in the formula like 1, 2, s
a
This method cannot
add a a a
s a
……..π,e, etc.
decide whether the given quantity is a vector ord
aa d
aaasa
s a
scalar. .P . Pnot suitable to derive relations involving w .P
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w w w
3.
www and logarithmic functions.
This method
wexponential is
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4. It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three physical

quantities.
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questions P d a a
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It can only check on whether al a.iphysical
i
a . relation is dimensionally lalai.
assaa aa da
dimensional analysis,
s
a saa of the relation. For example, usingaassaa
correct but not the correctness
d a add
s = ut w .
+wat
1 PP
. is dimensionally correct whereas the w
2
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correct .P P
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relation
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4. Define the terms i) Unification ii) Reductionism
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Attempting to explain diverse physical phenomena with a few concepts
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lalai.i. and laws is unification.
l a
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et
assaa s aa s aa
2. An attempt to explain a macroscopic system in terms of its microscopic
dda a s
constituents is reductionism.
d a
d a s
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.for length . P
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5.
w ww
Define SI standard
w w w
w
win vacuum in
w w
One w
metre is the length of the path travelled by
1/299,792,458 of a second.
wlight
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t One kilogram is the mass of the prototype
Define SI standard for mass
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a
l ai NNeetcylinder
t of platinum iridium
.i. preserved at the International lalai.
sa
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Bureau of Weights and Measures
aa dd saataServes, near Paris, France.
a ad daassaa
7.
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. is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods
for time
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i NN e one radian
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radian is the angle i
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l a
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l a l a
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s
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ww . P P
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ww w
One steradian
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that surface w of a sphere,
w of radius of
square
ww
the sphere.
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Define light year
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l a
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Light
15
l a
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assaa 11. Define astronomical unit aadda as saa
ad
a a
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Astronomical unit.P P
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w
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1 AU = 1.496 × 10 11
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lalai .i.12. What are systematic errors? lalai.i. l a

l i
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assaa a
in the same direction.a da a
These
ssaa inaccuracies that are consistentlyaassaa
Systematic errors are reproducible
d aa d d
occur often due to a problem that persists
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throughout the experiment.
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13. How toww ww
minimize the systematic error? www w
Systematic errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed
statistically, because all of the data is in the same direction.
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lalai.i.14. What isThese
personal error?
l a
l ai .iperforming
. l a
l i
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et
assaa s aaof the experiment or carelessness of theaassaa
errors are due to individuals the experiment, may be
dd aa
due to incorrect initial setting s
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individual making P
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observation due to improper precautions.
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15. What w w w w
w count errors? How is it minimized? www w w w
w
are least
Least count is the smallest value that can be measured by the
lai
measuring instrument, and the error due to this measurement is least count
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error. The instrument’s resolution hence is the cause of this error. Least count
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i.
error can be reduced by using a high precision instrument for the
l a
l i
a .
sa
measurement
assaa 16. What are Random errors? a ad da as saa
How is it minimized? a ad daassaa
w w . PP
. like pressure, temperature, voltage
Random errors may arise due to random and
w w
unpredictable. P
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variations
ww can be evaluated through statistical w w
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reduced by averaging over a large number of observations.
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17.etWhat
t are Gross errors? How is it minimized? et t
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settingNit
eproperly. It can be minimized i .
l a
l a l a
la l a
l a
assaa 18. What is relative erroraoradfractional s aa saa
only when an observer is careful and mentally alert.
d aa s ddaa s
aa
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. absolute error to the mean value. Relative
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the error
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19. What is percentage error?

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The relative error expressed as a percentage. Percentage error = x 100%
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l a
l i
a .
i . l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
20. Define dimensional constant and dimensionless constant
Dimensional Constant
d daas s ddaass
P P aa
Physical quantities
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which possess dimensions and have constant
. Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant . . P aa
w w
values. Examples
w are
w w w
etc.
ww Constant
wQuantities
Dimensionless ww w
which have constant values and also have no dimensions.
Examples are π, e, numbers etc.
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lalai .i.21. Define dimensional variable and dimensionless

l a
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assaa Dimensional variables
a d
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Physical quantities,da a ssaa
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which possess dimensions and have variableaddaassaa
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w
w .P.P
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Dimensionless variables w
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one N
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system of units to another. i.
lala l a
l a l a
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2. Check the dimensional correctness of a given physical equation.
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da a
among s d daa s
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w w w
w of homogeneity of dimensions’ statesww
23. Write principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
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thatw
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The principle the dimensions
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l a
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l i
a .iANSWER
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sa
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QUESTIONS
a
d s
a s ddaass
gauge and vernier caliper in measuringaa
smallerww . P
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distances. ww . P
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wa note on triangulation method and radarwmethod w to measure
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larger distances.
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1. Screw gauge: The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring

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accurately the dimensions of objects up to a maximum of about
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
50 mm. The principle of the instrument is the magnification of linear
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
motion using the circular motion of a screw. The least count of the screw
w.
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gauge is 0.01 mm
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w . P
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2.
w
www w
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Vernier caliper: A vernier caliper is a versatile instrument for measuring
the dimensions of an object namely diameter of a hole, or a depth of a
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hole.
Measurement of large distances:
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For measuring larger distances such as the height of a tree, distance of
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
the Moon or a planet from the Earth, some special methods are
assaa aadd asaa

s
are used to determine very large distances. ad
a d s
a aa
s
adopted. Triangulation method, parallax method and radar method
a a
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w .P. P w
w. P
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Triangulation method for the height of an accessible object:
w
www w
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lalai .i. 1. l
Let AB = h be the height of the a
l ai
tree.i.or tower l a
l i
a .
assaa to be measured.
a a
Let C be the point d a
ofd assaa
observation at distance aaddaassaa
w P P
x from B..Place
w .angle of elevation, ∠ACB = θ as
a range finder at C and
w
w .P.P
w
wwin Figure. From right angled triangle www
wshown
measure the w
ABC,
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tanθ = = (or) height h = x tan θ
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
Knowing the distance x, the height h can be
l a
l i
a.
et
determined.
assaa 1.
RADAR method:
aaddas
a aa
s
The word RADAR stands for Radio Detection ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
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w w
w www
and Ranging. Radar can be used to measure
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accurately the distance of a nearby planet
such as Mars. In this method, radio waves are
sent from transmitters which, after reflection
lai
from the planet, are detected by the receiver.
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By measuring, the time interval (t) between
N N
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
the instants the radio waves are sent and
l l a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
received, the distance of the planet can be
aaddaa
determined as d=
vxt
.
aaddaa
ww. P
. P 2
w
w
where v is the speed of the radio wave. . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
As the time taken (t) is for the distance covered during the forward and
backward path of the radio waves, it is divided by 2 to get the actual distance
of the object. This method can also be used to determine the height, at which
an aero-plane flies from the ground.
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NN eett N N ee tt
l a
l i
a .i.25. Explain a i .i.error are the three possible errors
in detail the various types of errors.
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
Random error, systematic error and gross
Systematic errors:da a d aa
a a d a a d
w.
w w . P P
.in the same direction.
Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies
w w . P
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that are
w
wwWhen anerrors:
consistently
wInstrumental w w ww
ww
instrument is not calibrated properly at the time of

manufacture, these errors can be corrected by choosing the instrument
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l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
Imperfections in experimental technique or procedure:
a l a
l i
a .
assaa saa s aa
These errors arise due to the limitations in the experimental
ddaa s d a
d a s
arrangement. To overcome these, necessary correction has to be
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w w
w w w
w
www
Personal errors:
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These errors are due to individuals performing the experiment,
may be due to incorrect initial setting up of the experiment or
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lalai .i. carelessness of the individualla

l i
a .i. the observation due to improper lalai.
making
assaa precautions
a ad da assaa
aad daassaa
ww P
Errors due.to P
external causes:
w w.
. in the external conditions during anwexperiment PP
. can
w
wwerror in measurement. For example, changes
wcause The change
www in temperature,
humidity, or pressure during measurements may affect the result of
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e the measurement.
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lalai.i. Least count error:
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
Least count is the smallest value that can be measured by the
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
measuring instrument, and the error due to this measurement is least
. PPaa
count error.
. . P
. Paa
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w w
w www
www www
Random errors:
1. Random errors may arise due to random and unpredictable variations
in experimental conditions like pressure, temperature, voltage supply
lai
etc.
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Errors may also be due to personal errors by the observer who performs
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
the experiment. Random errors are sometimes called “chance error”
sa
assaa 3.
aadd asaa
s
aadd assaa
It can be minimized by repeating the observations a large number of
a a
measurements are made and then the arithmetic mean is taken.
ww. P
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Gross Error:
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
The error caused due to the shear carelessness of an observer

is called gross error. These errors can be minimized only when an
observer is careful and mentally alert.
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N26.e
N etExplain
t the propagation of errors in addition N N e
andetmultiplication.
t
l a
l i
a .i. Let(i) Error in the sum of two quantities: i.i.
l ala l a
l i
a .
assaa ΔA and ΔB be the
Then, Measured value ofd
absolute
=a
Aa
Ada
=a
ssaΔAa; Measured value of B = B ± ΔB ddaassaa
errors
A±
in the two quantities A and B respectively.
aa
w.
Consider the sum,

ww . P
.ZP +B
ww . P
. P
Z ± ΔZw w
=
w w
The error ΔZ in Z is then given by
(A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) ; = (A + B) ± (ΔA + ΔB) w w w w
ww
= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) (or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB

The maximum possible error in the sum of two quantities is equal to the sum
NNeett N N e tt
of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
e
l a
l i
a .i. (ii) Error in the difference of two quantities:
l alai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolutes
respectively. Then,
a ad daa aa in the two quantities, A and B,
s
errors
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
Measured value . ofPP
. Z=A–B
A = A ± ΔA ; Measured value of B = B ± ΔB . P
. P
Consider w ww w ww
wwΔZwin Z is then given by
The error
the difference,
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Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB) ; = (A − B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
= Z ± ΔA ± ΔB (or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
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lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
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assaa as
a aa
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questions P d a a
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lalai .i. The maximum error in difference ofltwo al ai .quantities

i . is equal to the sum of the lalai.
assaa aa
absolute errors in the individual
a ad d s aa
s
quantities.
aad daassaa
w w . PP
. the absolute errors in the two quantities
(iii) Error in the product of two quantities:
ww . P P
. and B,
Let ΔA and w
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respectively.
ΔB be w
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The error ΔZ in Z is given by Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)

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et L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB, we get,NN 1±eet=t 1± ± ± .
∆Z ∆B ∆A ∆A ∆B
lalai.i. As ΔA /A, ΔB / B are both small quantities,

l a
l i
a .i. Z B A A B
l a
l i
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et
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aa
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∆B
be
B
sa a
neglected.
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∆Z ∆A ∆B
. P
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The maximum fractional error in Z is = ±
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wwgowthrough hardships and decide not to surrender,www
Z A B
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When you that is strength.
lai
27. Write the rules for rounding off.
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If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
should be left unchanged.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 2. ddaasaa
s
Ex. i) 7.32 is rounded off to 7.3
dd assaa
ii) 8.94 is rounded off to 8.9
a
If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit
aa aa
ww. P
. P
should be increased by 1
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Ex. i) 17.26 is rounded off to 17.3 ii) 11.89 is rounded off to 11.9
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then
the preceding digit should be raised by 1
Ex. i) 7.352, on being rounded off to first decimal becomes 7.4
Pa
N Neett N N ett
ii) 18.159 on being rounded off to first decimal, become 18.2
e
l a
l i
a .i. 4.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding
assaa aa aa
digit is not changed if it is even
aass
Ex. i) 3.45 is rounded off to 3.4
dd ddaass
ii) 8.250 is rounded off to 8.2
aa aa
w.
5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding

ww. P
. P
digit is raised by 1 if it is odd
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
Ex. i) 3.35 is rounded off to 3.4 ii) 8.350 is rounded off to 8.4
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa
UNIT – II (KINEMATICS)
aa ssaa aassaa
TWO MARKS AND THREE
P Paad d MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
P Paadd
w w . . w
w . .
1. ww
Explain
ww ww
what is meant by Cartesian coordinate system?w
w
At any given instant of time, the frame of reference with respect to
which the position of the object is described in terms of position coordinates
N Nett
e N N ett
(x, y, z) (i.e., distances of the given position of an object along the x, y, and
e
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
z–axes.) is called “Cartesian coordinate system”
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 2. DefineIta isvector. a a
Give examples
a quantitya d
a d s saa
a ad d aassaa
. PP which
.
. is a directed line segment. ExampleswForce, P
is described by both magnitude and direction.
P
.velocity,
.N
Geometricallywawvector ww
w
www position vector, acceleration, linear momentum
displacement, www and angular
momentum
lai
3. Define a scalar. Give examples
NN eet t It is a property which can be described N N e et tby magnitude. In physics a
only
l a
l i
a .i. number of quantities can be described l a
l i
a
by.i.scalars. Examples Distance, mass, lalai.
sa
assaa temperature, speed and energy
a ad da ass aa
aad daassaa
4.
Thew w w .
Write a short note P
. P
on the scalar product between two vectors.
product (or dot product) of two vectors w ww . PP
. as the
wwof w w
da
scalar is defined
product the magnitudes of both the vectors and thew w
cosine of the angle
between them. 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ABcosθ. Here, A and B are magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.
Properties:
Pa
N Neett The product quantity 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ee tt

⃗⃗ is always a scalar. The scalar product is
N N
l a
l i
a .i. commutative.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 5. Write aTheshortvector dd
note on vector
aa a as aa between two vectors.
s
product
aa ddaasaa
s
w.
vector havingw w . P
. P
product or cross product of two vectors is defined
w w .
asPP
. of two
another
ww
vectors
ww
and the sine of the angle between them. 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗x𝐵 w⃗⃗w
w
a magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes
w
= (AB sin θ)n
ww
6. Define displacement and distance.
N N eett N Nee tt
Distance is the actual path length travelled by an object in the given interval
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
of time during the motion. It is a positive scalar quantity.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa Displacement the shortest distance
and its direction is fromd
a a da
the as sa a between these two positions of the object ss
aad d
initial to final position of the object, during theaa aa
w w . P
. P
given interval of time. It is a vector quantity.
w w . P
. P
7. Definew w w w
velocity and speed. www w
Velocity: The rate of change of displacement of the particle.
Velocity = Displacement / time taken. Unit: ms-1. Dimensional formula: LT-1
N Neett N Nee tt
Speed: The distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.8. Define acceleration. l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa velocity. It is a vector aa da
The acceleration of the particle
d as
quantity.
saataan instant is equal to rate of change ofaassaa
SI Unit: ms . Dimensional formula: M La
-2 Tadd
0 1 -2
w w . PP
. between velocity and average velocity? ww .P.P
9. What is the
Velocity
w
wwis thewrate at which the position changes. But the
difference w w velocity is
wwaverage
the displacement or position change per time ratio.
10.etWhat
tIf the speed e tt
i NN e is non uniform circular motion?
.i. uniform circular i
of the object in circular motion N N e
.i.is nottheconstant, then we have non- i.
lala l a
l a l a
l a
et
assaa s aa s aa
motion. For example, when bob attached to a string
moves in vertical circle. da
d a s d daa s
. PP aa
. equations for angular motion. www. . P
P a a
.N
w w w
w+wαt 2. θ = ω t+ αt 3. ω = ω + 2αθ www
11. Write down the kinematic
1. ω =w
1 2 (ω+ ω0 )t
ω 0 0
2 2
0 4. θ =
2 2
lai
12. What is meant by Right handed Cartesian co-ordinate system?
N Neett NNeett
The x, y and z axes are drawn in anticlockwise direction then the coordinate
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
system is called as “right– handed Cartesian coordinate system”.
l l a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 13. Define linear motion. Give
An object is said toP a ad daa
an
s saa
example.
aaddaassaa
Examples w w . . P
be in linear motion if it moves in a straight line.
w w . P
. P
ww running on a straight track ww
da
i)
ii)
w w
An athlete
A particle falling vertically downwards to the Earth.
w w
Pa
NN
14.
eet t
Define circular motion. Give an example.
N Neet tby an object traversing a
l a
l i
a .i. circular path. l a
lai .i.
Circular motion is defined as a motion described
l a
l i
a .
assaa Examples
a ad da as saa
aad daasaa
s
w.
1) The whirling motion of a stone attached to a string

2)
w w .
The motion .PP
of a satellite around the Earth
ww . P
. P
15. Define w
w w motion. Give an example.
wrotational wwww
ww
If any object moves in a rotational motion about an axis, the motion is called
‘rotation’.
N Neett Examples
N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. i)
a i.i.
Rotation of a disc about an axis through its center
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa 16. What is meant by motion s saa saa
s
ii) Spinning of the Earth about its own axis.
a ad da a a ad daa
ww . P
. P in one dimension?
ww . P
. P
line ww ww
One dimensional
w w
motion is the motion of a particle moving along
w w
a straight
Examples
i) Motion of a train along a straight railway track.
N Neett ii)
N N e tt
An object falling freely under gravity close to Earth.
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.17. What is meant by motion in two dimensions?

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa be in two dimensionala a d aa
motion.
ss
If a particle is moving along
d
aaa curved path in a plane, then it is said toaassaa
aa d d
Examples
w w . P P
.coin on a carrom board. ww . P
. P
i)
ii)
ww crawling over the floor of a room. www
wAnwinsect
Motion of a w
18. What is meant by motion in three dimensions?
N Nett
e N Neett
A particle moving in usual three dimensional space has three
lalai.i. dimensional motion

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
Examples
i) dda a s
A bird flying in the sky. ii) d a
d a s
Random motion of a gas molecule.
iii)
. P
.P aa
Flying of a kite on a windy day.
. P
. Paa
.N
What w w ww
w by equal vectors? w
www
19. isw
meant
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
w
w
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they have equal
lai
magnitude and same direction and represent the same physical quantity.
N Ne tDefine
e t parallel and anti-parallel vectors. NNeet t
l a
l i
a .i.20.
l a
l ai .i. direction along the same line or lalai.
sa
assaa aa aa
Two vectors ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗ act in the same
d d a
on parallel lines, then the angleas sbetween them is 0 0
d daass
.
Two vectors ⃗A⃗ and P
. ⃗
BP
⃗ aa
are said to be anti–parallel when they are .
in P Pa a
.between
opposite
w w ww w w w
www
da
directions along the same line or on parallel lines. Then the angle
them wisw
180 0
21. What is retardation?

Pa
NN eett N N ett
If the velocity is decreasing with respect to time, then the acceleration.
e
l a
l i
a .i.22. Define momentum l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa The linear momentum
product of mass with aad da a s
or saa momentum of a particle is defined asaassaa
simply
a add
w.
velocity. It is denoted as ‘𝑝⃗’. Momentum is also a vector

quantity. ww . P
. P w w . P
. P
www w www w
23. Write the kinetic equations for linear motion.
ww
(𝑢+𝑣)𝑡
i) v = u + at ii) s = ut + ½ at2 iii) v2 = u2 + 2as iv) s =
2
N Ne tWhat
e t is meant by projectile? NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i.24.
l a
lai.i.with some initial velocity and then lalai.
assaa aaof gravity alone, the object is known as aaassaa
When an object is thrown in the air
allowed to move under thea
d d as s
action
dd
projectile
.P. Pa a . P
. Paa
w
w w w w ww
1.
wAnwobject
25. Give some examples for projectile motion.
dropped from window of a moving train
www
2. A bullet fired from a rifle. 3. A ball thrown in any direction.
4. A javelin or shot put thrown by an athlete.
N Neett 5. ee tt
A jet of water issuing from a hole near the bottom of a water tank.
N N
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.26. Define Time of flight l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa The time taken for thess
taken by the projectileaa
tod da
hit a aa to complete its trajectory or timeaassaa
projectile
the ground is called time of flight. aadd
w w . P P
.range? w
w .P.P
ww
wThew horizontal distance covered by the projectilew
27. What is Horizontal
from
w
wwthe foot of the
tower to the point where the projectile hits the ground is called horizontal
range
NN eett NNe ett

lalai.i.28. DefineThe
maximum height.
l a
l i
a .i. by the projectile during its lalai.
et
assaa s aa s aa
maximum vertical distance travelled
journey is called maximumd da a s
height. d daa s
. P
.Pa a . P
. P aa
.N
w w w
w horizontal distance between the point
29. Define horizontal range.
w w w
wprojection and
w w
The maximum w w of
the point on the horizontal plane where the projectile hits the ground is called
lai
horizontal range (R).
N30.e
N etDefine
t Time of flight. NN eett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. from the point of projection till it lalai.
sa
The total time taken by the projectile
assaa a a d a asatime
s
hits the horizontal plane is called
d
a of flight.
aa d d aassaa
w w . P
31. Define Uniform circular P
. object is moving on a circular path withw
motion.
ww . PP
. speed,
ww distances on the circumference of the circle wwinwequal intervals
da
wwequal
When
it covers
a point a constant
of time.
Pa
32.etWrite
t the e t t motion.
i NN ei) Air
assumptions need to study about the
.i. ii) The effect due to rotation of lEarth
resistance is neglected. i N N
.iand e
projectile
. curvature of Earth is negligible. i .
l a
l a a
l a l a
l a
assaa iii) The acceleration due
a a a a
tos
dmotionsaa is constant in magnitude and directionaassaa
d of the projectile.
gravity
a a dd
w.
at all pointsP
ofP P P
ww . . the
w w. .
33. Derivew ww
the
w relation between linear velocity and angularw www
velocity.
ww
1) Consider an object moving along a circle of

radius r. In a time Δt, the object travels.
NNeett An arc distance Δs as shown in Figure.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 2) l lai.i.
The corresponding angle subtended is Δθ
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa = r aa
The Δs can be written in terms of Δθ as,
Δs = rΔθ In a timed d
Δt,aa
we
ss
have
∆𝑠 ∆𝜃
d a
d s
a s
. P Paa
. →0, the above equation becomes =w
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
. P
. P aa
w w
In the limit
w Δt w𝑑𝑠
w
rω ----------(1)
3) ww is linear speed (v) which is tangential toww
wHere 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
w 𝑑𝑡
the circle and ω is
angular speed. So equation (1) becomes v = rω. Which
gives the relation between linear speed and angular speed.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.34. Find the expressions tangential acceleration.

l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa i) In general the relation
angular velocitya isd
a da as saa linear and
between
aaddaassaa
motionw w . PP given by v⃗⃗ = ω
⃗⃗⃗xr⃗ . For circular
. reduces to equation v = rω. since www.
equation .PP
wω⃗each
⃗⃗ w
wandwother.
r⃗ are perpendicular to w w w
Differentiating the equation v = rω
with respect to time, we get (since r is constant)
NNett
e
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡
=r
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔
=r𝛼
NN ee tt
lalai.i. ii) 𝑑𝑣
a
Here is the tangential acceleration
l l i
a .i. and is l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa acceleration. Then aa
𝑑𝑡
denoted as a . is the
d
t
daa s
𝑑𝜔
s
angular
d a
d s
a s
eqn. v⃗⃗ = ω
P P aa
⃗⃗⃗xr⃗ becomes
.
𝑑𝑡
a =r𝛼
.
. acceleration a experienced by an objectwisww.
t
P
P aa
.N
iii) w w
The tangential
w
wwmotion as shown in Figure. www
t
wcircular
lai
35. Derive an expression for the centripetal acceleration of a body moving in a
N Neett i)
N Neett
circular path of radius ‘r’ with uniform speed.
The centripetal acceleration is derived from a simple geometrical
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
relationship between position and velocity vectors.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa ii)
aadd asaa
s
angle 𝜃 in a small interval of time ∆t,
aadd assaa
Let the directions of position and velocity vectors shift through the same
a a
iii)
w . P
. P
For uniform circular motion, r = |⃗⃗⃗⃗
w w . P
. P
𝑟1 | = |⃗⃗⃗⃗
w 𝑟2 | and v = |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 | = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 |. If the
w
www w
www
da
particle moves from position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 to ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑟2 , the displacement is given
by Δr⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and the change in velocity from 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 is given by Δv ⃗⃗ =
𝑣2 − 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗.
1
iv) The magnitudes of the displacement Δr and of Δv satisfy the following
Pa
N Neett relation
∆𝑟
N
=−
Neett
∆𝑣
=θ
l a
l i
a .i. 𝑟
l a
lai .i. 𝑣
l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neetv)t NN e ett
Here the negative sign implies that Δv points radially inward, towards
l a
l i
a .i. the center of the circle. ∆𝑣 =l𝑣a
l i
(a .i).then, 𝑎 = = ( ) ; = −
∆𝑟 ∆𝑣 𝑣 ∆𝑣
l a
𝑣2
l i
a .
assaa s sava= ωr, where ω is the angular velocity of theaassaa
𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟
vi)
particle about a a da a
For uniform circular motion
d aa d d
writtenw . P P the
as a.= − ω r
w 2
w w . P
center. Then the centripetal acceleration can
. P be
www w wwww
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH l al i

a .iANSWER
. QUESTIONS l a
l i
a .
assaa 36. Explain in detail the triangle
aad da a s saa
aaddaassaa
w w . PP law of addition.
. vectors ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗ by ww.P.P
1)
wthe
w w
Represent
w the
two adjacent sides of a wwww
triangle taken in the same order.
Then the resultant is given by the
NNett
e the opposite order.
N Neett
third side of the triangle taken in
lalai.i. 2) l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
The head of the first vector 𝐀 ⃗⃗ is
ddas
a s
connected to the tail of the
d a
d s
a s
PPaa
second vector ⃗𝐁
. . ⃗⃗. Let θ be the
. P
. Paa
.N
w w
w ⃗⃗ and 𝐁⃗⃗⃗. Then 𝐑
www
⃗⃗⃗ is
www www
angle between 𝐀
the resultant vector connecting the tail of the first vector ⃗A⃗ to the head
of the second vector ⃗B⃗.
lai
3) The magnitude of R ⃗⃗ (resultant) is given geometrically by the length of R
⃗⃗
N Neett N Neett
(OQ) and the direction of the resultant vector is the angle between
l a
l i
a .i. R
l a i
a .i.
⃗⃗ and ⃗A⃗ Thus we write 𝐑
l ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐀
⃗⃗ + 𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗. ∵ 𝐎𝐐
l a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =𝐎𝐏 i
a .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐏𝐐
l ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
sa
assaa 4)
aaddaasaa
s
Magnitude of resultant vector:
Consider the triangle ABN, which is
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
obtained by extending the side
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
OA to ON. ABN is a right angled

triangle.
AN
Cos θ = ∴ AN = B Cos θ and
B
Pa
N Neett Sin θ =
BN
B
∴ BN = B Sin θ
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. For ΔOBN,
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
we have OB2 = ON2 + BN2
d aass
⇒ R2 = (A + B Cos θ)2 + (B Sin θ)2
d ddaass
aa aa
w.
ww P
. P
⇒ R2 = A2 + B2cos2θ + 2ABcosθ + B2sin2θ
. w
w
⇒ R2 = A2 + B2 (cos2θ + sin2θ )+ 2ABcosθ. P
. P
w
www
⇒ R = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
w
www
ww
which is the magnitude of the resultant of A and B

Direction of resultant vectors:
N Neet t
5)
N N ett
If θ is the angle between ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗, then
e
l a
l i
a .i. |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
l lai
⃗⃗| = √A2 + B2 + 2AB Cosθ
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa s aa
s
⃗⃗ makes an angle α with ⃗A⃗ , then in ΔOBN, tan 𝛼 = BN = BN
If R
tan 𝜶 = ( Pa ad a
) ;d
a ad
a a
d a ON OA+AN
w w. . P𝐁 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝐀+𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
𝜶 = tan ( -1 )
𝐁 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝐀+𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
w
w. P
. P
wwww w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.37. Discuss the properties of scalar andlavector

l i
a .i. products. l a
l i
a .
assaa a as s
Properties of scalar products
a ad d
aa
⃗⃗⃗ is always a scalar. It is positive if the a
⃗⃗ . 𝐁 ad daassaa
1)
w
between w . P
The product quantity
P 𝐀
the. vectors is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative ww . P P angle
. angle
if the
w w ww them is obtuse (i.e. 90°<θ< 180°). www
between w
2) The scalar product is commutative, i.e. ⃗A⃗ . B ⃗⃗ . ⃗A⃗
⃗⃗ = B
3) The vectors obey distributive law i.e. ⃗A⃗ . (B
⃗⃗ + ⃗C⃗) = ⃗A⃗ . ⃗B⃗ + ⃗A⃗ . ⃗C⃗
NNet4)t
e eett
The angle between the vectors θ = cos–1[ ]
N N
⃗⃗⃗ .⃗⃗⃗⃗
A B
lalai.i. 5) l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.AB
The scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when Cos θ = 1,
et
assaa 6)
as
a aa
s a s
a aa
s
i.e. θ = 00, i.e., when the vectors are parallel; (A
aadd ad
a d
⃗⃗ . ⃗B⃗)max = AB
The scalar product of two vectors will be minimum, when Cos θ = –1,
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w
w
i.e. θ = 1800 (A
w ww
⃗⃗ . ⃗B⃗)min = – AB when the vectors are anti-parallel.
w
7) www
If two vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ and 𝐁 www
⃗⃗⃗, are perpendicular to each other than their scalar
Product ⃗A⃗ . ⃗B⃗ = 0 , because Cos 900 =0. Then the vectors ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗. are
lai
said to be mutually orthogonal.
N Neet t
8)
N Neett
The scalar product of a vector with itself is termed as self–dot product
l a
l i
a .i. and is given by (A
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
⃗⃗)2 = ⃗A⃗ . ⃗A⃗ = AA Cos θ = A2 . Here angle θ = 0°
sa
assaa 9)
aadd asaa
s
The magnitude or norm of the vector 𝐀
a aaddaassaa
In case of a unit vector 𝑛̂ , 𝑛̂ . 𝑛̂ = 1 x 1 x Cos 0 = 1.
⃗⃗| = A = √𝐀
⃗⃗ is |𝐀 ⃗⃗. 𝐀
⃗⃗
ww. P
. P .
For example, 𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂ = 1
w
w P
. P
w
www w
www
da
10) In the case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂ , 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 1.1

Cos900 = 0
11) In terms of components the scalar product of ⃗A⃗ and B ⃗⃗ can be written
Pa
N Neett N N
= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz with all other terms zero.eett
As ⃗A⃗ . ⃗B⃗ = (Ax𝑖̂ + Ay𝑗̂+ Az𝑘̂ ) . (Bx𝑖̂ + By𝑗̂+ Bz𝑘̂ )
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
The magnitude of vector |A ⃗⃗| is given by |A
⃗⃗| = A = √A2x + A2y + A2z
d da ass d d aass
a a a a
w.
w w PP
Properties of vector
. (cross) product.
. of two vectors is not commutative,wi.e., w
w . P
⃗A⃗. P ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ≠ ⃗B⃗xA
2)
w
The vector product
ww⃗A⃗xB⃗⃗ = – [B⃗⃗ x ⃗A⃗]. Here it is worthwhile to noteww
wBut, w
that
xB
ww
⃗⃗xB
|A ⃗⃗| = |B ⃗⃗| = AB Sin θ.
⃗⃗xA
i.e. in the case of the product vectors ⃗A⃗xB ⃗⃗ and B
⃗⃗xA⃗⃗, the magnitudes
NNeett N Neett
are equal but directions are opposite to each other
l a
l i
a .i. 3) l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
The vector product of two vectors will have maximum magnitude when
assaa aadd
each other. (A asaa
s
⃗⃗ x ⃗B⃗)max = AB𝑛̂
ad
a d s
sin θ = 1, i.e., θ = 900 i.e., when the vectors⃗⃗⃗⃗
a a a aa
s A and B⃗⃗, are orthogonal to
4)
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
The vector product of two non–zero vectors will be minimum when sin
w
www
θ = 0, i.e.,θ = 00 or 1800 [A w
www
⃗⃗ x ⃗B⃗]min = 0 i.e., the vector product of two
non–zero vectors vanishes, if the vectors are either parallel or
anti-parallel.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN e ett
lalai .i. 5) The self–cross product, i.e., lproduct al a i .i. of a vector with itself is the null lalai.
assaa vector 𝐀 ⃗⃗ x 𝐀 ⃗⃗ = AA Sin s
a ad d aa a𝑛̂a= ⃗0⃗ In physics the null vector ⃗0⃗ is simplyaassaa
θs
aa dd
6)
denoted as zero.
w w
The self–vector . P P
. products of unit vectors are thus zero.www. . P P
w𝑖̂Inw w w𝑗̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ x 𝑘̂= 0⃗⃗
x 𝑖̂ = w w w
8) terms of components, the vector
product of two vectors ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗
N Nett
e 𝑖⃗⃗ 𝑗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑘
N Neett
lalai.i. ⃗A⃗ x ⃗B⃗ = | 𝐴
𝑋 𝐴𝑌 𝐴𝑍 |
l al i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa ssaa
𝐵𝑋 𝐵𝑌 𝐵𝑍
dd aa
= 𝑖⃗⃗ (AyBz – AzBy) + 𝑗⃗⃗(AzBx – AxBz) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
a a 𝑘 (AxBy – AyBx)
aad daa
. PP .
. equations of motion for constant acceleration. P
. P
.N
38. Derive thew w w
kinematic w
w an object moving in a straight line withwuniform ww
w or constant
wConsider
w w
acceleration ‘a’. Let u be the velocity of the object at time t = 0, and v be
lai
velocity of the body at a later time t.
N Neett Velocity - time relation:

N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. 1)
l l ai .i. to time, a = or dv = a .dt
The acceleration of the body at any instant is given by the first
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
𝑑𝑣
dd
Integrating both sidesa as
derivative of the velocity with
s
with the
respect
condition that as time changes
𝑑𝑡
from dd
0aass
. P
. Pa
to t, the velocity a
changes from u to v. For the constant . P
. Pa a
acceleration,
∫ w𝑑𝑣w w
=w w ww
www
da
𝑣 𝑡
w=wa ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ [𝑣] = a [𝑡] --------(1)
𝑢
𝑣
∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡0
𝑣
𝑢
𝑡
0
𝑢
v – u = at (or) v = u + at
Pa
NNeett Displacement – time relation:

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 2) l a
lai .i.
The velocity of the body is given by the first derivative of the l a
l i
a .
assaa getaad
ds d
a as
displacement with respect satoatime. v = or ds = v dt and since vaassaa
𝑑𝑠
t=a
0,a
d d
w.
𝑑𝑡
= u + at WeP = (u + at )dt . Assume that initially at time P
particlew
w . P
. from the origin. At a later time,wt,ww . P the
the. particle
w started
ww is s. Further assuming that acceleration
wdisplacement www is time
ww
𝑠
independent, we have ∫0 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑡
=∫0 𝑢𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 𝑎𝑡𝑑𝑡 or s = ut + ½ at2 --------------(2)
N Neett N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. Velocity – displacement relation:i.i.
l a
la l a
l i
a .
assaa 3)
to time. a = a =a d 𝑑𝑣
s
The acceleration is given by
d aa saathe first derivative of velocity with respectaassaa
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣
= v [since ds / dt = v where s is distance aadd
w w . P
. P 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠
or ds = d(v ) w
1 𝑑𝑣 2
w1. P
. P
4)
w
ww the above equation, using the factwwwhen
traversed]
wIntegrating This is rewritten as a =
2 𝑑𝑠 w w the velocity
2𝑎
2
changes from u2 to v2, displacement changes from 0 to s,

𝑠
we get ∫0 𝑑𝑠
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. v 1
d(v ) ; s = (v – u l)a l;a
i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
1
=∫ 2 2 v = u + 2as ------------(3)
2 2 2
u 2a
d daa s
2a
s ddaass
5) We can alsoP
. P a a
.v. From the equation (1) we can write, atw= vw–wu .
derive the displacement s in terms of initial
.P P
velocity a
u a
and
w w w
final velocity
ww this in equation (2), we get s = ut + ½ w
wSubstitute
(𝑢+𝑣)𝑡
(vw– uw )t
s= -----------------(4)
2
The equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) are called kinematic equations of
N Nett
e N N eett
motion, and have a wide variety of practical applications.
lalai.i. Kinematic equations:

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa v = u + at ; s = ut + ½ s
atsaa; v = u + 2as ; s = s aa
s
(𝑢+𝑣)𝑡
a add aa 2 2 2
2
a ad a
d a
. PP
. of motion, range and maximum heightwreached . PP
.by the
.N
39.
ww
Derive the equation
w ww
www
particle thrown
direction.
at an oblique angle 𝜽 with respect to
www
the horizontal
i) Consider an object thrown with initial
lai
velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗at
𝑢 an angle θ with the
N Neett horizontal. then, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ eett
𝑢 = ux𝑖̂ + uy 𝑗̂ where
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
ux = u Cos θ is the horizontal
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a dd asaa
s
component and uy = u sin θ
a
the vertical component of velocity.
a aaddaassaa
ii) . P
. P
ux remains constant throughout the
ww w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
motion.uy changes with time under

the effect of acceleration due to
gravity. First it decreases, becomes
zero at the maximum height, after which it again increases till the prose
Pa
N Neetiii)t reach be ground.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i. l a
l i
a .
Hence after the time t, the velocity along horizontal motion
a
assaa aa aa
vx = ux+ axt = ux = u cos θ
ddaass ddaass
The horizontal distance travelled by projectile in time t is
aa aa
w.
iv) ww. P
.
Thus, x = u cos θ. t or t= w
w
𝑥 . P
sx = uxt + ½ axt2. Here, sx = x, ux = u cos θ, ax = 0
P . P -------------- (1)
w
www w
www
𝑢 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Next, for the vertical motion vy = uy+ ayt Here uy= u sinθ, ay = − g
ww
(acceleration due to gravity acts opposite to the motion).

Thus, vy = u Sin θ – gt -------------------(2)
N Neett N N ett
The vertical distance travelled by the projectile in the same time t is
e
l a
l i
a .i. l al a i .i.
sy = uyt + ½ ayt2 Here, sy = y, uy = u sin θ, ax = − g
l a
l i
a .
assaa
Then, y = u Sin θ t – ½ gt2 ---------------- (3)
v) a ass aa
Substitute the value of t from equation (1) in equation (3), we have a s
a aa
s
y = u Sin θ P Pa
𝑥
a dd 1 𝑥2
P Pad
a d
w w . .
𝑢 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
– g
2 𝑢2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
ww . .
w
w= xw
wyThus tan θ – g
1
2
𝑥2
------------------(4)
𝑢2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 w
w w w
the path followed by the projectile is an inverted parabola.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Nee tt
lalai .i. Maximum height (h ) l a

l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa travelled by the projectile during itsaassaa
max
The maximum vertical s s
a
journey is called maximum ad a
d adistance
height. This is determined as follows: aadd
. P P
wwa.= −g, s = h , and at the maximum height
For the vertical part of the motion, v = u +
2y2a s 2y
w wy.P.P
Here, u =w uw w
ww y sinθ, max
Here, (0)2 = u2 sin2 = ghmax (or) hmax=

www
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛉
v = 0 y
𝟐𝐠
Horizontal range (R)

NNet
e t The maximum horizontal distance between N N e et tthe point of projection and
lalai.i. the point on the horizontal plane where l a
l i
a .i.projectile hits the ground is called lalai.
the
et
assaa a ad
initial velocity remains theda as s
horizontal range (R). This is founda a easily since the horizontal component of ss
same. We can write Range
aaRdd
=aa aa
.P
Horizontal component.P of velocity x time of flight = u cos θ x T .P
. P
.N
w w w w f
wRw=wuwcos θ x = 2u sinθ
g
2u2 sin θcos θ
R=
g wwww𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
𝐠
lai
40. Explain the subtraction of vectors.
N Neett i) eett
For two non-zero vectors ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗ which
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a i
a .i.
are inclined to each other at an angle θ,
l l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aadd asaa
s
the difference ⃗A⃗ – ⃗B⃗ is obtained as
a
follows. First obtain – ⃗B⃗ as in Figure. The aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
angle between ⃗A⃗ and – B w
w . P
. P
⃗⃗ is 180 – θ. The
w
www w
www
da
difference ⃗A⃗ – ⃗B⃗ is the same as the

resultant o ⃗A⃗ and – B ⃗⃗.
We can write ⃗A⃗ – ⃗B⃗ = ⃗A⃗ + (– ⃗B⃗) and
Pa
N Neett using the equation, we have

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. ii) |A
l a
lai .i.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗B⃗| = √A2 + B2 + 2AB Cosθ, we
l a
l i
a .
assaa have |A
ad
adaassaa
⃗⃗⃗⃗– ⃗B⃗| = √A2 + B2 + 2AB Cos(180 − θ)
aaddaasaa
s
w.
iii) since, cos (180 − θ) = −cosθ. we get,

w
⃗⃗⃗⃗– B
|A w. P
. P
⃗⃗| = √A2 + B2 − 2AB Cosθ
w
w . P
. P
w
wtanw𝛼w= w
www
Again from the Figure 2.19, and using an equation similar to equation
ww
B sin(180− θ)
2 A+B cos(180−θ)
B sin θ
iv) But sin(180 − θ) = sinθ, hence we get, tan 𝛼2 =
N Neett N Neett A−B cosθ
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN ee tt
lalai .i.41. Find horizontal range and time of flight l a

l i
a .i. in horizontal projection.
projectile l a
l i
a .
assaa a a
Consider a projectile, say
a a d
horizontally with an initial d s saa
velocity
a thrown
ball,
⃗⃗⃗⃗from the top of a a a ddaassaa
w w . PP 𝑢
. it covers a horizontal
tower of height h (Figure)
w w . P
.P
As w w
1.
ww due to its uniform horizontal velocity www
wdistance
the ball moves,
u, and a vertical downward distance because
N Net2.t
e N N ett
of constant acceleration due to gravity g.
e
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
Thus, under the combined effect the ball
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
moves along the path OPA. The motion is in a
ddas
a s d a
d
2-dimensional plane. Let the ball take time t to s
a s
. P
.Paa
reach the ground at point A, . P
. Paa
.N
w w
w www
www www
Then the horizontal distance travelled by the
ball is x (t) = x, and the vertical distance
travelled is y (t) = y
lai
Motion along horizontal direction:
N Neet t
3.
e tt
The particle has zero acceleration along x direction. So, the initial
N N e
l a
l i
a .i. l l ai .i.
velocity ux remains constant throughout the motion. The distance
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
traveled by the projectile at a time t is given by the equation
d da a s s
x = uxt + ½ at2 Since a = 0 along x direction, we have
d daass
. P
. Paa
x = uxt --------------------(1)
. P
. Pa a
w w w w ww
wwHere w
da
4)
wMotion along downward direction: ww
u = 0 (initial velocity has no downward component), a = g
y
(we choose the +ve y-axis in downward direction), and distance y at time
Pa
t From equation, y = uyt + ½ at2 , we get y = ½ gt2 ----------(2)

N Neett N Neett
Substituting the value of t from equation (1) in equation (2) we have
l a
l i
a .i. 1 𝑥2 𝑔
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
y= g = ( )x 2
2 2
𝑢𝑥
2
2𝑢𝑥
dd aass ddaass
a a 𝑔
a a
w.
y = Kx ---------------
2 (3), where K =
5) ww . P
Equation P
. is the equation of a parabola. Thus, w
2
2𝑢𝑥
theww.
pathP P
.followed
w
wbywthewprojectile is a parabola (curve OPA in the Figure)
www
ww
Time of Flight:
h be the height of a tower. Let T be the time taken by the
N Neett N Nee tt
projectile to hit the ground, after being thrown horizontally from the
l a
l i
a .i. l aai .i.
tower. sy = uyt + ½ at2 sy=h, t=T, uy=0 (i.e no initial vertical velocity)
l l a
l i
a .
assaa T=√
2h
aa d d aa ssaa
a ad d aasaa
s
6)
w
g
w . PP
Thus, the time of flight for projectile motion depends on .
the
w P P
. is independent of the horizontal velocitywofwprojection.
.
height of
thew
www tower, but
www
Horizontal range:
The horizontal distance covered by the projectile from the foot
N Neett N Nee tt
of the tower to the point where the projectile hits the ground is called
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NNeett
lalai .i. horizontal range. For horizontall a

l ai .i. we have s = u t + ½ at . Here, lalai.
motion, 2
assaa a(noahorizontal acceleration) T is time of flight.aassaa

x x
s = R (range), u = u, a =s0s
x
Then horizontala adx
rangeda a
= uT. a a dd
w w . P
. P w w .P.P
7)
www w
Since the
2h
www
time of flight T = √ , we substitute this and
g w
2h
we get the horizontal range of the particle as R = u√ .
g
8) The above equation implies that the range R is directly proportional to
N Net
e t N eet t to acceleration due to
the initial velocity u and inversely proportional
N
lalai.i. gravity g.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 42. A man moving in rainaholds ad da as aa
s
an umbrella inclined to the vertical though thed
aa daassaa
. PP
. moving horizontally with
rain drops are falling vertically. Why? . P
. P
.N
w w w w w w
1.
wwV⃗⃗ . Let rain fall vertically with velocity V⃗⃗ .www
Consider
wvelocity a person
M R
lai
2. An umbrella is held to avoid the rain. Then the relative velocity of the
N Neett N N e ett
rain with respect to the person is, ⃗V⃗RM = ⃗V⃗R − ⃗V⃗M = OB ⃗⃗ + OD
⃗⃗ + OC ⃗⃗⃗ which
l a
l i
a .i. has magnitude V = RM √vR2
+
l a
l ai
2
tan
vM .i.𝜃 = = and direction
DB VM
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaas shown in Figure. aa
OB VR
θ = tan ( ) with thea

-1
VM
d d as s
vertical
ddaass
4. P
VR
P
In order to.save
a a
.the vertical.
himself from the rain, he should hold an . P
. P
umbrella
a a
at an
w w w w ww
www www
da
angle θ with
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l ai ..
OFi MOTION) l a
l i
a .
assaa
UNIT – III (LAWS
a as saa aassaa
TWO MARKS AND THREE
P P a ad d MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
P P aad d
w w . . of inertia. Write two examples each forwinertia
ww . .
1.
w
wThis
motion, w of rest and inertia of direction.
Explain the concept
winertia w w w of
inability of objects to move on its own or change its state of motion

is called inertia. Inertia means resistance to change its state.
N Nett
e Examples:
N Neett
lalai.i. Inertia of Rest:
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
i. Passengers experience a backward push in a sudden start of bus.
assaa ii.
aa das
a aa
s
aa a
d s
a aa
s
Tightening of seat belts in a car when it stops quickly.
d d
PP
Inertia of Motion:
. . . P
. P
.N
i. w
w ww
Passengers experience a forward push during a sudden brake in bus.
w w
ii. www www
Ripe fruits fall from the trees in the direction of wind.
Inertia of Direction:
lai
i. A stone moves tangential to Circle.
NN eettii.
e e tt
When a car moves towards left, we turn to the right.
NN
l a
l i
a .i.2. State Newton’s second law. lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa The force acting d
aa a
ond a
an saa is equal to the rate of change of ditsdaassaa
sobject
aa
⃗⃗ = .P
. P
⃗⃗
dp
. P
. P
momentum. F
w w ww ww ww
da
dt
3.
ww
Define One Newton.
ww
One Newton is defined as the force which acts on 1 kg of mass to
give an acceleration 1 m s-2 in the direction of the force.
Pa
NN eett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i.4. Show that impulse is the change oflmomentum.a
la i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa The integral ∫ F dt = Js acalled
iss a the impulse and it is equal to changeaassaa
tf
in momentum of the a
ti
a dda a a add
w.
w w .
Proof : If the force P P object.
.is constant over the time interval, then www. . P P
ww
tf
∫ F dt
w
= Fw
tf
∫ dt = F(t – t )
f i www
ww
ti ti
F∆t = ∆p is called the impulse and it is equal to change in momentum of the
object.
NN eetUsing
t free body diagram, show that it is easy
N Nee tpullt an object than to push
l a
l i
a .i. it.
5.
l ala i .i. to
l a
l i
a .
assaa aad daas saa
a ad a
d s
a aa
s
ww . P
. P w w. P
. P
w
www www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.6. Explain various types of friction. Suggest

l a
l i
a .ia.few methods to reduce friction. l a
l i
a .
assaa Static Friction (𝒇⃗⃗⃗⃗):
Static friction isa a d
𝒔
daas saa
force which opposes the initiation of motiona d
ofa daassaa
1.
object w w
on .
thePP the
. surface. w w. P
. P an
2. w
w w
When wthe object is at rest on the surface, only twoww wwact on it.
forces
They are the downward gravitational force and upward normal force.
3. The resultant of these two forces on the object is zero.
N Net1.t
e Kinetic Friction (𝒇⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒌 ):
N Neett
When an object slides, the surface exerts a frictional force called
lalai.i. l a
l
kinetic friction (fk) i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 2.
as
a aa
s a s
a aa
s
If the external force acting on the object is greater than maximum
aadd
static friction, the objects begin to slide.ad
a d
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
3.
w w
w ww
The kinetic friction does not depend on velocity.
w
www
Rolling Friction:
www
The force of friction that comes into act when a wheel rolls over a
surface. Methods to reduce friction:
lai
1. By using Lubricants friction 2. By using ball bearings.
NN eett N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i.7. What is the meaning by ‘pseudo force’? l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa origin. A pseudo forcea isd
a da s s
Centrifugal force is called
a aasaa ‘pseudo force’. A pseudo force has noaassaa
an apparent force that acts on all masses whosea ad d
ww .
motion is describedP
. P
using non inertial frame of reference
w
such as
w .aP
. P
rotating
referencew w
www www
da
frame.
8. State Newton’s Third law.

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Pa
NN eett N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i.9. Under what condition will a car skidlaonlaia.ileveled
. circular road?
l a
l i
a .
assaa a a dd aa ss
If the static friction is not aable
a to provide enough centripetal force toaassaa
a ad d
w.
v2
turn, the vehicle will start to skid. μ < (skid)
ww . P
. P rg
w w . P
. P
10. Definew w w w
impulse. w w ww
ww
If a very large force acts on an object for a very short duration, then the
force is called impulsive force or impulse.
N11.e
N etState
t Newton’s First law. N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. Every object continues to be linala i.i.state of rest or of uniform motion lalai.
the
assaa a assaaon it.
unless there is external force acting
aa d d a ad daasaa
s
w w P
12. Define Inertia of .rest,P
.object to change its state of rest is calledwinertia
motion and direction.
w w . PP
. rest.
w
wwwof an object to change its direction of motionwwonw
The inability
The inability
of an of
its own is called
inertia of direction.
The inability of an object to change its state of uniform speed on its own is
N Neett called inertia of motion.

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.13. What is free body diagram? What arelala i

the .isteps
. to be followed for developing lalai.
assaa free body diagram?
aa
Free body diagramd d
is
a as saa
a ad d
a simple tool to analyze the motion of the object
aassaa
w P
using Newton’s .laws.
w P
.body diagram:
The following systematic steps are
w w . P
.P
followed for
1. w
developingw
ww the forces acting on the object.
the
Identify
free
wwww
2. Represent the object as a point.
3. Draw the vectors representing the forces acting on the object.
NN eett NN ee tt
lalai.i.14. State Lami’s theorem.
l a
l ai .i. system is proportional to sine of lalai.
et
assaa s aaforces. The constant of proportionality isaassaa
The magnitude of each force of the
the angle between the d
daa
other s
two dd
same for all three P
. . Pa a
forces.
. P
. Pa a
.N
15. State w w ww
wof conservation of total linear momentum.www w w w
w
the law
If there are no external forces acting on the system, then the total
lai
linear momentum of the system (𝒑 ⃗⃗tot ) is always a constant vector.
NN eett N N ett
In other words, the total linear momentum of the system is conserved in time.
e
l a
l i
a .i.16. What is the role of air bag in a car?lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a a a
d
with an accident, the momentum
as
cars are designed with air
d sabags
a in such a way that when the car meetsaassaa
a
of the passengers will reduce slowly so add
that
.
the average force .
ww PP
acting on them will be smaller.
w w . P
. P
ww force. www w
da
wfrictional
17. Define w
Which always opposes the relative motion between an object and the
surface where it is placed. If the force applied is increased, the object moves
Pa
NN eettafter a certain limit.

N N ee tt
l a
l i
a .i.18. Define Angle of Friction. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa d
The angle of friction
a a da
isas aa as the angle between the normal forceaassaa
s
defined
aad d
w.
ww . P
. P
(N) and the resultant force (R) of normal force and maximum
w . P
. P
friction
w
force
f )
smax
www w ww ww
ww
19. Define Angle of repose.

The same as angle of friction. But the difference is that the angle of
N Neett N N tt
repose refers to inclined surfaces and the angle of friction is applicable to any
e e
l a
l i
a .i. type of surface.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 20. What 1. aa dd a a
The angle of inclination
s saaof repose?
are the applications of angle
of sand trap is made to be equal to angle a d
a d
of
aasaa
s
w
repose.
w .P P
.fond of playing on sliding board. Slidingw w w . P
. P
2. w
wwthe angle of inclination of the board is greater
wwhen
Children are w the angle of
wwthan
will be easier
repose.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N ee tt
lalai .i.21. How does the rolling wheel’s work inlalsuitcase?

a i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1.
a a
contact with surfacedda a aa moves on a surface, the point of aassaa
In rolling motion when aswheel
s
is always at rest. a d
a d
2.
ww . P
Since the pointP
.wheel and surface. Hence the frictionalw
of contact is at rest, there is no relative
w w .
motionP P
. less.
w w w w
between the
w w w
force is very
22. Where does the friction force act?
Walking is possible because of frictional force. Vehicles (bicycle, car)
N Neett N N ett
can move because of the frictional force between the tyre and the road. In
e
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i.
the braking system, kinetic friction plays a major role.
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 23. How didIf the a
ball bearing reduce
ball bearingsa ad
ared assakinetic
a friction?
fixed between two surfaces, during the relative ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
. P . P
. P
.N
w w w w
motion only the rolling friction comes to effect and not kinetic
w ww
friction.
24. Defineww
Centripetal force. www
If a particle is in uniform circular motion, there must be centripetal
lai
acceleration towards the center of the circle. If there is acceleration, then
N Neett N Neett
there must be some force acting on it with respect to an inertial frame. This
l a
l i
a .i. force is called centripetal force.
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 25. How isInthethecentripetal aa dd
case of whirlingaas
force act saawhirling motion?
in
a a
motion of a stone tied to a string, the centripetald daassaa
w w. P P
. park, the centripetal force is provided
force on the particle is provided by the tensional force on the
w
string.
w . P
In P
. tension
circular
motion inw w
ww www
da
an amusement by the
in thewiron ropes.
26. How did the car move on circular track?
Pa
N Neett N Neett
When a car is moving on a circular track the centripetal force is given
by the frictional force between the road and the tyres.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
Frictional force = mv2/r m-mass of the car, v-speed of the car r-radius of
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
curvature of track, even when the car moves on a curved track, the car
w.
experiences the centripetal force which is provided by frictional force

ww. P
. P w
between the surface and the tyre of the car.
w . P
. P
w
www CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS: www w
ww
27. Why it is not possible to push a car from inside?

1. When you push on the car from inside, the reaction force of your
N Neett N Neett
pushing is balanced out by our body moving backward.
l a
l i
a .i. 2.
l aa i.i.
The seat behind you pushes against to bring things to static
l l a
l i
a .
assaa aad d aas saa
equilibrium. So, we can’t push a car from inside.
a add aasaa
s
28. w
There is a limitw . PP
. which the polishing of a surface increase
beyond w w . P P
.frictional
ww
resistancew w
rather than decreasing it why? w w w w
1. Friction arises due to molecular adhesion. For more polishing the
molecules of the surface come closer.
N Neet t
2.
N Nee
They offer greater resistance to surface.tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.29. Why does a parachute descend slowly?l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa dda
A parachute is a devicea ssaa to slow down on object that is fallingaassaa
used
aadd
So the personww P P
towards the ground. When
. .land safely. ww . P
. P
the parachute opens, the air resistance increases.
www w can
www w
30. When walking on ice one should take short steps. Why?
To avoid slipping, take smaller steps. Because these steps causes more
N Nett
e normal force and there by more friction.
N N e ett
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 31. Why isItitisdangerous
dangerous to d
a a d a
stand
ssa
to stand near
a a
the open door of moving bus?
near the open door (or) steps while travellingd
a a d
inaassaa
the bus. When the. PP
.pushed away from the bus. Even thoughwcentrifugal
bus takes a sudden turn in a curved road, due to . PP
. force
centrifugal
.N
force the w ww w w
wwwforce, its effects are real.
person
is a pseudo
is
www
lai
32. When a cricket player catches the ball, he/she pulls his /her hands gradually
N Neett N Neett
in the direction of the ball’s motion. Why?
l a
l i
a .i. 1.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
If he stops his hands soon after catching the ball, the ball comes to
sa
assaa 2. ddaasaa
s
rest very quickly.
ddaassaa
It means that the momentum of the ball is brought to rest very quickly.
aa aa
3.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
So the average force acting on the body will be very large.
w
www w
www
da
4. Due to this large average force, the hands will get hurt.
5. To avoid getting hurt, the player brings the ball to rest slowly
33. A man jumping on concrete floor is more dangerous than in sand floor,
Pa
N Neett why?
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 1.
l lai .i. l a
l i
Jumping on a concrete cemented floor is more dangerous than
a a .
assaa aa aa
jumping on the sand.
2.
ddaass ddaass
Sand brings the body to rest slowly than the concrete floor, so that the
aa aa
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
average force experienced by the body will be lesser.
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH l a

l i
a .ANSWER
i . QUESTIONS: l a
l i
a .
assaa 34. Explain a d
a da
the motion of blocksa ssaa by a string in i) Vertical motion aassaa
connected
aadd
w w. P P
. motion:
ii) Horizontal motion.
w w.P.P
i)
w
ww two blocks of masses m and m (m > mww
Case 1:
wConsider Vertical
1 )
w2
w 1 2
connected by a light and inextensible string that
passes over a pulley.
N Net
e t
ii)
e tt
Let the tension in the string be T and
N N e
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
acceleration a. When the system is released, both
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
the blocks start moving, m2 vertically upward and m1
ddas
a s a
downward with same acceleration. The gravitational
d d s
a s
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
force m1g on mass m1 is used in lifting the mass m2.
.N
w w
w www
Applying Newton’s second law for mass m2,
iii)
www
Tĵ - m2gĵ = m2aĵ www
The left-hand side of the above equation is the total
lai
force that acts on m2 and the right-
hand side is the product of mass and
N Neett N eett
acceleration of m2 in y direction.
N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
By comparing the components on
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aadd asaa
s
both sides, we get
a
T – m1g = m2a ------------- (1)
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
Similarly, applying Newton’s second
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
law for mass m1

Tĵ – m1gĵ = – m1aĵ
As mass m1 moves downward (–ĵ), its acceleration is along(–ĵ)
iv) By comparing the components on both sides, we get
Pa
N Neett N Neett
T – m1g = – m1a ; m1g – T = m1a ------------- (2)
l a
l i
a .i. l lai
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
m1g – m2g = m1a + m2a ; (m1 – m2 )g = (m1 + m2)a ------- (3)
d da s
a s
From equation (3), the acceleration of both the masses is
ddaass
a a a a
w.
a=(
𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐
w w .)PP
g ------(4) .
. are equal (m =m ), from equationw(4)waw= 0. PP
v) ww
wThisw
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
shows that if the masses are equal, there isw

If both the masses 1 2
no
w
wacceleration and
ww
the system as a whole will be at rest. To find the tension acting on the
string, substitute the acceleration from the equation (4) into the
N Neett equation (1).

N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. T–m g=m ( ) ; T – ma
𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐
l ga
l +i.m
i.( )g --- (5)
𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐
l a
l i
a .
assaa aaRHS of equation (5) aa
2 2 2 2
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
a
By taking m2g common
dd a s
insthe
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
d a
d s
a s
.P
T = m g (1 +
. Paa𝑚1− 𝑚2
) ;
. P
. Paa
w
2
w w 𝑚1 +𝑚2
w w
w
wTw= mwg (
2
𝑚1+ 𝑚2+𝑚1− 𝑚2
𝑚1 +𝑚2
) T=(
𝟐𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
)g
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. Case 2: Horizontal motion: la l ai .i. l a

l i
a .
assaa i) In this case, mass m s
hanging throughaaadda2
aiss
small
akept
a on a horizontal table and mass m isaassaa
pulley. Assume that there is no friction ona
1
add
the
surface. .P P
.blocks are connected to the un-stretchable . P P
. if m
As w
w w w w w
ii)
wwwith an acceleration a downward then mwalso
wmoves
both the
2
wwmoves with the
string, 1
same acceleration a horizontally.

The forces acting on mass m2 are
N Nett
e N Neett
(i) Downward gravitational force (m2g)
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
(ii) Upward normal force (N) exerted by the surface
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
(iii) Horizontal tension (T) exerted by the string
ddaa s
The forces acting on mass m1 are d a
d a s
. P
.Paa
(i) Downward gravitational force (m1g)
. P
. Paa
.N
w w
w www
www www
(ii) Tension (T) acting upwards
The free body diagrams for both the masses
Applying Newton’s second law for m1
lai
Tĵ – m1gĵ = m1aĵ
N Neett
By comparing the components on both
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. sides of the above equation,
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
T – m1g = –m1a ------------- (1)
assaa aasaa
s
Applying Newton’s second law for m2
aadd
T𝑖̂ – m2a𝑖̂ , By comparing the aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
components on both sides of above equation,
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
T = m2a --------------(2)
There is no acceleration along y direction for m2.
Nĵ – m2g𝑗̂ = 0, By comparing the components on both sides of the above
equation
Pa
N Neett N Neett
N – m2g = 0 ; N = m2g -------------- (3)
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
By substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we can find the tension T
assaa ssaa saa

s
𝒎𝟏
m2a – m1g = – m1a; m2a + m1a = m1g ; a = g -----------(4)
ad
adaa aadd
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐aa
w.
Tension in the string can be obtained by substituting equation (4) in

ww.
equation (2) P
. P w
w . P
. P
𝒎 𝒎
T= 𝟏 𝟐g w
www
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
w
www
ww
Comparing motion in both cases, it is clear that the tension in the string for
horizontal motion is half of the tension for vertical motion for same set of
N Neett
masses and strings.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.35. Briefly explain the origin of friction.lShow

al ai .i.that in an inclined plane, angle of l a
l i
a .
assaa a as s
friction is equal to angle of repose.
aa dd
aa
aa d daassaa
i)
w w. P P
. it does not move.
If a very gentle force in the horizontal direction is given to
w
an
w .P.P
object at
wrest
w w w
on the table,
ww w w
ii) It is because of the opposing force exerted by the surface on the
object which resists its motion.
N Netiii)t
e NN eett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .iand
This force is called the frictional force which always opposes the
. the surface where it is placed. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
relative motion between an object
d da a s d daa s
iv)
. PP a a
Consider an inclined
. PP
. makes with the horizontal be θ . Forwsmallwwanglesa a
plane on which an object is placed. Let the angle
. of θ
.N
which w w
, ww w w this plane
the object may not slide down. www
lai
v) As 𝛉 is increased, for a particular value of 𝛉 , the object begins to
N Neett NN e ett
slide down. This value is called angle of repose. Hence, the angle of
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i. with the horizontal such that an lalai.
sa
repose is the angle of inclined plane
assaa object placed on itd
a a da as
begins satoaslide.
aad daassaa
vi) . PP . PP
Consider the. various forces in action here. The gravitational force
w w w w . mg
w w
w into components parallel (mg sin 𝛉)wwandwperpendicular
da
wiswresolved
(mg cos 𝛉) to the inclined plane.
Pa
N Neet t
vii)
N N e tt
The component of force parallel to the inclined plane (mg sin 𝛉) tries
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a a i
to move the object down. The component
l .i. of force perpendicular to the lalai.
assaa inclined plane (mg cos
aadd aas
θ) saa
is balanced by the Normal force (N).
a ad daasaa
s
w.
ww . P
. P
N = mg cos 𝛉 --------------(1)
ww . P
. P
w w
wwthe object just begins to move, the staticwwfriction
wWhen w attains its
ww
maximum value,
N Neett N N ett
fs = fsmax = 𝜇𝑠 N. This friction also satisfies the relation
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l ai.i.
fsmax = 𝝁𝒔 mg sin𝛉 ------------- (2)
a l a
l i
a .
assaa Equating the right hands
aad d aa saaof equations (1) and (2), we get
side
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
ww . P P
. of angle of friction, we also know w
(f
smax) / N = sin 𝛉 / cos 𝛉
w w . P P
.= 𝛍
w
Fromw
winwwhich
the definition
w w w
that tan 𝛉 𝐬
𝛉 is the angle of friction.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.36. State Newton’s three laws and discuss

l a
l ai .i. significance.
their l a
l i
a .
assaa Newton’s First Law: a
aad d a s saa
aad daassaa
i)
ww .
Every objectP
. P
continues to be in the state of rest or of
w w .
uniformP.Pmotion
w
ww velocity) unless there is external force acting
w(constant wwww on it.
ii) This inability of objects to move on its own or change its state of motion
N Nett
e N N ett
is called inertia. Inertia means resistance to change its state.
e
lalai.i. Newton’s Second Law:
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa i)
aaddaa aa is equal to the rate of change of itsaassaa
The force acting on ansobject
s
ad
a d
. P
. P ⃗⃗
dp
. P
. P
.N
momentum ⃗⃗ =
w w w F
w words, whenever the momentum of thewbodyw w w
wwchanges, there
dt
ii) wInwsimple
must be a force acting on it. The momentum of the object is defined
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett as p
⃗⃗ = mv
lai
⃗⃗. In most cases, the mass of the
l a
l i
a
object remains constant during the NNe e tt
.i.motion. In such cases, the above lalai.
sa
assaa ddaa
equation gets modified
aa
s saaa simpler form F⃗⃗= = m = ma⃗⃗ . aassaa
into
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
d(mv) ⃗⃗
dv
aad d
𝐅⃗ = m𝐚⃗⃗w
w . P
. P dt
ww .
dt
P
. P
w
ww Third law: wwww
da
wNewton’s
i) Newton’s third law assures that the forces occur as equal and opposite
Pa
NNeett N N e tt
e
pairs. An isolated force or a single force cannot exist in nature.
l a
l i
a .i. ii) l
Newton’s third law states thata
lai
for
.ievery
. action there is an equal and lalai.
assaa opposite reaction.d
aa da assaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
iii) . PP . P
Here, action.and reaction pair of forces do not act on the same
w w ww P
. body
w
wonwtwo different bodies.
wbut www w
ww
iv) Any one of the forces can be called as an action force and the other
N Neett N N ett
the reaction force. Newton’s third law is valid in both inertial and non-
e
l a
l i
a .i. inertial frames.
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa v)
aa d a
d as aaare not cause and effect forces. It meansaassaa
s
These action-reaction forces
a ad d
w w .
that when theP P
. force on the body 1 at the same instant.
object 1 exerts force on the object 2, the
.
object
w w P
.2Pexerts
www w
equal and opposite
www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN e e tt N Ne e tt
lalai .i.37. Explain the similarities and differences l al i

a .i.centripetal and centrifugal forces.
of l a
l i
a .
assaa Centripetal forcea add aa ssaa
Centrifugal force a add aassaa
w w . P
. P w w . P
.P
It is a pseudo force or fictitious force
the body byw w
the
ww agencies cannot arise from gravitational
It is a real force which is exerted on
external
which
ww w w force,
like gravitational force, tension in the
tension
string, normal force etc.
force, normal force etc.
NN ee
Actstintboth inertial and non-inertial eett
Acts only in rotating frames (non-inertial
N N
lalai.i. frames l a
l ai .i.
frame)
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa Itoracts towards the axis of rotation
d
center of the circle in circular
a a das
a aa
s d d s
a aa
s
It acts outwards from the axis of rotation
a
or radially outwards from the center of the
aa
motion . P
.P circular motion . P
. P
.N
|𝐹 | = m𝜔 r = w w w w
𝑚𝑣 2
w w w
𝑚𝑣 2w
𝑐𝑝 w w2
𝑟
Real force and has real effects.
|𝐹 | = m𝜔 r =
𝑐𝑓 w
2
w 𝑟
Pseudo force but has real effects
lai
Origin of centripetal force is Origin of centrifugal force is inertia. It
N Ne ett
interaction between two objects
N N ett
does not arise from interaction.
e
In an inertial frame the object’s inertial
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
motion appears as centrifugal force in the
sa
assaa Inhasinertial a
to be included when free
ad da
bodya aa
frames centripetal force ss
aadda ssaa
rotating frame. In inertial frames there is
a
no centrifugal force. In rotating frames,
diagrams are drawn. .P . P . P
. P
w w w w w
both centripetal and centrifugal force have
w
www www
da
to be included when free body diagrams

are drawn.
38. Briefly explain ‘Rolling Friction’.

Pa
N Neett i)
eett
One of the important applications is suitcases with rolling on coasters.
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
Rolling wheels makes it easier than carrying luggage.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
ii) When an object moves on a surface, essentially it is sliding on it. But
ddaass ddaa
wheels move on the surface through rolling motion.ss
aa aa
w.
iii)
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
In rolling motion when a wheel moves on a surface, the point of contact
iv) w
with surface is always at rest.
www w
www
Since the point of contact is at rest, there is no relative motion between
ww
the wheel and surface. Hence the frictional force is very less. At the
same time if an object moves without a wheel, there is a relative motion
N Neett v)
N Neett
between the object and the surface.
As a result frictional force is larger. This makes it difficult to move the
l a
l i
a .i. object. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa vi)
aasaa
s a s
a aa
s
Ideally in pure rolling, motion of the point of contact with the surface
aadd ad
a d
should be at rest, but in practice it is not so.
vii)
w .P. P w. P
. P
Due to the elastic nature of the surface at the point of contact there will
w w
w
www w
www
be some deformation on the object at this point on the wheel or surface.
viii) Due to this deformation, there will be minimal friction between wheel
and surface. It is called ‘rolling friction’. In fact, ‘rolling friction’ is much
smaller than kinetic friction.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.39. Describe the method of measuringlAngle

al i
a .i.of Repose. l a
l i
a .
assaa i)
which this plane aa daa
makes
s
Consider an inclined plane
d saona which an object is placed. Let the angleaassaa
aa
with the horizontal be θ . For small anglesd d
of
. PP
θ,the object.may not slide down.
ww ww . P.P
As w w
ii)
ww value of θ , the object
wparticular
θ is increased, for a
www
begins to slide down. This value
is called angle of repose.
N Nett
e Hence, the angle of repose is
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
the angle of inclined plane with
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa dd s
a aa
s
the horizontal such that an
a
object placed on it begins to
aa ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
slide.. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
iii)
www
Consider the various forces in
www
action here. The gravitational force mg is resolved into components
parallel (mg sin 𝛉 ) and perpendicular (mg cos 𝛉 ) to the inclined plane.
lai
iv) The component of force parallel to the inclined plane (mg sin 𝛉) tries
N Neett N N ett
to move the object down. The component of force perpendicular to the
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
inclined plane (mg cos 𝛉) is balanced by the Normal force (N).
a
sa
assaa aa aa
N = mg cos 𝛉 --------------(1)
ddaass d aass
When the object just begins to move, the static friction attains its
d
. P
. Paa
maximum value,
. P
. Paa
www w w
w
fs = fsmax = 𝝁𝒔 N. This friction also satisfies the relation
www www
da
fsmax = 𝜇𝑠 mg sinθ ------------- (2)
Equating the right hand side of equations (1) and (2), we get
Pa
N Neett (fsmax) / N = sin θ / cos θ

N Neett
From the definition of angle of friction, we also know that tan 𝛉 = 𝛍𝐬
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i.
in which 𝛉 is the angle of friction. Thus the angle of repose is the same l a
l i
a .
assaa as angle of friction.
a ad d aas saa
aad a
d s
a aa
s
w.
40.
w w P
Explain the need.for P banking of tracks.
w . P P
.circular road, skidding mainly depends onwthewcoefficient
. of
In aw
i)
wwfriction 𝜇 The coefficient of static friction depends
wstatic
leveled
wwwon the nature
ww
𝑠
of the surface which has a maximum limiting value.
NNeet t
ii)
N Neett
To avoid this problem, usually the outer edge of the road is slightly
l a
l i
a .i. iii) l a
lai.i.
raised compared to inner edge
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
This is called banking of roads or tracks. This introduces an inclination,
ddaass
and the angle is called banking angle.
d a
d s
a s
iv) .P. Paa . P
. Paa
Let the surface of the road make angle θ with horizontal surface. Then
w w
w w w
w
v) www www
the normal force makes the same angle θ with the vertical.
When the car takes a turn, there are two forces acting on the car:
a) Gravitational force mg (downwards)
b) Normal force N (perpendicular to surface)
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN eett
lalai .i. vi) a i

a
We can resolve the normal lforce
l .iinto
. two components. N cos θ and lalai.
assaa N sin θ
aadda a ssaa
a add aassaa
vii)
ww . P
The component
PN cos θ balances the downward
.
gravitational
. N sin θ will provide the necessary w w PP
force
. ‘mg’
w
ww By using Newton second law www
and component
wacceleration. w centripetal
𝑚𝑣 2
N cos θ = mg ; N sin θ =
𝑟
N Nett
e By dividing the equations we get, tan θ =
N N ee tt
𝑣2
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. 𝑟𝑔
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
v = √𝐫𝐠 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉
d da
Need Banking of tracks:as s d daass
1) .
The banking P P aa
.the Safe speed of the car at the turning. w
angle and radius of curvature of the .
road PP
or aa
. of car
track
.N
θ
w ww w w
ww this safe speed, then it starts to skid outward
determines
wexceeds wwwbut frictional
If the speed
lai
force comes into effect and provides an additional centripetal force to
prevent the outward skidding.
N Neet2)t N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
At the same time, if the speed of the car is little lesser than safe speed,
sa
assaa aa aa
it starts to skid inward and frictional force comes into effect, which
ddaass d aass
reduces centripetal force to prevent inward skidding.
d
3)
. P Paa . P Paa
However if the speed of the vehicle is sufficiently greater than the
. .
www w w
w
www www
da
correct speed, then frictional force cannot stop the car from skidding.
41. Write the salient features of Static and Kinetic friction.

Pa
N N e et t Static friction
N N e e t t
Kinetic friction
l a
l i
a .
i . It opposes the starting of motion l lai
It opposes
a .
i . the relative motion of the object
l a
l i
a .
assaa Independent a a aa
with respect to the surface
dda
of surface of contactassIndependent of surface of contact
ddaass
a a aa
w.
𝝁 depends on the nature

s
w w . P. Pof 𝜇 depends k on nature of
temperature of the surface w
materials
w . P
.
andP
Depends onw w w
the w
materials in mutual contact
magnitude of w w ww
ww
applied Independent of magnitude of applied force

force
N N e et t N N e et
It can never be zero
t and always equals to
l a
l i
a .
i . It can take values from zero to μ N μN
s
l a
l ai.i.
k
l a
l i
a .
assaa f > f a aa
whatever be the speed (true <10 ms )
It a
-1
dd aass is less than maximal value of static

d a
d s
a s
smax k
.P. Paa friction

. P
. Pa a
w w w Coefficient of kinetic friction isw
w w
less than
𝜇 >𝜇
s k
www www
coefficient of static friction
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N ee tt
lalai .i.42. Briefly explain what are all the forces

l a
l i
a .i.on a moving vehicle on a leveled lalai.
act
assaa circular road?
i) When a vehiclea a d daa
travels
s saa
in a curved path, there must be a centripetal a add aassaa
ww .
force actingPP
. tyre and surface of the road.
on it. This centripetal force is provided
w
by
w
the.P. P
frictional
ii)
w
ww a vehicle of mass ‘m’ moving at a speed w
wConsider
force between
‘v’w
w w
in the circular track
of radius ‘r’.
There are three forces acting on the vehicle when it moves
N Nett
e 1. ee tt
Gravitational force (mg) acting downwards
N N
lalai.i. 2.
l l i
a .i.
Normal force (mg) acting upwards
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
3. Frictional force (Fs) acting horizontally inwards along the road
iii) ddaa s d a
d a
Suppose the road is horizontal then the normal force and gravitational s
. P
.P a a . P
. Paa
force are exactly equal and opposite. The centripetal force is provided
.N
w ww w w
w
ww ww = F ,
by the force of static friction Fs between the tyre and surface of the
wroad which acts towards the center of the circularw
track,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟
s
the static friction can increase from zero to a maximum value
lai
Fs ≤ μs mg
N Neetiv)t N Neett
The static friction would be able to provide necessary centripetal force
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
to bend the car on the road. So the coefficient of static friction between
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a d d s
a aa
s
the tyre and the surface of the road determines what maximum speed
a aaddaassaa
the car can have for safe turn. If the static friction is not able to provide
a
enoughw
w . PP
. force to turn, the vehicle will startwto w
centripetal . P P
skid. .if
w >
𝑚𝑣 2
w
wμwmgw, of μ < (skid) www
da
𝑟
v2
s s rg
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NNeett
lalai .i. UNIT – IV (WORK, ENERGY l a

l i
a .i. AND POWER) l a
l i
a .
assaa TWO MARKS ANDP aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
w w . . P
THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH
ww .P.P
ANSWER:
1. Writew w
thewdifferences w
w w
w between conservative and Non-conservative
w forces.
Give two examples each.
Conservative forces Non-conservative forces
NN e e
Worktdone
t is independent of the path Work done NN e et t upon the path
depends
lalai.i. Work done in a round trip is zero Work l a
l i
a .i. in a round trip is not zero l a
l i
a.
et
assaa Total energy remains constant aa aa
done
d daass Energy is dissipated as heat energy ad daass
. PP a a
.recoverable Work done is not completely . P
. P a
.N
w w w w
Work done is completely
ww w w
recoverable
w w
Force is the negative gradient of
ww
No such relation exists.
lai
potential energy
N Ne e tt NN e e tt
l a
l i
a .i.2. Explain the characteristics of elasticlaland
ai .iinelastic
. collision. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa Elastic Collision d
aa daasaa
s Inelastic Collision
aaddaassaa
w w .
Total momentum is conserved P
. P Total momentum is conserved .
ww . P
P
w w w w
da
Total kinetic ww
energy is conserved Total kinetic energy ww
is not conserved
Forces involved are non-conservative
Forces involved are conservative forces
Forces
Pa
N eet t energy is not dissipated

Mechanical
N N Ne ett
Mechanical energy is dissipated into heat,
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i.
light, sound etc.
l a
l i
a .
assaa 3. Define the following
a ad da a ssaa
aa ddaasaa
s
w.
a) Coefficientw w
of . P
. P
a) Coefficient of restitution
restitution:
b) Power c) Law of conservation of
w . P
energy
w . P
wItw w w as the ratio of velocity of separation (relative
is defined w w w wvelocity)
ww
after collision to the velocity of approach (relative velocity) before collision,

Velocity of separation (after collision) (𝑣 −𝑣1 )
i.e., e = ; (𝑢2
N Neetb)t Power: N N e tt
Velocity of approach (before collision)
e 1 −𝑢2 )
l a
l i
a .i. l aai.i.
The rate of work done or energy delivered.
l l a
l i
a .
assaa Power (P) =
a a d da s saa
Workdone (W)
a
Time taken (t)
aaddaasaa
s
Energyw w . P P
.neither be created nor destroyed. It maywbeww
c) Law of conservation of energy:
. P
. P
w
from oneww w to another but the total energy of an isolated
form
can
ww w transformed
system remains
constant.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.4. Define unit of power: l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa second. 1W = 1Js a
–1
a da ass
One watt is defined as the
d
apower
a when one joule of work is done in oneaassaa
a a dd
ww . P
. P w w .P.P
5. w
wwis said to be done by the force when the force
wWork
Explain Work
i)
done. ww on a body
wwapplied
displaces it.
ii) work done is a scalar quantity. It has only magnitude and no direction.
N Nett
e iii) ee tt
In SI system, unit of work done is N m (or) joule (J). Its dimensional
N N
lalai.i. formula is ML2T-2
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 6. DefineWhen d daa
Work done by a constant
a a
s aforce
s a
aa d daassaa
. PP
. a small displacement dr is givenwbyww
a constant force F acts on a body, the small work
.
done P P
the .relation,
(dW) by
.N
the force in w w
ww
dW= (F wwdr
cosθ)
producing
www
lai
7. Give the graphical representations of the work done by a variable force.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
8. Define Energy, Kinetic energy and Potential Energy

Pa
NNeett NN e ett
Energy: The capacity to do work, Dimension: ML2T-2 , SI Unit : Nm or joule .
l a
l i
a .i. Kinetic energy: The energy possessedlalabyi.ia.body due to its motion. l a
l i
a .
assaa 2 -2
aad
Dimension: ML T , SI Unit
da
: as
Nmsaorajoule .
a ad a
d s
a aa
s
w.
ww P
Potential Energy:.The
. Penergy possessed by the body by virtue
w
of
w
its. P
. P
position
Dimension:
w
wwwML T , SI Unit : Nm or joule .
2 -2 www w
ww
9. Write the significance of kinetic energy in the work – kinetic energy theorem.
N Neett 1. eett
If the work done by the force on the body is positive then its kinetic
N N
l a
l i
a .i. energy increases.
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa s aa
2. If the work done by the force on the body is negative then its kinetic
d
energy decreases.
daa s d a
d a s
3.
. P
. Pa a . P
. Paa
If there is no work done by the force on the body then there is no
ww w w
change in its kinetic energy
w
w w
w
10.
w w
Define Work – kinetic energy theorem.
w
w
The work done by the force on the body changes the kinetic energy of the
N Neett N N e tt
body. This is called work-kinetic energy theorem.
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.11. Define elastic potential energy lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa aa da a
which stretches or compresses
ssaa by a spring due to a deforming forceaassaa
The potential energy possessed
d aad d
the spring is termed as elastic potential
energy.
w w . P
. P w w . P
.P
12. Definew w ww
Conservative force wwww
A force is said to be a conservative force if the work done by or against
the force in moving the body depends only on the initial and final positions
N Nett
e N N eett
of the body and not on the nature of the path followed between the initial and
lalai.i. final positions.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 13. DefineANon-conservative a adda a
forces aa
s
a a d daassaa
. P P
a .body depends upon the path between the initial
force is said to be non-conservative if the work done by or
. P P
.and final
against the
.N
w w w
w means that the value of work done isw
force in moving
w w w
w in different
w w
positions.
paths.
This w
different
l a
l i
a NNeet
14.
lai
t The average power (P ) is defined N
Define Average Power
.i. to the total time taken. P = lalai.i.av
Nee
as the
tratio
t of the total work done
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 15. Define Instantaneousapower aa aa
Total work done
dda ass
av
Total time taken
ddaass
. P P a
. power (P ) is defined as the powerwdelivered . PPa a
. at an
ww ww ww
www
da
The instantaneous inst

ww
instant (as time interval approaches zero), P = inst
dw
dt
16. What is meant by collision?

Pa
N Neett N Ne ett
Collision is a common phenomenon that happens around us every now
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
and then. For example, carom, billiards, marbles, etc.,. Collisions can happen
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
between two bodies with or without physical contacts.
aad daa a add aa

w.
17.
. PP
. the total initial kinetic energy of thewbodies
What is Elastic Collision?
w w ww . P P
. (before
w w
collision)
w
isw
In a collision,
ww
equal to the total final kinetic energy of the bodies w(after collision)
ww
then, it is called as elastic collision. i.e., Total kinetic energy before collision
= Total kinetic energy after collision
N Ne tWhat
e t is Inelastic Collision? N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i.18.
In a collision, the total initiall a
lai .i. energy of the bodies (before lalai.
kinetic
assaa collision) is not equal to the s
a a
collision) then, it is calleddda
as
a saafinal kinetic energy of the bodies (afteraassaa
total
aad d
inelastic collision. i.e., Total kinetic energy before
w w . P P
. energy after collision
collision ≠ Total kinetic
w w . P
. P
www w www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Neett

l i
a .iANSWER
. QUESTIONS l a
l i
a .
assaa 19. Explain with graphs the aa dda as saa
difference
a d d
between work done by a constant force
a aassaa
w w P P
and by a variable.force.
. force F acts on a body, w w. P
.P
i) Whenw
w work done (dW) by the force in
a
wthewsmallconstant
www w
producing a small displacement dr is
given by the relation, dW= (F cosθ) dr
N Net
e t
ii) The total work done in producing a
N Neett
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
displacement from initial position ri to
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
r
final position rf is, W = ∫r f dW ;
d
=d a as s i
dd aass
rf
ri
. P a
W = ∫ (F cosθ)dr
P a ( F cos θ) ;
. (r – r ) . P
. Pa a
.N
∫ dr =ww ww
rf
(F cosθ)
iii)
w
ww
wThe
ri f i
graphical representation of the work done w

by
w
wawconstant force.
The area under the graph shows the work done by the constant force.
lai
Work done by a variable force:
N Neet t
i)
N Neett
When the component of a variable force F acts on a body, the small
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
work done (dW) by the force in producing a small displacement dr is
sa
assaa aa aa
given by the relation dW = (Fcos θ) dr
ddaass ddaass
[F cos θ is the component of the variable force F] where, F and θ are
variables.
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
ii)
ww w
w
The total work done for a displacement from initial position ri to final
w w
www www
da
r r
position rf is given by the relation, W = ∫r f dW; = ∫r f(F cosθ)dr
i i
iii) A graphical representation of the work done by a variable force. The
area under the graph is the work done by the variable force.
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e e tt
lalai .i.20. State and explain work energy principle.

l a
l i
a .iMention
. any three examples for it. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1) It states that work doness
change produced aadind
a a aathe force acting on a body is equal to theaassaa
by
the kinetic energy of the body. a add
2)
w w P P
Consider a.body
. done by the constant force (F) for a displacement
of mass m at rest on a frictionless
ww .
horizontal PP
. (s) in
surface.
Thew w direction is, W = Fs ------------- (1) www w
3)
wthewsame
work (W)
The constant force is given by the equation, F = ma ---------- (2)

The third equation of motion can be written as, v2 = u2 + 2as
N Nett
e 𝐯 𝟐 −𝐮𝟐
N Neett
lalai.i. a=
𝟐𝐬
------------------- (3)
l al a i .i . l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa(2), F = m ( ) ------------- (4) aa
v2 −u2
d d ass
Substituting for a in equation
a 2s
d daass
. P Pa a
Substituting equation (4) in (1), W = m( 𝐬) − m ( 𝐬)
. ½ mu --------------------- (5)
𝐯𝟐
. P
. Paa 𝐮𝟐
.N
W = ½w w w w
𝟐𝐬 𝟐𝐬
w
wThe
w w for kinetic energy:
mv –
expression
2 2
w
w w w
i) The term ½ (mv ) in the above equation is the kinetic energy of the body
2
lai
of mass (m) moving with velocity (v). KE = ½ mv2 ------------------ (6)
N Neet t
ii)
N Neett
Kinetic energy of the body is always positive.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
From equations (5) and (6)
l a
l i
a .
sa
∆KE = ½ mv2 − ½ mu2 -----------------(7) thus, W = ∆KE
assaa iii)
aasaa
s aassaa
The expression on the right hand side (RHS) of equation (7) is the
aadd
change in kinetic energy (ΔKE) of the body. aadd
iv)
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
This implies that the work done by the force on the body changes the
w
www w
www
da
kinetic energy of the body. This is called work-kinetic energy theorem.
21. Deduce the relation between momentum and kinetic energy.

i) Consider an object of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗. Then its linear
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l l a i .i.
momentum is 𝑝⃗ = m𝑣⃗ and its kinetic energy, KE = ½ mv2
a l a
l i
a .
assaa KE = ½ mv ; = ½ m(𝑣⃗. s𝑣⃗) a
s a-------- (1) saa
s
2
a d
a daa aa ddaa
w.
ii)
w w . P
Multiplying both
. P the
w
w . P
numerator and denominator of equation (1)
. P by
w
wwm KE =
wmass, ;
1 𝑚2 (𝑣
2
⃗⃗.𝑣
𝑚
⃗⃗)
w
www
ww
1 (𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗).(𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗) 1 (𝑝⃗ ).(𝑝⃗ )
= [𝑝⃗ = m𝑣⃗] ; =
2 𝑚 2 𝑚
NNeett =
𝑝⃗2
; KE =
𝑝2
N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. iii) 2𝑚 2𝑚
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Where 𝑝⃗ is the magnitude
| |
aa d da assaaof the momentum. The magnitude of theaassaa
a add
w w . P
linear momentum
P can be obtained by |𝑝⃗ | = p =
.kinetic energy and mass are given, onlyw
√2𝑚(𝐾𝐸)
ww . PP
. of
iv) Noteww
wthewmomentum
that if
ww w
the magnitude
can be calculated but not the direction of momentum.
It is because the kinetic energy and mass are scalars.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.22. What is conservative force? Statelalhow ai .i.it is determined from potential lalai.
assaa energy?
i) a
A force is said to d
a
be
a
d as aa
s
a conservative force if the work done by or a addaassaa
against the.P P
. of the body and not on the nature of thewpath . P
.P
w w w force in moving the body depends only on
w
the
w
initial and
ww the initial and final positions.
wbetween
final positions
www followed
ii) Consider an object at point A on the Earth. It can be taken to
NNett
e N N ett
another point B at a height h above the surface of the Earth by three
e
lalai.i. iii) paths.
l a
l i.i.done
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa
Whatever may be the path,a a is the same aa
d d a
against the gravitationalas s the
force
work
d a
d s
a s
. P
.
as long as theP a a
initial and final positions are
. P
. Paa
.N
w w w
the same.w w
www
iv) wThis
w is the reason why gravitational force is
a conservative force.
w
w
lai
v) Conservative force is equal to the negative
NNeett gradient of the potential

N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. vi) l l i
a .i.
energy. In one dimensional case, Fx = –
a
𝑑𝑈
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
𝑑𝑥
dd as s
Examples for conservative forces are elastic spring force, electrostatic
a
force, magnetic force, gravitational force, etc. ddaass
. P P aa
. for the potential energy of a body near . P
. Pa a
w ww w w w w w
da
23. Derive an expression the surface of

w w
the Earth.
1)
w w
The gravitational potential energy (U) at some height is equal to the
amount of work required to take the object from ground to that
Pa
N Neet2)t height with constant velocity.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
against the gravitational force. l a
l i
a .
Consider a body of mass being moved from ground to the height h
assaa 3)
ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
The gravitational force ⃗F⃗g acting on the body is, ⃗F⃗g = – mg𝑗̂ (as the
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
force is in y direction; unit vector is used). Here, negative sign
implies that the force is acting vertically downwards. In order to
w
www w
www
move the body without acceleration (or with constant velocity), an
ww
external applied force ⃗F⃗a equal in magnitude but opposite to that of

gravitational force F ⃗⃗g has to be applied on the body
NNeett ⃗⃗a – F
i.e., F eett
⃗⃗g This implies that F
N N
⃗⃗a = – mg𝑗̂
l a
l i
a .i. 4) l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
The positive sign implies that the applied force is in vertically upward
assaa add asaa

s
ad
a d s
a aa
s
direction. Hence, when the body is lifted up its velocity remains
a a
unchanged and thus its kinetic energy also remains constant.
a
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N N e ett
lalai .i. 5) l a
l
The gravitational potential energyi
a .i(U). at some height h is equal to the lalai.
assaa height h. U = ∫ a .d
𝐹⃗a da
amount of work required
assatoatake the object from the ground to thataassaa
a ad d
= ∫ |𝐹⃗w
ℎ . P
|𝑑𝑟⃗.
|w
P 𝑑𝑟
⃗𝑎
w w .P.P
6)
w
wSince
w wthe displacement and the applied force arewww
0 𝑎 | cos𝜃
w
in the same upward direction, the angle between
them, 𝜃 = 0 .
N Nett
e N Neett
Hence Cos 0 = 1 and |𝐹⃗𝑎 | = mg and |𝑑𝑟⃗| = dr
lalai.i. ℎ
l a
l i
a .i.
U = mg ∫0 𝑑𝑟 ; U = mg [𝑟]ℎ0 ; U = mgh
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a
UNIT – V (MOTIONaddas
a aa
s
OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND aa ddaassaa
. PP
. RIGID BODIES) . P
. P
.N
w ww www
www www
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
l a
l i
a N
.i. Ne
1.
A
t t
Define
e point
center of mass.
where the
lai
entire mass of the body
l a
l i
a N
.i. Nee
appears
ttot be concentrated.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 2. Find dda
out the center of mass for
a a as s
the
agiven
a geometrical structures.
aaddaassaa
w w . P
.
a) Equilateral triangle P ww . P
. P
wwww wwww
da
Lies in center
b) Cylinder
Pa
NN eett
Lies on its central axis
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. c) Square l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Lies at their diagonals meet
aad daassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
w w . PP
. its unit. w
w . P
. P
www w
3. Define torque
Torque
and mention w
wwwforce about a
is defined as the moment of the external applied
ww
⃗⃗. Its unit is Nm.

point or axis of rotation. The expression for torque is, τ⃗⃗ = r⃗xF
N4. e
N etWhat
t are the conditions in which force cannot NN ee t t torque?
produce
l a
l i
a .i. l
The torque is zero when r⃗ and a i
⃗F⃗a
l .i.parallel or anti-parallel. If parallel, lalai.
are
assaa τ = 0. The torque a a
is da as saa then 𝛉=180 and sin 180=0. Hence,aassaa
then θ=0 and sin 0 =0. If anti-parallel,
dzero if the force acts at the reference a a d d
point.
. P
= 0..
i.e. as r⃗ = 0, τw
w P w w . P
. P
w w w w w w w w
5. What is the relation between torque and angular momentum?
An external torque on a rigid body fixed to an axis produces rate of
N Neet t
change of angular momentum in the body abouttthat
N Nee t axis. Τ =
dL
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
i . dt
l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.6. What is equilibrium? l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa i)
a
momentum and angular a da
A rigid body is said to be
d a aa equilibrium when both its linear aassaa
insmechanical
s
momentum remain constant. a add
ii) When all w
w . PP
. act upon the object are balanced, then
the forces ww . PP
. is
the object
w
said tow
ww be an equilibrium. www w
7. Give any two examples of torque in day-to-day life.
i) Opening and closing of a door about the hinges
N Neett ii) Turning of a nut using a wrench
N Neett
lalai.i. iii)
l a
l i
a .i.
Opening a bottle cap (or) water top
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 8. How do you distinguish between
aaddas
a saa and unstable equilibrium?
stable
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
. P . P
. P
.N
w ww w w w
Linear www and angular Linear momentum
Stable equilibrium
momentum
Unstable
wwwand angular
equilibrium
momentum are zero. momentum are zero.
lai
The body tries to come back to The body cannot come back to
N ee tt
equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
N ee tt
equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
N N
l a
l i
a .i.released.
l a
l i
a .i.
released.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa The slightly higher if disturbed aa daas
center of mass of the body shifts
d saaThe center of mass of the body shiftsaassaa
from slightly lower if disturbed a ad d
from
equilibrium.
w w . P
. P equilibrium.
w w . P
. P
w wthe body is minimum Potential energy w ww body is not
da
w w
Potential energy of
and it increases if disturbed.
ofwthe
minimum and it decreases if disturbed
Pa
N
9.
N eet t Pair of forces which are equal in magnitude
Define couple.
NN e et t but opposite in direction
l a
l i
a .i. and separated by a perpendicular distance
l a
lai .i.so that their lines of action do not lalai.
assaa coincide that causes a turnings
aad da a saais called a couple
effect
a add aasaa
s
w.
w w P P
10. State principle of.moments.
. is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise
w w . P
. P
aboutwaw
w
Whenw an object w
wwwmoments.
turning point must be equal to the sum of the clockwise
moments
ww
11. Define center of gravity.
N Neett N Ne ett
The point at which the entire weight of the body acts irrespective of the
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
position and orientation of the body.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa 12. Mention d da as saa of moment of inertia.
any two physical significance
aa a add aasaa
s
i)
inertia.w
w . P
.
For rotationalPmotion, moment of inertia is a measure
w
of
w . P
. P
rotational
ii) wThe
w w w of inertia of a body is not an invariableww
moment w w It depends
quantity.
not only on the mass of the body, but also on the way the mass is
distributed around the axis of rotation.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.13. What is radius of gyration? lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa The radius of gyration ofss
the axis of rotation toa d
a
an daa aaobject is the perpendicular distance fromaassaa
an
equivalent point mass, which would have the a ad
samed
ww .
mass as well as the P
. P
same moment of inertia of the object.
ww .P.P
14. State w
w
ww of angular momentum.
conservation www w
When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum
of a rotating rigid body remains constant. This is known as law of conservation
NN eett of angular momentum.

NN e e tt
lalai.i.15. What are the rotational equivalentsla l i
a .i. physical quantities, l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
for the
(i) mass and (ii) force? da
d a s ddaa s
.
i) For mass : Moment P
.Pa a
of inertia , I = mr 2 ii) For Force : Torque
.𝜏P
.=PIa𝛼a
.N
16. What w
w
thew
w w ww ww
(i)
isw condition for pure rolling? ww
The combination of translational motion and rotational motion about
lai
the center of mass. (or)
NN eet t
(ii)
NN e ett
The momentary rotational motion about the point of contact.
l a
l i
a .i.17. What is the difference between sliding
l a
l i
a .i. slipping? l a
l i
a .
sa
and
assaa more than the rotation.aa daa
Sliding is the case when
d sva
s a> R𝛚 (or v > v ). The translation isaassaa
CM TRANS ROT
a add
w
Slipping
w . P P
. case when v < R𝛚 (or v < v w). The
is the ww. PP
. is
rotation
more thanw
CM TRANS ROT
www www
da
the translation.
18. State the rule which is used to find the direction of torque.
The direction of torque is found using right hand rule. This rule says that
Pa
N Neett N Neett
if fingers of right hand are kept along the position vector with palm facing the
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
direction of the force and when the fingers are curled the thumb points to the
l a
l i
a .
assaa direction of the torque.
a ad da as saa
aa ddaasaa
s
w.
19.
w w P P
When will a body.have
. a precession?
ww . P
. P
w
www to the axis will turn the axis of rotation.
The torque
perpendicular
w w both exist
about the axis will rotate the object about it and
wwWhen the torque
ww
simultaneously on a rigid body, the body will have a precession.
NN
20.
eet t
State Parallel axis theorem
N N eet taxis is equal to the sum of
l a
l i
a .i. its moment of inertia about a parallellalaaxis
i.i.through its center of mass and the lalai.
The moment of inertia of a body about any
assaa between the two axes. aa =d

aa
product of the mass of the body
Id
s aathe square of the perpendicular distanceaassaa
s
and
I + MR aadd
w w . P
. P C 2
w w . P
. P
w
ww
wThe
21. State Perpendicular axis theorem.
www w
moment of inertia of a plane laminar body about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about
two perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the body such that all the three
N Neett N Nee tt
axes are mutually perpendicular and have a common point. IZ = IX + IY
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.22. Give the scalar relation between torquel a

l i
a .and
i . angular acceleration. l a
l i
a .
assaa a a
τ = IαI = Moment of inertiada a ssaathe torque and angular acceleration isaassaa
The scalar relation between
d aad
of the rigid body. The torque in rotational motion d
is
ww . PP
. in linear motion.
equivalent to the force
w w .P.P
23. What w
w
wthewconditions for neutral equilibrium? www
are
w
1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.
2) The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
NNett
e released.
N Neett
lalai.i. 3) a i .i.
The center of mass of the body does not shift higher or lower if
l l a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa ssaa
disturbed from equilibrium.
4) dda a
Potential energy remains same even if disturbed.
aa a a ddaa
. PP
. of moments. . P
. P
.N
24.
w w w
Explain the principle
1) w
w
w a light rod of negligible mass which is pivotedw w w
w
Consider
1
w
2
w at a point along
its length. Let two parallel forces F and F act at the two ends at
lai
distances d1 and d2 from the
N Neett Point of pivot and the

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. normal
l a
l i
a .i.
reaction force
l a
l i
a .
sa
N at the point of pivot as
assaa 2)
aas
shown in Figure.
aadd
aa
s
If the rod has to remain aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
stationary in horizontal
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
position, it should be in translational and rotational equilibrium.

Then, both the net force and net torque must be zero.
For net force to be zero, −F1 + N – F2 = 0
N = F1 + F2
Pa
N Neett e
For net torque to be zero, d1 F1 − d2F2 = 0
N N ett
l a
l i
a .i. d1 F1 = d2F2
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
The above equation represents the principle of moments.
a ad da a aad daa
w.
25.
ww . P
.
Write the principles P
used in beam balance and define Mechanical
w w . P
. P
Advantage.
i)
ww d =d ;F =F .
This forms
wwww
the principle for beam balance used for weighing
wthewcondition 1 2 1 2
goods with
ww
𝐹1 𝑑2
=
𝐹2 𝑑1
ii) If F1 is the load and F2 is our effort, we get advantage when, d1< d2. This
N Neet t N N eett
implies that F1> F2. Hence, we could lift a large load with small effort.
l a
l i
a .i. 𝒅𝟐
l a
la
The ratio ( ) is called mechanicali.i.advantage of the simple lever. The lalai.
assaa s saa saa
s
𝒅𝟏
d da
pivoted point is called
a a a
fulcrum.
a a ddaa
Mechanical
w w .P. P
Advantage (MA) =
𝒅𝟐
ww . P
. P
www w 𝒅𝟏
www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.26. Find the expression for radius of gyration.

l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1) A rotating rigid body with
up of point massesa a d d a a s saa to any axis, is considered to be madeaassaa
respect
m , m , m , . . .m at perpendicular distancesaadd
(or
positions) .r P
,.P P P
1 2 3 n
Thew
w w r , r . . . r respectively
1 2 3 n
w
w . .
2)
wIw w
moment of inertia of that
= Σm r = m r + m r + m r + …. + m r
object can be
www
written w
as,
i i2 1 12 2 22 3 32 n n2
If we take all the n number of individual masses to be equal,
m = m1 = m2 = m3 = …… mn then
N Nett
e I = mr12 + mr22 + mr32 + …. mrn2
N Neett
lalai.i. I = m(r12 + r22 + r32 + …. rn2)
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa ) ss aa s aa
s
𝑟12 +𝑟22 +𝑟32 +⋯.+𝑟𝑛2
= nm(
I = MK , where,aa d
𝑛
d a a ad
a a
d a
2
. PP nm is the total mass M of the body and
. of gyration. . P
. P
.N
w
K is the
w w
radius
w w
w
wKw= √w𝐫𝟏𝟐 +𝐫𝟐𝟐 +𝐫𝟑𝟐 +⋯.+𝐫𝐧𝟐
𝐧
www
lai
3) The expression for radius of gyration indicates that it is the root mean
N Neett rotation.
N Neett
square (rms) distance of the particles of the body from the axis of
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 27. When a tree is cut,CONCEPTUAL a
the ad d
cut
a assaaQUESTIONS:
aad
is made on the side facing the direction in whichdaassaa
ww .
the tree is requiredPP
. to fall. Why? ww . P
. P
Thew w ww
da
w w weight of tree exerts a torque about

made. This cause rotation of the tree about the cut.
the
w w
point where the cut is
28. Why does a porter bend forward while carrying a sack of rice on his back?
Pa
NN eet t Due to the added weight of rice sack,NN e et tof gravity of the combined
centre
l a
l i
a .i. body l a
lai
weight and the carrying weight shifted .
i . to new position. Once he bends,
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa d daas saathe body’s axis making his body balanced.aassaa
the centre of gravity realigns as with
aadd
w.
balancing onw aw
.
29. Why is it much easierP. P to balance a meter scale on your finger tip
w w . P
.
than P
wwscale is longer and larger than a match stick.ww
wMeter
w
Match stick?
w w
Meter scale’s centre
ww
of gravity is higher but match stick has centre of gravity much lower as
compared to scale. Higher the centre of gravity easier it is to balance.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Neett

l i
a .iANSWER
. QUESTIONS l a
l i
a .
assaa 30. Explain the types of equilibrium
a ad da ass aa
aaddaassaa
ww . PP
. equilibrium:
Translational
with suitable examples
ww.P.P
1) ww wwmomentum is constant
Linear ww
2) Net ww is zero
force
Rotational equilibrium:
1) Angular momentum is constant 2) Net torque is zero
NNet1)t
e Static equilibrium:
N Neett
lalai.i. 2) l a
l i
a .i.
Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
Net force and net torque are zero
ddas
a s
Dynamic equilibrium:
d a
d s
a s
1)
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
Linear momentum and angular momentum are constant
.N
w w
w www
www www
2) Net force and net torque are zero
Stable equilibrium:
1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
lai
2) The body tries to come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
NNeett released
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 3) l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
The center of mass of the body shifts slightly higher if disturbed from
sa
assaa 4)
equilibrium
aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
Potential energy of the body is minimum and it increases if disturbed
ww. P
. P
Unstable equilibrium:
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero

2) The body cannot come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released
Pa
NNeet t
3)
N Neett
The center of mass of the body shifts slightly lower if disturbed from
l a
l i
a .i. 4) equilibrium
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Potential energy of the body is not minimum and it decreases if
disturbed
ddaass ddaass
aa aa
w.
ww. P
. P
Neutral equilibrium:
w
w . P
. P
1)
2)
w
www w
www
Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
ww
released
3) The center of mass of the body does not shift higher or lower if
NNeett disturbed from equilibrium

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 4) l a
lai.i.
Potential energy remains same even if disturbed
l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNeett
lalai .i.31. Explain why a cyclist bends while negotiating

l a
l i
a .i. a curve road? Arrive at the l a
l i
a .
assaa i) Let us considera d
aa da a
expression for angle of bending s
cyclist
s aaa given velocity.
for
a d
a
negotiating a circular level road (not banked)
a
d s
a aa
s
w w P P
of radius r.with
. the cyclist are considered as one www.
a speed v. . P P
Thew
ii)
wwwith mass m. The center gravity of the www
wsystem
cycle and
system is C and it goes in a circle of radius r

with center at O.
N Netiii)t
e N Neett
Let us choose the line OC as X-axis and the
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
vertical line through O as Z-axis as shown in
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
Figure
iv) ddaa s
The system as a frame is rotating about d
Z-a
d a s
. P
.Paa . P
. P
axis. The system is at rest in this rotatingaa
.N
w w
w www
www www
frame. To solve problems in rotating frame of
reference, we have to apply a centrifugal force
(pseudo force) on the system
lai
mv2
which will be .This force will act through the center of gravity.
N Neetv)t r
N Nee tt
The forces acting on the system are, (i) gravitational force (mg),
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
(ii) normal force (N), (iii) frictional force (f) and (iv) centrifugal force
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 𝐦𝐯 𝟐
( )
As the system a
𝐫
isad daas saa
aa d daassaa
vi)
w w
net external . P P in
.force and net external torque must www. . PP
equilibrium in the rotational frame of reference, the
w w Let us consider all torques about the www
da
wbepoint
wzero. A in Figure
vii) For rotational equilibrium, 𝝉
⃗⃗net = 0. The torque
Pa
N Neett N Ne
(mgAB) which causes a clockwise turn that is ett
due to the gravitational force about point A is
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i.
taken as negative. The torque due to the
l a
l i
a .
assaa centripetal force is (a
a ad d a s saa
mv2
BC) which causes an
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww .
anticlockwisePP
. BC = 0 ; mg AB = BC
turn that is taken as positive.
w
w . P
. P
w
ww∆ABC,
wFrom
− mgAB +
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝐫
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝐫
w
www
ww
AB = ACsinθ and BC = ACcosθ ;

mv2 v2
N Neett mg ACsinθ =
r
ACcosθ; tan θ =
N N e
rg tt
e
l a
l i
a .i. θ = tan ( )
-1
𝒗𝟐
l a
la i.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saalevel road of radius r at velocity v, a cyclist aassaa
𝒓𝒈
viii)
has to bend bya a d a a
While negotiating a circular
d a ad d
to stayw
inw.P. P an angle
equilibrium (i.e. to avoid a fall). w w . P. P
θ from vertical given by the above expression
www w www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.32. Derive the expression for moment oflalinertia

ai .i. of a rod about its center and l a
l i
a .
assaa perpendicular to the rod.
1) Let us considera aad da as
uniform
aa
srod of mass (M) and length (l) as showna a
inddaassaa
Figure. Let.P P
. of this rod about an . P
. P
w ww us find an expression for
w ww
ww
waxis
moment of inertia
that passes through the center of www
mass and perpendicular to the rod.
2) First an origin is to be fixed for the
N Nett
e N Neett
coordinate system so that it coincides
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
with the center of mass, which is also
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
the geometric center of the rod. The
ddaa s
rod is now along the x axis. d a
d a s
3)
. P
.Paa
We take an infinitesimally small mass
. P
. Paa
.N
w w
w www
www www
(dm) at a distance (x) from the origin. The moment of inertia (dI) of this
mass (dm) about the axis is,
dI = (dm)x2
lai
As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (𝜆) of the
N Neett rod is, 𝝀 =

𝑴
N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. 𝒍
l a
l i
a .i.small length as, dm = λ, dx = dx. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa𝑀
The (dm) mass of the infinitesimally
The moment of inertia
dd aas
(I)sof the entire rod can be found by integratinga
dd s
a s 𝑙
dI, I = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 P
. =P
.; ∫a a
(𝑑𝑚 )𝑥 ; 2
. P
. Paa
∫ (w w w w ww ww
da
𝑴 𝟐
wIw 𝒍
𝑀
𝒅𝒙)
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝒙
2
ww
𝑙
4) As the mass is distributed on either side of the origin, the limits for
Pa
N Neett integration are taken from – to

N Neett 𝒍 𝒍
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. 𝑙
𝟐 𝟐
l a
l i
a .
assaa =as a]a saa
𝑙
[s s
𝑀 𝑥3
𝑀
I = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥2
−𝑙
ad
ad a
2 2
−𝑙
aaddaa
w.
𝑙 𝑙 3
I = [w w
𝑀 𝑙3.
2
P
. P 𝑙3 𝑀 𝑙3
w
w
2
. P
. P
𝑙3
wIw ww − (− )] = [ + ]
𝑙 24
𝑀 𝑙3
24 𝑙 24w
www 24
ww
= [2 ( )] ;
𝑙 24
𝟏
I= ml2
N Neett 𝟏𝟐
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.33. Derive the expression for moment oflalinertia

a i .i. of a uniform ring about an axis l a
l i
a .
assaa passing through the center and
1) Consider a uniforma ad da as aa
s
perpendicular to the plane.
a
ring of mass M and radius R. To find the momentad daassaa
w w
of inertia . P P .
of .the ring about an axis passing through its center
w w P P
.and
w w to the plane, let us take an infinitesimally
wperpendicular
w ww ww small mass
(dm) of length (dx) of the ring.
2) This (dm) is located at a distance R, which is the radius of the ring from
N Nett
e N N ett
the axis as shown in Figure. The moment of inertia (dI) of this small
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
mass (dm) is, dI = (dm)R2
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
The length of the ring is its circumference (2πR). As the mass is
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (𝜆 - is, 𝜆 =
𝑀
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
The (dm) mass of the infinitesimally small length as,
2𝜋𝑅
.N
w w
w www
www www
𝑴
dm = λ, dx = dx.
𝟐𝝅𝑹
Now, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire ring is,
lai
I = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫(𝑑𝑚)𝑅2 ;
N Neett 𝑀
∫ (2𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑥) 𝑅2
N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. I=
𝑀𝑅
∫ 𝑑𝑥
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa s aofathe ring, the limits of s aa
2𝜋
integration are a d da s
To cover the entire length
a ddaa s
. P P a
taken from 0 to 2πR
. ; = [𝑥 ] ; . P
. Paa
I=
w w
∫ w𝑑𝑥
𝑀𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 𝑀𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
w w
w
w=ww www
da
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝑀𝑅
[2𝜋𝑅 − 0]
2𝜋
I = MR2
Pa
N ee
34.
N t t
Derive the expression for moment of inertia of atuniform
N N ee t disc about an axis
l a
l i
a .
i . l a
lai .
i
passing through the center and perpendicular . to the plane.
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
i) Consider a disc of mass M and radius
R. This disc is made a
dd upas
ofsmany
d daass
aa a a
w.
Figure.w w . P
infinitesimally
P
Consider
small rings as shown
. one such ring of mass in
ww . P
. P
w(dm)
w w wand thickness (dr) and radius (r). ww w w
ww
The moment of inertia (dI) of this small

ring is, dI = (dm)r2
N Neet ii)
t N Neett
As the mass is uniformly distributed,
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. 𝑀
the mass per unit area (σ) is, σ = 2
a 𝜋𝑅
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
The mass of the infinitesimally small
ddaass 𝑀
ring is, dm = σ 2 𝜋rdr = 2 2 𝜋rdr d a
d s
a s
.P. Paa 𝜋𝑅
. P
. Paa
where, the term (2πr dr) is the area of this elemental ring (2πr is
w w
w w w
w
www www 2𝑀 2𝑀
the length and dr is the thickness) dm = 2 rdr. ; dI = 2 r3dr
𝑅
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire disc is, I = ∫ 𝒅𝑰
𝑅
𝑅
𝑅 2𝑀 2𝑀 𝑅 2𝑀 𝑟 4 2𝑀 𝑅4
I= ∫0 𝑅2 r dr; =
3
∫ r 3 dr ;I= [ ] ; = [ − 0] I = ½ MR2
N Neett 𝑅2 0
N Nee tt
𝑅 2 4 0 𝑅2 4
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.35. State and prove parallel axis theorem.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa i)
any axis is equala ad da as
Parallel axis theorem statesaathat the moment of inertia of a body aboutaassaa
s
aad d
ww .
axis through
P P to the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel
.its center of mass and the product of thewmass
w w . P P
of.the body
w w
and ww w
the square of the perpendicular distance betweenw wthe two axes.
ii) If IC is the moment of inertia of the body of mass M about an axis
passing through the center of mass, then the moment of inertia I about
N Nett
e N Neett
a parallel axis at a distance d from it is given by the relation,
lalai.i. I = IC + Md2
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa iii)
aadd s
a aa
s
let us consider a rigid body as shown in
a
Figure. Its moment of inertia about an
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w
w
axis AB passing through the center of
w www
www www
mass is IC. DE is another axis parallel to
AB at a perpendicular distance d from AB.
lai
The moment of inertia of the body about
N Neett N N ett
DE is I. We attempt to get an expression
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
for I in terms of IC. For this, let us consider
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
a point
ddaass
mass m on the body at position x from ddaass
. P
. Paa
its center of mass. . P
. Paa
www w w
w
www www
da
iv) The moment of inertia of the point mass

about the axis DE is,
m(x + d)2. The moment of inertia I of the
Pa
N Neett N N ett
whole body about DE is the summation of the above expression.
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
I =Σm(x + d)2 This equation could further be written as,
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
I =Σm(x2 + d2 + 2xd)
d aass
I =Σ(mx2 +md2 + 2dmx)
d ddaass
aa aa
w.
. P P
I =Σmx2 +Σmd2 + 2dΣmx
ww . w
w . P
. P
v)
w
www w
www
Here, Σmx2 is the moment of inertia of the body about the center of
mass. Hence, I C = Σmx2
ww
The term, Σmx = 0 because, x can take positive and negative values
with respect to the axis AB. The summation (Σmx) will be zero
NNeett e
Thus, I = IC +Σmd2 ; IC +(Σm)d2
N N ett
l a
l i
a .i. vi) l a
lai.i.
Here, Σm is the entire mass M of the object (Σm =M)
l a
l i
a .
assaa I = IC + Md2
aaddaasaa
s
Hence, the parallel axis theorem is proved. ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.36. State and prove perpendicular axisltheorem.

a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa i) The theorem states thats
about an axisa ad da a s
theaamoment of inertia of a plane laminar bodyaassaa
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum a ad d
of
moments .ofP P .P
. that all the three axes are mutually perpendicular P
. and
thew
w w inertia about two perpendicular axes lying
w w
in
wthe plane of
wwa common point.
whavebody such
www
ii) Let the X and Y-axes lie in the plane and Z-axis perpendicular to the
plane of the laminar object. If the moments of inertia of the body about
N Nett
e N Neett
X and Y-axes are IX and IY respectively and IZ is the moment of inertia
lalai.i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
about Z-axis, then the perpendicular axis theorem could be expressed
a
et
assaa s aa s aa
as, IZ = IX + IY
iii) ddaa s d a
d a s
To prove this theorem, let us consider a plane laminar object of
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
negligible thickness on which lies the origin (O). The X and Y-axes lie on
.N
w w
w www
www www
the plane and Z-axis is perpendicular to it as shown in Figure. The
lamina is considered to be made up of a large number of particles of
mass m. Let us choose one such
lai
particle at a point P which has
NNeett N N ett
coordinates (x, y) at a distance r
e
l a
l i
a .i. iv) from O.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
The moment of inertia of the particle
assaa aasaa
s
about Z-axis is, mr2 The summation of
aadd
the above expression gives the moment aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
of inertia of the entire lamina about
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Z-axis as, IZ = Σ mr2

Here, r2 = x2 + y2 ; Then, IZ = Σm (x2 + y2)
IZ = Σ mx2 +Σmy 2
In the above expression, the term Σmx2 is the
Pa
N Neett N Ne ett
moment of inertia of the body about the Y-axis and
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
similarly, the term Σ my2 is the moment of inertia
a l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa saa
about X-axis. Thus,IX = Σ my2 and IY = Σ mx2
d da a s
Substituting in the equation for Iz gives, IZ = IX + IY ddaa s
aa aa
w.
ww. P
. P
Thus, the perpendicular axis theorem is proved.
w w . P
. P
37. w
Discussw w
rolling w w w
w on inclined plane and arrive at the expression
wfor the
ww
acceleration.
1) Let us assume a round object of mass m and radius R is rolling down
NNeett N N ett
an inclined Plane without slipping as shown in Figure. There are two
e
l a
l i
a .i. 2) l a
lai.i.
forces acting on the object along the inclined plane.
l a
l i
a .
One is the component of gravitational force (mg sinθ) and the other is
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
the static frictional force (f). The other component of gravitation force
w
w P. P w
w. P
. P
(mg cosθ) is cancelled by the normal force (N) exerted by the plane. As
.
w
www w
the motion is happening along the incline, we shall write the equation
www
for motion from the free body diagram (FBD) of the object.
3) For translational motion, mg sinθ is the supporting force and f is the
opposing force, mg sinθ – f = ma -----(1)
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Ne e tt
lalai .i. l
For rotational motion, let us take a
l i
a .i.torque with respect to the center
the l a
l i
a .
assaa of the object.
a
Then mg sinθ cannota dda as saa
cause torque as it passes through it but thea a dd aassaa
ww . PP
.relation, a = r α, and moment of inertia www.
frictional force f can set torque of Rf. Rf = Iα . PP
By w w
4)
wIw using the
=mK , we get,
2 www
a 𝐊𝟐
Rf = mk2 ; f = ma ( 𝟐 )
R 𝐑
N Nett
e Now equation (1) becomes
N Neett
lalai.i. mg sinθ – ma ( ) = ma
K2
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
R2
mg sinθ = ma + ma (a a)ss a s
a s
𝐊𝟐
a ad d 𝐑𝟐
ad
a d
a(1 + ) .=P . P . P
. P
K2
.N
w w w g sinθ
wrewriting it for acceleration,
R2
w
www
wAfter
w
we get, a =
𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
w
w
lai
𝐊𝟐
(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
𝐑
N Neet t
5)
N Neett
We can also find the expression for final velocity of the rolling object
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
by using third equation of motion for the inclined plane. v2 = u2 + 2as.
l a
l i
a .
sa
If the body starts rolling from rest, u = 0. When h is the vertical height
assaa d daas
of the incline, the length
aa
sathe
of
a incline s is, S = ; 𝐡
aaddaassaa
v =2
2
w . PP
.( ) =
g sin θ
w
ℎ 2gh
w
w . P
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉
. P
www w wwww
da
K2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 K2
(1+ 2 ) (1+ 2 )
R R
𝟐𝒈𝒉
By taking square root, v = √ 𝑲𝟐
(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
Pa
N Neet6)t N Neett 𝑹
The time taken for rolling down the incline could also be written from
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
first equation of motion as, v = u + at. For the object which starts
assaa ad
ad assaa
rolling from rest, u = 0. Then,
a aaddaasaa
s
w.
t = ;w
tw
𝑣 . PP
= (.√ )( )
2gh . P
.
(1+ 2 )
w
w R P
K2
www w 𝑎 (1+ 2 )
R
K2
w
wwwg sin θ
ww
𝐊𝟐
𝟐𝒉(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
t= √ 𝐑
N Neett 𝒈𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
N Neett
a
ll i
a .
i . 7)
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
The equation suggests that for a given incline, the object with the least
s
a a
sa asaa
s a s
a aa
s
value of radius of gyration K will reach the bottom of the incline first.
a
P Paadd P Pad
a d
w
w . . w
w. .
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.38. Define Torque and derive its expression.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
point or axis of a a dd aa aa of the external applied force about aaassaa
Torque is defined as thesmoment
s ⃗⃗ = 𝐫⃗x𝐅⃗ aadd
2) where,w r⃗w. P P rotation. The expression for torque is, 𝛕
is .the position vector of the w w . P
.P
w
wwwhere the force F⃗⃗ is acting on the
wpoint www w
body as shown in Figure.
3) Here, the product of 𝐫⃗ and 𝐅⃗ is called
N Nett
e N Neett
the vector product or cross product. The
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
vector product of two vectors results in
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa as
a aa
s
another vector that is perpendicular to
aadd ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
. . P
both the vectors. Hence, torque (τ⃗⃗) is a vector quantity.
P . P
.N
4) w
w ww
Torque has a magnitude (rFsinθ ) and direction perpendicular to,
w w
www
𝐫⃗ and 𝐅⃗. Its unit is N m. 𝛕 www
⃗⃗ = (rFsinθ)𝒏
̂
5) Here, θ is the angle between r⃗ and ⃗F⃗ and 𝑛̂ is the unit vector in the
lai
direction of τ⃗⃗.
NN eett N Ne e tt
l a
l i
a .i.39. Obtain the relation between torquelanda
l ai .angular
i . acceleration. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa i)
a a d a
in the body will execute
ssaarotating about a fixed axis. A point mass maassaa
Let us consider a rigid body
d aa circular motion about a fixed axis
aadd
ii)
w w . PP
A tangential.force F acting on the
⃗⃗
w w . P
. P
w
ww torque for this rotation. www w
da
wnecessary
point mass produces the
This force 𝐅⃗ is perpendicular to the

Pa
position vector 𝐫⃗ of the point

NNeett mass.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. iii) l a
lai .i.
The torque produced by the force
l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
ad assaa
on the point mass m about the
a aaddaasaa
s
w.
axis can be written as, τ = r Fsin90

ww. P
. P
= r F ; (sin90 =1)
w
w . P
. P
w
www
τ = rma
τ =rmrα ; = mr2α (a = r α)
w
www
(F = ma)
ww
τ = mr2α ----------------(1)
iv) Hence, the torque of the force acting on the point mass produces an
N Neett N Neett
angular acceleration (α) in the point mass about the axis of rotation.
l a
l i
a .i. In vector notation,
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa saa s aa
τ⃗⃗ = (mr2) α
⃗⃗ --------------(2)
v) ddaa s d a
d a s
The directions of τ and α are along the axis of rotation. If the direction
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
of τ is in the direction of α, it produces angular acceleration. On the
w w
w w w
w
www www
other hand if, τ is opposite to α, angular deceleration or retardation is
produced on the point mass.
vi) The term mr2 in equations 1 and 2 is called moment of inertia (I) of the
point mass. A rigid body is made up of many such point masses. Hence,
N Neett the moment of inertia of

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. l a
l
a rigid body is the sum of moments i
a .iof. inertia of all such individual point lalai.
assaa masses that constitute
aa ddaa s abody
s
the a (I = 𝚺𝐦 𝒓 ) .Hence, torque for the rigidaassaa
2
𝟐
𝐢 𝒊
a add
w w . P
body can be written
. P as, τ⃗⃗ = (Σm 𝑟 ) α ⃗⃗ ; 𝛕
i 𝑖 ⃗⃗ = I 𝛂
⃗⃗
w w . P
.P
40. Writew w
ww for the kinetic energy of a body in pure
an expression w w
wwrolling.
1) The total kinetic energy (KE) as the sum of kinetic energy due to
translational motion (KETRANS) and kinetic energy due to rotational
motion (KEROT). KE = KE TRANS + KE ROT
N Net2)t
e N Neett
If the mass of the rolling object is M, the velocity of center of mass is
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
vCM, its moment of inertia about center of mass is ICM and angular
et
assaa dd s
a saa
velocity is ω, then KE = ½ Mv2CM + ½ ICM ω2
a
With center of mass as reference:
aa ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
3) . P
.P . P
. P
The moment of inertia (ICM) of a rolling object about the center of mass
.N
w w w www
wKEw=w½ Mv + ½ (MK )
2CM 2
www
is, ICM = MK2 and vCM = Rω. Here, K is radius of gyration.
v2 CM
R2
lai
K2
KE = ½ Mv2CM + ½ Mv2CM ( 2)
N Neett KE = ½ Mv2CM (𝟏 + 𝟐 )
𝐊𝟐
N Neett R
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l
𝐑
i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
With point of contact as reference:
4)
ddaass ddaass
We can also arrive at the same expression by taking the momentary
. . Paa . P
. Paa
rotation happening with respect to the point of contact (another
P
www w w
w
approach to rolling). If we take the point of contact as O, then,
www www
da
KE = ½ Io ω2
5) Here, Io is the moment of inertia of the object about the point of
contact. By parallel axis theorem, Io = ICM + MR2. Further we can write,
Pa
N Neett Io = MK2 + MR2.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. With vCM = Rω or ω =
l a
laiR.i.
vCM
l a
l i
a .
assaa KE = ½ (MK + MR ) ss aa s aa
s
v2 CM
2
aa ddaa 2
R2
a d
a a
d a
w.
KE = ½ Mv P P PP
𝐊𝟐
KEwinw
. . can be determined by any one of w
2CM
(𝟏
wwrolling + )
𝐑𝟐
w w . . two
6) pure
wcases.
w www the following
ww
(i) The combination of translational motion and rotational motion

about the center of mass. (or)
N Neett (ii) eett

The momentary rotational motion about the point of contact.
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa
UNIT – VI (GRAVITATION)
aassaa aassaa
TWO MARKS AND THREE
P Paadd MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
P Paadd
w w. . w
w . .
1. State w
w
ww three laws.
Kepler’s
w
www
1. Law of orbits: Each planet moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit
with the Sun at one of the foci.
N Net
e t
2. Law of area:
N Neett
lalai.i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
The radial vector (line joining the Sun to a planet) sweeps equal areas
a
et
assaa aa aa
in equal intervals of time.
3. a
Law of period:
dd s
a s d a
d s
a s
P aa P aa
The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the Sun
. .P . . P
.N
w w
w www
in its Elliptical orbit is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-
www
major axis of the ellipse. www
lai
2. State Newton’s Universal law of gravitation.
Newton’s law of gravitation states that a particle of mass M1 attracts
N Neett N e ett
any other particle of mass M2 in the universe with an attractive force. The
N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
strength of this force of attraction was found to be directly proportional to the
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa distance between them.
a a d d as aa
s
product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the
a aad daassaa
w w . P
. P ww . P
. P
ww w w
da
3. Will the angular momentum of a planet be conserved? Justify your answer.

w w ⃗⃗
Yes, Because τ⃗⃗ = r⃗ x F ; r⃗ x (
GMS ME
r̂) = 0
w w
r2
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿
Since r⃗ = r r̂, (r̂xr̂) = 0 So, τ⃗⃗ = =0
Pa
NNeetItt implies that angular momentum is N aNe et t vector. The angular

𝑑𝑡
l a
l i
a .i. momentum of the Earth about the Sun l alai
is
.iconstant
. throughout the motion.
constant
l a
l i
a .
assaa 4. Define the gravitationalaadfield. da a ssaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
w w . P
. P Give its unit.
force experienced by unit mass placed at thatw w . P
. P
⃗⃗w
w w
win equation we get, E⃗⃗ = – r⃗ . its unit isw
The gravitational
⃗⃗21
F wwwGm1
point.
Unit E = N kg (or) m s .
ww
-1 -2
1 m2 r2
N
5.
Neet t Consider ‘n’ particles of masses, mNN , meet…mt distributed in space at
What is meant by superposition of gravitational field?
l a
l i
a .i. positions r̂ , r̂ r̂ ….etc, with respectlatolapoint
i.i. P. The total gravitational field at lalai.
1 2 n
assaa s agiven
s a by the vector sum of the gravitationalaassaa
1 2, 3
a ad da
a point P due to all the masses ais
aa dd
gravitational w w P
.
fields. P
field due to the individual
. w w . P
. P
masses. This principle is known as superposition of
w
w⃗E⃗ww= ⃗E⃗ + ⃗E⃗ + …..E⃗⃗
total 1 2 n www w
𝐺𝑚1 𝐺𝑚2 𝐺𝑚𝑛 𝐺𝑚𝑖
=– 𝑟⃗1 – 𝑟⃗2 – …. 𝑟⃗𝑛 ; = – ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑖2
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.6. Define gravitational potential energy.lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa a ad da
Gravitational potential
a ssaa associated with this conservative forceaassaa
energy
energy is defined as the work done toa ad d
bring
the mass m w w .
from P
field. The gravitational
P potential
.infinity to a distance ‘r’ in the gravitational
w w .P
field P
.of mass
m . Its
1 ww w
unitw
2
is joule. www w
7. Define gravitational potential.
N N ett
e N N ett
The gravitational potential at a distance r due to a mass is defined as
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
the amount of work required to bring unit mass from infinity to the distance r.
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 8. What isThemeant a
by escape speed
minimum a ad d
speed
a ssainathe case of the Earth?
ad
a d
required by an object to escape from Earth’s
aassaa
. P P
.ie. Ve = √𝟐𝐠𝐑 ; Ve = 11.2 kms . P
. P
.N
gravitational w w
field. ww
w w ww 𝐄
-1
ww w
w
9. Why is the energy of a satellite (or any other planet) negative?
lai
The negative sign in the total energy implies that the satellite is bound
NN eet t As h approaches, ∞ the total energyNtends

to the Earth and it cannot escape from the Earth.
N e ettot zero. Its physical meaning
l a
l i
a .i. is that the satellite is completely freelalfrom
a i .i.the influence of Earth’s gravity and lalai.
sa
assaa d da
is not bound to Earth at large
aa as saa
distances.
aad daassaa
w w . P
. P w w . P
. P
w
ww w
wwwforce whose
da
10. Define weight

wThe weight of an object is defined as the downward
magnitude W is equal to that of upward force that must be applied to the
object to hold it at rest or at constant velocity relative to the earth. The
Pa
NN eett NNe e tt
magnitude of weight of an object is denoted as, W=N=mg.
l a
l i
a .i.11. Why is there no lunar eclipse and solarl a
lai .i. every month? l a
l i
a .
assaa aarespect to Earth’s orbit, only during certain aassaa
eclipse
dd
Moon’s orbit is tilted a
5
s
a s
with
0
dd
a a aa
w.
ww .
periods of the year;PP
.or solar eclipse depending on the alignment.
the Sun, Earth and Moon align in straight line
w w . P
. P
leading to
www w
either lunar eclipse
www w
ww
12. How will you prove that Earth itself is spinning?

The Earth’s spinning motion can be proved by observing star’s position
N Neett N Ne ett
over a night. Due to Earth’s spinning motion, the stars in sky appear to move
l a
l i
a .i. a
in circular motion about the pole star.
l la i.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 13. What isWhen meant by state of
aad da as saa
weightlessness?
a ad daasaa
s
due to thew ww . P P
.of the Earth, the object appears to be weightless
downward acceleration of the object is equal to the
w . P
. P
acceleration
w
www gravity
www w
14. Why do we have seasons on Earth?
The seasons in the Earth arise due to the rotation of Earth around the
N Neett N N e tt
Sun with 23.5° tilt. Due to this 23.5° tilt, when the northern part of Earth is
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i. farther to the Sun, the southern part l a

l i
a .i.nearer to the Sun. So when it is lalai.
is
assaa winter. aa da a s
summer in the northern hemisphere,
d saa the southern hemisphere experienceaassaa
aa d d
ww . P P
. top of a hill to the ground. Why? ww .P.P
w
ww
wThis
15. Water falls from the
is because the top of the hill is a point of higher
w
wwwgravitational
potential than the surface of the Earth. i.e. Vhill > Vground.
N16.e
N tWhy
et does a tide arise in the ocean? NNeet t
lalai.i. Tides arise in the ocean duela i
toa
l .i. force of attraction between the
the l a
l i
a.
et
assaa moon and sea water.
a ad da as saa
aad daassaa
. PP
. in the elevator, what are forces acting . P
. P
.N
17. When a manw isw
standing w w
on him.
1. w w
ww force which acts downward. If we take
Gravitational w
wwthewvertical
direction as positive y direction, the gravitational force acting on the
lai
man is 𝐅⃗𝐆 = – mg𝐣̂
N Neet 2.
t N Ne ett
The normal force exerted by floor on the man which acts vertically
l a
l i
a .i. upward, 𝐍⃗⃗⃗ = N𝐣̂
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 18. Find earth. a a dda as
the expression of the orbitalsaspeed
a of satellite revolving around the aassaa
a ad d
w w . PP
. MThis
Satellite of mass . PP
to move in a circular orbit, centripetal force.must be
ww
acting onw w ww
da
ww force.
the
gravitational
satellite.
ww
centripetal force is provided by the Earth’s
MV2 GMME GME GME

= (R ; V2 = (R ; V = √(R
Pa
N Neett (RE +h) E +h)
N N e ett E +h)
As h increases, the speed of the satellite decreases.
E +h)
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa FIVE MARKS QUESTION
a a dda as saa WITH ANSWER:
a a dd aasaa
s
w.
19.
ww .
Explain how NewtonP P
. Law:
arrived at his law of gravitation from Kepler’s
w w . P
. P
third law.
Newton’sw w
ww considered the orbits of the www
wNewton
inverse square
ww
planets as circular. For circular orbit of radius r,

the centripetal acceleration towards the center is
N Neett 𝒗𝟐
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. a =
𝒓
l a
l a i .i. of
---------------------- 1
l a
l i
a .
assaa aathe orbit. The aa
Here v is the velocity and r, the distance
the planet from the center
d da a s s
of
d a
d s
a s
velocity in terms ofP
. P a a
.V = --------------------- 2
known quantities r and T, is
. P
. Paa
w w w w w
w
wwT is the time period of revolution of www
𝟐𝛑𝐫
wHere 𝐓
the planet. Substituting this value of v in equation (1) we get,

𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐
N Neett a=
(
𝐓
)
=–
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐫
N Nee tt
------- 3
lalai.i. 𝐫
l
𝐓𝟐
a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N eett
lalai .i. Substituting the value of ‘a’ froml a

l a i .(3)i. in Newton’s second law, F = ma, lalai.
assaa a a s s aa
where ‘m’ is the mass of the planet.
Fa
=ad d 𝟒𝛑𝐦𝐫
aadd aassaa
w w . P P --------------------- 4
.law, = k (Constant) ----------- 5
𝐓𝟐
w w .P.P
wwww
From Kepler’s third
𝐫
r3
T2
𝐤
www w
= 𝟐 ------------------ 6
𝐓𝟐 𝐫
By substituting equation 6 in the force expression, we can arrive at the law of
N Netgravitation.
et F=
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐦𝐤
----------7
N Ne ett
lalai.i. 𝐫𝟐
Here negative sign implies that
l a
l ai .ithe. force is attractive and it acts lalai.
et
assaa towards the center. In equation
But Newton strongly felt d
a a da
that a s s a(7),amass of the planet ‘m’ comes explicitly.aassaa
according to his third law, if Earth is attractedd
aa d
by
the Sun, then the . PP
. So he felt that the Sun’s mass (M) should
Sun must also be attracted by the Earth with . PP
. occur
the same
.N
w w w w ww
wwinw
magnitude
explicitly
of force.
the expression for force. From this insight, hew ww the constant
equated
also
4π2 k to GM which turned out to be the law of gravitation.
lai
𝐆𝐌𝐦
F= 𝟐
N Neett 𝐫
N N eett
Again the negative sign in the above equation implies that the
l a
l i
a .i. gravitational force is attractive.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 20. Explain how Newton verifieda ad da as saa
his law of gravitation.
a a ddaassaa
1)
ww . PP
.of a histerrestrial
Newton verified
w w
law of universal gravitation by comparing . PP
. the
ww that the distance from the center of earthwwto w w
da
2)
wHewknew
acceleration object to the acceleration of the moon.
the center of
two spheres of known mass at either end of a light rod suspended by
a then fiber from the center of the rod.
Pa
NNeet3)t N Ne ett
He had earlier found the small force that was needed to twist the
l a
l i
a .i. 4) fiber.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
By bringing a third sphere close to one of the suspended spheres.
5) d daa
He was able to measure the force of gravity between the spheres and
a a aaddaa
w.
w w . P
. P
hence gravitation.
w w . P
. P
21. Provew w w
that w ww w w potential
at points near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational
ww
energy of the object is U = mgh.

1) Consider the Earth and mass system, with r, the distance between the
N Neett N Neett
mass m and the Earth’s centre. Then the gravitational potential energy,
l a
l i
a .i. U=–
𝑮𝑴𝒆 𝒎
----------------- 1
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa radius of the Earth. h is the height aassaa
𝒓
2) Here r = Re+h, wherea a
Re is the
P P
above the .Earth’sa a d d P Pad
a d
ww . surface, U = – G
𝑴𝒆 𝒎
------------- 2
w
w. .
w (𝑹𝒆 +𝒉)
wIfwh <<wRe, equation (2) can be modified as−𝟏 www w

𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝑴𝒆 𝒎 𝒉
U=–G ℎ ; U=–G (𝟏 + ) ---------- 3
𝑅𝑒 (1+ ) 𝑹𝒆 𝑹𝒆
𝑅𝑒
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN e ett
lalai .i. 3) By using Binomial expansion land a

l ai .i. the higher order terms, we lalai.
neglecting
assaa get U = – G
a (𝟏
a d aa
𝑴𝒆 𝒎
d− s
) saa 4
----------
𝒉
aaddaassaa
w w . P
.
We know that, Pfor a
𝑹𝒆
mass m on
𝑹𝒆
the Earth’s surface,
w
w .P.P
w
wGww= mgR ---------------- 5
𝑴𝒆 𝒎
𝑹𝒆
e wwww
Substituting equation (5) in (4) we get, U = – mgRe + mgh
It is clear that the first term in the above expression is independent of
N Nett
e N Ne ett
the height h. For example, if the object is taken from h and it can be
lalai.i. omitted. U = mgh
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 22. Explain in detail the idea a ad da as saa
weightlessness using lift as an example. a ad daassaa
. P P of
. falls (when the lift wire cuts) with downward . P
. P
.N
When w w ww
i)
w the lift
waw= g,wthe person inside the elevator is in the state w acceleration
wwofwweightlessness
or free fall.
lai
ii) As they fall freely, they are not in contact with any surface (by neglecting
N Neett N Neett
air friction). The normal force acting on the object is zero. The
l a
l i
a .i. l a i
a .i.
downward acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to the gravity
l l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa dd s
a aa
s
of the Earth. i.e (a = g). From equation N = m (g − a) we get,
a aadd aas
a = g ∴ N = m (g – g) = 0. This is called the state of weightlessness.
saa
ww . P
. P w w . P
. P
w w for escape speed. w w
da
23. Derivew
w
an expression w w
1) Consider an object of mass M on the surface of the Earth. When it is
thrown up with an initial speed vi , the initial total energy of the object
Pa
N Neett is Ei = ½ MVi2 –
𝐑𝐄
𝐄 𝐆𝐌𝐌
---------------- 1
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l l a i .i.
Where ME, is the mass of the Earth and RE - the radius of the Earth.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa is the ssaa energy of the mass M. saa
s
GMME
The term – potential
a ad d aaRE
a ad d aa
w.
2) When the object reaches a height far away from Earth and hence
. PP . P P
treated as .approaching infinity, the gravitational potential. energy
wwzero [ U (∞) = 0] and the kinetic energy becomes
ww
ww
wTherefore,
w the final total energy of the object becomes
becomes ww
ww zero.zeroThisasiswell.
for
ww
minimum energy and for minimum speed to escape. Otherwise Kinetic

energy can be non-zero.
N Neett N Neett
Ef = 0 , According to the law of energy conservation, Ei = Ef -------- 2
l a
l i
a .i. a
Substituting (1) in (2) we get,
l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa = 0 ‘ ½s saa= ----------------- 3 saa
s
GMME 𝐆𝐌𝐌𝐄
½ MV – i2
a add
REaa MV i2
𝐑𝐄
a addaa
3)
Earth’sw
w . P P
The escape speed, the
PP
minimum speed required by an object to escape
. field, hence replace, V with V . i.e,www.
gravitational .
w
w½wMVw = e2
GMME
RE
www
i e
𝐆𝐌𝐌𝐄 𝟐 𝟐𝐆𝐌𝐄
Ve 2 = . ; Ve 2 = ------------- 4
𝐑𝐄 𝑴 𝐑𝐄
N Neett Using g =
GME
N Nee tt
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 5
lalai.i. Re
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN eett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i.6 l a
l i
a .
assaa aescape
a speed depends on two factors:aassaa
V = 2gR ; V = √𝟐𝐠𝐑𝐄 --------------
e2
From equation (6) a
d
E
d as
the se
dd
acceleration due toa a aa
independent wofw . PP gravity
the.mass of the object. w w.P.P
and radius of the Earth. It is completely
w w w w ww w w
24. Explain the variation of g with latitude.
Variation of g with latitude:
Whenever we analyze the motion of
N Nett
e N eett
objects in rotating frames, we must take into
N
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
account the centrifugal force. Even though we
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aadd s
a aa
s
treat the Earth as an inertial frame, it is not
a
exactly correct because the Earth spins about
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P
its own axis. So when an object is on the . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
www
surface of the Earth, it experiences a
www
centrifugal force that depends on the latitude
of the object on Earth. If the Earth were not
lai
spinning, the force on the object would have
N Neettbeen mg. However, the object experiences an

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
additional centrifugal force due to spinning of
a a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
the Earth.
d d a as s ddaass
This centrifugala a aa
𝐑 = Rw
′
w
cos. PP force is given by mω R
𝝀. ------------ 1
2 ′
ww. P
. P
w w
wlatitude. The component of centrifugal acceleration
w experienced
da
Wherew λwis the w

w
by the object in the direction opposite to g is a = 𝛚 𝐑 cos 𝝀 c
𝟐 ′
= 𝛚𝟐 𝐑 cos2 𝝀 since R′ = R cos 𝜆 Therefore,

Pa
N Neett 𝐠 ′ = g – 𝛚𝟐 𝐑 cos2 𝝀 ----------- 2

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
From the expression (2), we can infer that at equator, 𝜆 =0;
l a
l
g′
i
a .
assaa aa aa
= g – ω2 R. The acceleration due to gravity is minimum. At poles λ = 90; g ′ =
dd aass
g, it is maximum. At the equator, g ′ is minimum.
ddaass
a a aa
w.
25. ww . PP
. of g with altitude.
Explain the variation w
w . P
. P
w
wofwg withan altitude:
wConsider
Variation w
w w
w
ww
object of mass m at a
height h from the surface of the Earth.
N Neettot Earth is 𝐠 =
Acceleration experienced by the object due
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. ′ 𝐆𝐌
(𝐑 𝐞 +𝐡)𝟐
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ; g = (1 + s)s aa s aa
s
GM GM h −2
g =
′
R2e (1+
h 2
)
aad da a
′
R2e Re
ad
a a
d a
e.
w
If h << R We can
w .
Re
P P
. first order
use Binomial expansion.
w
w. P
. P
Taking the w
wgw=w (1 − 2 ) ; 𝐠 =g (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
′
terms upto
GM h ′
w
www 𝐡
R2e Re 𝐑𝐞
We find that 𝐠 ′ < g . This means that as altitude h increases the acceleration
N Neett due to gravity g decreases.

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.26. Explain the variation of g with depthlalfrom

a i .i.the Earth’s surface. l a
l i
a .
assaa Variation of g with depth: a
a add as saa
aaddaassaa
w
in a deep mine w . P
Consider a particle
P of mass m which is
on.the earth. Ex. Coal mines w
w .P.P
w
wwwAssume the depth of the mine
– in Neyveli). www w
as d. To Calculate g at a depth d, consider the
following points. The part of the Earth which
is above the radius (Re – d) do not contribute
NNett
e NN ee
to the acceleration. The result is provedtt
lalai.i. earlier and is given as g = lHere al i
a .Mi.is l a
l
𝐺𝑀′i
a.
et
assaa aa(R – d). aa
′
the mass of the Earth ofa

dd a ss
radius
d a
d s
a s (𝑅𝑒 −𝑑)2
. P
.P
Assuming the densitya aof earth ρ to be
. P
. Paa e
.N
ww w w www
www
constant,
ρ= w w M′ M′ M M
; = and M = V ′ ′
V′ V′ V V
lai
M 4
M ′ = (4 ) ( 𝜋(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑 )3 ) ;
N NeetMt = 3
πR3e 3
N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. ′ 𝑀
3 (Re – d)
3
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
𝑅𝑒
assaa ; ssaa ssaa

𝑴 𝟏
𝐠 =G′
(R – d) .
𝑹𝟑
𝒆
aad da
e
a 3
(𝑹𝒆 −𝒅)𝟐
aaddaa
g = GM
′
w w . P
. P𝑅𝑒 (1−
𝑑
𝑅𝑒
)
w
w . P
. P
ww w
w
da
𝑅𝑒3
w
g = GM
′
w (1−
𝑑
𝑅𝑒
)
thus 𝐠 = g (𝟏 − ). Here also 𝐠 <g .
′
w
w 𝒅 ′
𝑅𝑒2 𝑹𝒆
As depth increases, g ′ decreases.
Pa
NN e tDerive
e t the time period of satellite orbitingNtheNeEarth. ett
l a
l i
a .i. Time period of the satellite: lalai.i.
27.
l a
l i
a .
assaa The distance covereda
aa d d as
by sa
theasatellite during one rotation in its orbit isa
a ad d asaa
s
w.
w w PP
equal to 2𝜋 (R +h) and
. . = time taken for it is the time period, T. Then
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝
E
ww
𝟐𝝅 (𝐑𝐄 +𝐡). P
. P
w ww w 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧
ww w w𝑻
ww
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝟐𝝅 (𝐑𝐄 +𝐡)

From equation, √ = ---------------- 1
(𝑹𝑬 +𝒉) 𝑻
𝟐𝝅 𝟑
NNeet t T= (𝑹 + 𝒉) -------------------- 2
√𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝑬 𝟐
NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i. Squaring both sides of the equationl(2), a
la i.i.get T = (R + h)
we
l a
l
2 i
a .𝟒𝝅𝟐
3
assaa aca(R + h) ---------------- 3 aa E
4𝜋 2
= Constant say dd a
c, a
Ts s
= 2
dd
3aass 𝑮𝑴𝑬
P
𝐺𝑀𝐸
.
Equation (3) P aa
. and distance as that of Kepler’s laww
implies that a satellite orbiting the Earth has .
the P
.
E
Pa
samea
w ww w w
wwForwa satellite orbiting near the surface of the Earth,
relation between
motion.
time
wwhwis negligible
of planetary
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐
compared to the radius of the Earth RE . Then, T2 = RE3 ; T2 = 𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝑮𝑴𝑬
N Neett N Nee tt 𝑹𝟐
𝑬
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa = ga;aT = 2𝝅√ aa
𝟒𝝅𝟐
T =
2 R Since
𝒈
E
d da a ss
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑬
𝒈
d daass
a a
𝑬
. PP a .
. geostationary and polar satellites. www.PP a
28. w w
Explain in detail
w the
wwsatellites
wThe
Geo-stationary
1)
and polar satellite
www
orbiting the Earth have different time periods
corresponding to different orbital radii. Can we calculate the orbital
radius of a satellite if its time period is 24 hours is calculated below.
N Nett
e N Neett
Kepler’s third law is used to find the radius of the orbit.
lalai.i. (R + h) ; (R + h) l=a
4𝜋 2
l ai .i. 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑇 2
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
T =
2 E 3 E 3
𝐺𝑀𝐸
d aas s 4𝜋 2
d aass
) d d
𝟏
(R + h) = ( Pa a a a
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝑻𝟐 𝟑
E
. P
.for the time period (24 hrs = 86400 seconds), . P
. P
.N
2)
w ww
Substituting
𝟒𝝅𝟐
w ww
wof the Earth, h turns out to be 36,000 km.wwSuchwsatellites are
mass, and
wradius
w
called “geo-stationary satellites”, since they appear to be stationary
lai
when seen from Earth.
N Neett 3)
N N ett
Geo-stationary satellites for the purpose of telecommunication. Another
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
type of satellite which is placed at a distance of 500 to 800 km from
sa
assaa aa aa
the surface of the Earth orbits the Earth from north to south direction.
4)
ddaass ddaass
This type of satellite that orbits Earth from North Pole to South Pole is
. . Paa . P
. Paa
called a polar satellite. The time period of a polar satellite is nearly 100
P
www w w
w
minutes and the satellite completes many revolutions in a day.
www www
da
5) A Polar satellite covers a small strip of area from pole to pole during
one revolution. In the next revolution it covers a different strip of area
since the Earth would have moved by a small angle. In this way polar
satellites cover the entire surface area of the Earth.
Pa
N N eett NN eett
l a
l i
a .i. UNIT – VII (PROPERTIES l a
lai .i. OF MATTER) l a
l i
a .
assaa a ad a
d s
a aa
s
aaddaasaa
s
w.
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:

w w. P P
.strain. w
w . P
. P
1.
www w
Define stress and w
www
ww
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
The force per unit area is called as stress. Stress, σ = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
The SI unit of stress is N m-2 or Pascal (Pa) and its dimension is [ML-1T-2].
N Neetmeasures
t N N e tt
The fractional change in the size of the object, in other words, strain
e
l a
l i
a .
i . the degree of deformation.
l a
l i .
i .
Strain,
a e = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
l a
l i
∆𝒍
a .
assaa 2. State Hooke’s law of a a a a a
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒍
dda as s dd aass
.P P a
elasticity.
. other. . P
. Pa a
w w
Hooke’s law
w is for a small deformation, when the stress
w w
and
w strain are
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proportional to each
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3. Define Poisson’s ratio.
The ratio of relative contraction (lateral strain) to relative expansion
N Neett N Nee tt
(longitudinal strain). It is denoted by the symbol μ.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN e ett
lalai .i. Poisson s ratio, μ = Lateral strain / lLongitudinal

al i
a .i. strain l a
l i
a .
assaa 4. Which one of these isamore ad d a assaa
elastic, steel or rubber? Why? aaddaassaa
Steel isw
w .
more PP
. elastic than rubber because the steelw hasw
w . P
.P
higher
w
young’sw w w than rubber. That’s why, if equal stressww
modulus w on
is applied
both steel and rubber, the steel produces less strain.
NNet
5.
e t If the pressure in a liquid is changed N
State Pascal’s law in fluids.
N e et t point, the change is
lalai.i. transmitted to the entire liquid without
l a
l i
a .i. diminished in magnitude.
at a particular
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 6. State Archimedes principle. aa aa
being
d da s
a s d da s
a s
. P Pa a
.when a body is partially or wholly immersed . P
. Pa a
.N
It statesw w w w
w
wwwan upward thrust equal to the weight of theww
experiences
that
w w in a fluid, it
fluid displaced by it
and its up-thrust acts through the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced.
l a
l i
a .
i N
.
7.
N eet t
What
The upward lai
do you mean by up-thrust or buoyancy? t t
force exerted by
l a
a
l ai .
iN
fluid. Ne e
that opposes the weight of an
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa immersed object in a fluid
d d a
phenomenon is called buoyancy.
aa as
is
saa
called up-thrust or buoyant force and
a
the
d
a daassaa
w w . P
. P w w . P
. P
State thew w
www www
da
8. law of floatation.
The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight
of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body equals the weight of
Pa
the body.
NN eett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i.9. Define coefficient of viscosity of a liquid.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa d da a s
The coefficient of viscosity aisadefined as the force of viscosity actingaassaa
s
a a d
Itsd
w.
between two layers per unit area and unit velocity gradient of the liquid.
unit is Nsm w
w . P
. P
and dimension
-2 is [ML T ].
-1 -1
w w . P
. P
ww ww w w w w
ww
10. Distinguish between streamlined flow and turbulent flow.

Streamlined flow: When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid
N Neett N N ett
passing through a point moves along the same path with the same velocity
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
as its predecessor then the flow of liquid is said to be a streamlined flow.
a
assaa aa aa
The velocity of the particle at any point is constant. It is also referred to as
ddaas
steady or laminar flow.s d a
d s
a s
. . Paa . P
. Paa
The actual path taken by the particle of the moving fluid is called a
P
w w
w w w
w
streamline, which is a curve, the tangent to which at any point gives the
www www
direction of the flow of the fluid at that point.
Turbulent flow: When the speed of the moving fluid exceeds the critical
speed, vc the motion becomes turbulent.
The velocity changes both in magnitude and direction from particle to
N Neett particle.
N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NNe ett

lalai .i. The path taken by the particlesla l i

ina .i. flow becomes erratic and lalai.
turbulent
assaa aa d aas
whirlpool-like circles called eddy
d sacurrent
a or eddies.
a add aassaa
w
11. What is Reynold’s
w . P
. P
number? Give its significance.
w
w .P.P
w
wwwnumber(Rc) is a dimensionless number, w
Reynold’s w
wwis used to find
which
𝛒𝐯𝐃
out the nature of flow of the liquid. RC =
𝛈
Where, ρ- density of the liquid, v –The velocity of flow of liquid.
N Net
e t N Nee
D- Diameter of the pipe, η - The coefficient
t tof viscosity of the fluid.
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 12. DefineTheterminal velocity. a
a ad d as saa
aa ddaassaa
. P P
maximum constant
. P P
velocity acquired by a body while falling freely
.medium is called the terminal velocity. www.
.N
w ww
through a viscous
13.
www www
Write down the expression for the Stoke’s force and explain the symbols
lai
involved in it.
N Neett N N ett
Viscous force F acting on a spherical body of radius r depends directly on
e
l a
l i
a .i. i) radius (r) of the sphere
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
ii) velocity (v) of the sphere and
d aa ss
iii) coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid F = 6πηrv
d d daass
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
14. ww
State Bernoulli’s
w theorem.
w to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure w w w
wenergy, kinetic
da
w w
According w w
energy, and potential energy per unit mass of an incompressible, non-viscous
fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.
Pa
N15.e
N etTwo
t streamlines cannot cross each other.N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. other. If they do so, the
Why?
l a
l i
a .
assaa aofaintersection will have two different aassaa
No two streamlines can cross each
particles of the liquid at thea
d d as s
point
dd
aa which will destroy the steady nature of the a a
w.
liquid flow. w w P
. P
directions for their flow,
. w w . P
. P
w ww w ww ww
ww
16. Define surface tension of a liquid. Mention its S.I unit and dimension.
The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the energy per unit area of the
N Neett N Ne ett
surface of a liquid. (or) The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
of tension acting perpendicularly on both sides of an imaginary line of unit
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
length drawn on the free surface of the liquid.
ddaass d daass
. PP aa
Its unit is N m and dimension
-1 is [MT ] . -2
.
. for a given pair of solid and liquid. www. P
P aa
w w w
www
17. Define angle of contact
www
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of
contact and the solid surface is known as the angle of contact.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.18. Distinguish between cohesive and adhesive

l a
l ai .i. forces. l a
l i
a .
assaa The force between the
aad da as saamolecules which holds the liquid togetheraassaa
like
aadd
molecules ofw w .
the P
is called ‘cohesive force’.
P w w . P
When the liquid is in contact with a solid,
P
.these solid and liquid will experience anwattractive the
. force
whichw w
ww ‘adhesive force’.
is called www
19. What are the factors affecting the surface tension of a liquid?
N Nett
e
(1)
N N ett
The presence of any contamination or impurities considerably affects
e
the force of surface tension depending upon the degree of
lalai.i. contamination. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa (2)
aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
The presence of dissolved substances can also affect the value of
surface tension. For example, a highly soluble substance like sodium
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w ww
chloride (NaCl) when dissolved in water (H20) increases the surface
w
www www
tension of water. But the sparingly soluble substance like phenol or
soap solution when mixed in water decreases the surface tension of
water.
lai
(3) Electrification affects the surface tension. When a liquid is electrified,
N Neett N Neett
surface tension decreases. Since external force acts on the liquid
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
surface due to electrification, area of the liquid surface increases
a
sa
assaa aa aa
which acts against the contraction phenomenon of the surface tension.
ddaass
Hence, it decreases.
ddaass
(4)
. P Paa . P Paa
Temperature plays a very crucial role in altering the surface tension of
. .
www w w
w
a liquid. Obviously, the surface tension decreases linearly with the rise
www www
da
of temperature.
20. What do you mean by capillarity or capillary action?

Pa
N Neett N Neett
The rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube is called capillarity or capillary
l a
l i
a .i. action.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 21. Aplace drop of oil placed on the a
a ad d assaaof water spreads out. But a drop of wateraassaa
surface
aad d
w.
w w . PP
. on the surface of water spreads because
on oil contracts to a spherical shape. Why?
w w . PP
. force of
w
A dropw water and oil molecules dominatesw
of
wwbetween
adhesion
oil placed w w force of
wcohesive
the
the
ww
oil molecules.
On the other hand, cohesive force of water molecules dominates the
N Neett N N eett
adhesive force between water and oil molecules. So drop of water on oil
l a
l i
a .i. contracts to a spherical shape.
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 22. State the principle andaausage d da as s
of
aVenturimeter.
a
aa d daasaa
s
ww P P
Bernoulli’s.theorem
. is used to measure the rate of flow orw
is the principle of Venturimeter.
w w . PP
. of the
w
www fluid flowing through a pipe.
Venturimeter
incompressible www flow speed
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.23. What are the applications of surfacelaltension?

ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
mosquitos’ eggsa a d a
drowna
Oil pouring on the water
d ss aa surface tension. So that the floatingaassaa
reduces
and killed. a ad d
2)
w w. P P
. helps in desktop printing, automobile
Finely adjusted surface tension of the liquid makes
w w
droplets .P
of P
. and
desired
w
ww items.
wdecorative
size, which
www w painting
3) Specks of dirt are removed from the cloth when it is washed in

detergents added hot water, which has low surface tension.
N Net4)t
e N Neett
A fabric can be made waterproof, by adding suitable waterproof
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
material (wax) to the fabric. This increases the angle of contact due to
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
surface tension.
dda a s d a
d a s
24. Give some examples. PPa a
for surface tension. .
.brush hairs, when taken out ofwater. www. P
P aa
.N
w w ww
Clinging of
Needleww painting
float on the water, Camphor boat. www
lai
25. How do water bugs and water striders walk on the surface of water?
N Neett N Neett
When the water bugs or water striders are on the surface of the water, its
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
weight is balanced by the surface tension of the water. Hence, they can easily
l l a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa walk on it.
aad da as saa
a ad daassaa
26. . PP
. liquids helps in choosing the lubricants
What are the applications
w w of viscosity?
w w . PP
. various
w w
ww parts. Low viscous lubricants are usedwwinwlight machinery
da
1) Viscosity of for
wmachinery
parts and high viscous lubricants are used in heavy machinery parts.
2) As high viscous liquids damp the motion; they are used in hydraulic
Pa
NNeett brakes as brake oil.

N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. 3) l a
l i
a .i.
Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity
l a
l i
a .
assaa 4)
of fluids.
a ad da a ssaa
aaddaasaa
s
Viscosity is used in Millikan’s oil-drop method tofind the charge of an
w.
electron.
w w . P
. P w
w . P
. P
27. ww
Explain
w w
the Stoke’s law application in raindrop falling.
w
www
ww
According to Stoke’s law, terminal velocity is directly proportional to

square of radius of the spherical body. So that smaller raindrops having less
N Neett N N e ett
terminal velocity float as cloud in air. When they gather as bigger drops get
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai.i.
higher terminal velocity and start falling.
l a
l i
a .
assaa 28. Define Young’s modulus. aad da a
Give
s saa
its unit.
aa dd aasaa
s
w w .P
Young’s modulus. Pis defined as the ratio of tensile or . P
.
compressive
w
w Pstress
www w
to the tensile or compressive strain. Its unit is N m-2 or
www w
pascal.
29. Define Pressure. Give its unit and dimension.

The pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area.
N Neett N Nee tt
Its unit is N m-2 or pascal and dimension is [ML-1T-2].
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.30. What is elasticity? Give examples. lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa Elasticity is the propertys
a a
and size after the removald da a s
ofaaabody in which it regains its original shape aassaa
of deforming force. aadd
w w
Ex: Rubber, . P P
.metals, steel ropes. w w . P
.P
w w w w ww w w
31. What is plasticity? Give an example.
Plasticity is the property of a body in which it does not regains its original
N Nett
e N N ett
shape and size after the removal of deforming force. Ex: Glass.
e
lalai.i. CONCEPTUALla l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 32. Why two holes are made aa aa
QUESTIONS
d d aass d daass
. PPaa to empty an oil tin?
. out from a hole of an oil tin, pressure inside . P
. Paa
.N
When oilw
w ww
w
w comes
wwatmosphere.
than the Therefore, the surrounding air rush
w
wwupwinto the same
it decreased
hole prevents the oil to come out. Hence two holes are made to empty the oil
lai
tin.
NN e t tWe can cut vegetables easily with a sharpN

e Ne e t tcompared to a blunt knife.
l a
l i
a .i. Why?
33.
l a
l i
a .i.
knife as
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a dda a
Since the stress produced
a
ss
on
aathe vegetables by the sharp knife is higheraassaa
aadd
ww . P
.
than the blunt knife,Pvegetables can be cut easily with the sharp
w w . P
. P
knife.
ww are advised to remove the ink from ww pens while
da
34. Why thewwpassengers wwtheir

going up in an aero-plane?
Pa
When an aero-plane ascends, the atmospheric pressure is decreased.

N Neett N e ett
Hence, the ink from the pen will leak out. So that, the passengers are advised
N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
to remove the ink from their pens while going up in the aero-plane.
l a
l i
a .
assaa 35. We use straw to suckasoft ad da a s aa
s
a ad daasaa
s
w.
drinks, why?
w w .
When we suckPP
. than the atmospheric pressure. Due towtheww
the soft drinks through the straw, the pressure. P P
. in
inside the
w
wwthe
pressure,
w soft drink rises in the straw and we w
straw becomes less w to enjoy it
wable
are
difference
ww
conveniently.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NNe ett

lalai .i. FIVE MARKS QUESTION l a

l i
a .iWITH
. ANSWER l a
l i
a .
assaa 36. State a
Hooke’s law and verify
a ad d a saathe help of an experiment.
itswith
aaddaassaa
1)
.
Hooke’s law
w w P P
. and strain are proportional
is for a small deformation,
ww.P.P
w
when the
wtoweach
stress
wother. wwww
2) It can be verified in a simple way by
stretching a thin straight wire (stretches
N Nett
e N N ett
like spring) of length L and uniform cross-
e
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
sectional area A suspended from a fixed-
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
point O.
3)
ddas
a s
A pan and a pointer are attached at the free
d a
d s
a s
. P
.Paa
end of the wire as shown in Figure (a).
. P
. Paa
.N
w w
w www
www www
4) The extension produced on the wire is
measured using a vernier scale
arrangement. The experiment shows that
lai
for a given load, the corresponding stretching force is F and the
N Neet5)t N N ett
elongation produced on the wire is ΔL.
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
It is directly proportional to the original length L and inversely
a
sa
assaa aa aa
proportional to the area of cross section A. A graph is plotted using F on
d aass
the X- axis and ΔL on the Y- axis.
d ddaass
6)
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
This graph is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in
www
Figure (b).
w w
w
www www
da
Therefore, ΔL = (slope)F
Multiplying and dividing by volume,
V = A L,
Pa
N Neett 𝐴𝐿
F (slope) = Δ𝐿
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 𝐴𝐿
Rearranging, we get, = [ la
𝐹
la i𝐿.i.] Δ𝐿
l a
l i
a .
assaa a s saa 𝐴(𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) 𝐿
a s aa
s
𝐴
𝐹
a a[dd
Δ𝐿a a d
a d a
w.
Therefore, , 𝛼 ]
w
w
Comparing . PP
. stress equation and strain equation,w
𝐴
with
𝐿
we w w
get . PP
𝜎.𝛼 𝜀
w
wi.e.,
wthe wstress is proportional to the strain in the elastic
wwwlimit.
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.37. Explain the different types of modulusl a

l i
a
of.ielasticity.
. l a
l i
a .
assaa a as
There are three types of elastic
a a dd saa
modulus.
aaddaassaa
ww . P
.
(a) Young’s modulus, P(b) Rigidity modulus (or Shear modulus)
w
w .P.P
ww
(c) Bulk modulus
wmodulus: www w
Young’sw
When a wire is stretched or compressed, then the ratio between tensile
stress (or compressive stress) and tensile strain (or compressive strain) is
N Nett
e defined as Young’s modulus.
NNe ett
lalai.i. = l a Yi.
a =i. or Y =
Tensile stress or compressive stress
l 𝜎𝑡 𝜎𝑐
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa ssaasame unit of stress because, strain has aassaa
Tensile starin or compressive strain 𝜀𝑡 𝜀𝑐
The unit for Young modulusa a
has the
no unit. So, S.I. unit ofa
PP add
Young modulus is N m or pascal.
P
-2
Pa d
a d
. . . .
.N
w w w w w w
wwwis defined as the ratio of volume stress towthe w strain.
Bulk modulus:
Bulk modulus wvolume
Normal (Perpendicular)stress or pressure
Bulk modulus, K =
lai
Volume strain
𝐹𝑛
N Neet t The normal stress or pressure is 𝜎𝑛 = = ∆𝑝

N Nee
∆𝐴tt
l a
l i
a .i. The volume strain is 𝜀 =𝑣
∆𝑉
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa= – aa
𝑉
Therefore, Bulk modulus is K =s– s ss
𝜎𝑛 ∆𝑝
aa d da a 𝜀𝑣 ∆𝑉
𝑉
a ad daa
on the body,w w . P
its .
The negative P
sign in the equation means that when pressure
w w . P
is P
. that a
applied
w w
volume decreases. Further, the equation implies
wwcanwbe easily compressed if it has a small valueww wmodulus.
da
material of bulk
The rigidity modulus or shear modulus:
The rigidity modulus is defined as Rigidity modulus or Shear modulus,
Pa
N Neett 𝜂𝑅 =
Shearing stress
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
Angle of shear or shearing strain
a l a
l i
a .
assaa =a
The shearing stress is 𝜎ss a saa
s
Trangential force 𝐹𝑡
aad d a a 𝑠 =
a dda
Area over which it is applied
a a ∆𝐴
w.
. P P
The angle of.shear or shearing strain 𝜀 = = 𝜃
ww w
w . P
. P 𝑥
wwww w
www
𝑠
𝐹𝑡
ℎ
𝐹𝑡
ww
𝜎𝑠
Therefore, Rigidity modulus is 𝜂= = ∆𝐴
𝑥 = ∆𝐴
𝜀𝑠 𝜃
ℎ
NNeet t Further, the equation implies, that aNmaterial

N e et t can be easily twisted if it
l a
l i
a .i. has small value of rigidity modulus. Fori.example,
l a
la i. is developed,
consider a wire, when it is
l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
twisted through an angle θ, a restoring torque that is
𝜏 ∝ θd
a a da a aad d aa
This means
ww . P
. P
that for a larger torque, wire will twist by a .
larger
w w PP
. to
amount
ww
(angle of shear
anglewofw www w
θ is large). Since, rigidity modulus is inversely proportional
shear, the modulus of rigidity is small.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.38. State and prove Pascal’s law in fluids. l a

l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa a ad da a
Hydraulic lift which is used ss alift a heavy load with a small force. It is aaassaa
toa
of two cylinders A and B connected to each a ad d
w
by a horizontal w . P
force multiplier. It consists
P
. filled with a liquid (Figure). They are fittedwwith
pipe, w w . P.P other
frictionless
pistons w
wwof wcross sectional areas A and A (A > A ). Suppose
1
www a downward
2 2 1
force F is applied on the smaller piston, the pressure of the liquid under this
F
piston increases to P(where, P = 1 ) . But according to Pascal’s law, this
N Nett
e
A1
N Neett
increased pressure P is transmitted undiminished in all directions. So a
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
pressure is exerted on piston B. Upward force on piston B is
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa F = PxA = x A ⇒F = sa xa s aa
𝐅𝟏 𝐀𝟐
2 2
𝐀𝟏
ddaa s2 F 2
𝐀𝟏
1
d daa s
. P P aa
Therefore by changing
. increased by the factor and this factor . PP a
the force on the smaller piston A, the force on
. theathe
.N
piston B hasw w w w
𝐀𝟐
been is called
w
wwwadvantage of the lift.
mechanical www w 𝐀𝟏
lai
39. Derive the expression for the terminal velocity of a sphere moving in a high
N Neett viscous fluid using stokes force.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. a i
Expression for terminal velocity:
l l a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
Consider a sphere of radius r which falls freely through a highly viscous
aaddaa aaddaa
liquid of coefficient of viscosity η. Let the density of the material of the sphere
ww. P
. P
be ρ and the density of the fluid be σ.
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
𝟒
Gravitational force acting on the sphere, FG = mg = 𝛑𝐫 𝟑 𝛒𝐠
𝟑
(Downward force)
4
Up thrust, U = 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 (upward force)
3
3
Pa
N Neett Viscous force F = 6πηrvt

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i.
At terminal velocity vt, downward force = upward force
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
4 4
FG – U = F ⇒ 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔 – = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 = 6πηrvt
𝟐 𝒓𝟐 (𝝆−𝝈)
3
g ⇒ V ∞a dd a ass 3
ddaass
𝒓a aa
w.
V = x 𝟐
t
𝟗 𝜼
Here, itww . PP t
. be noted that the terminal speed ofwww.
should . P
P
ww
the sphere w w w w
is directly proportional to the square of its radius. w
ww
If σ is greater than ρ, then the term (ρ - σ) becomes negative

leading to a negative terminal velocity.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN ee tt
lalai .i.40. Derive Poiseuille’s formula for the volume

l a
l ai .i.of a liquid flowing per second l a
l i
a .
assaa aa s
through a pipe under streamlined
a ad d saaflow.
a a d daassaa
v = ( )bew ww . PP
Consider a liquid flowing steadily through a horizontal
.
capillary
. of the liquid flowing out per second through w w P P
tube. Let
.capillary
tube. w
𝑉
Itw
𝑡 w
the volume
depends on (1) coefficient of viscosity (η) of the ww ww a
liquid, (2) radius of
𝑃 𝑷 𝒄
the tube (r), and (3) the pressure gradient( ) . Then, v 𝜶 𝜼𝒂 𝒓𝒃 ( ) ;
𝑙 𝒍
N Nett
e 𝑃 𝑐
N N ee tt
v = 𝑘 𝜂 𝑟 ( ) where, k is a dimensionless constant. Therefore,
𝑎 𝑏
lalai.i. 𝑙
= [L T ], [ ] = la l i
a .i=. [ML T ], l a
l i
a.
et
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝒅𝑷 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞
assaa aa aa
[v] = 3 -1 -2 -2
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
[𝜂] = [ML T ] andd
-1 -1 [r]a
d =as s
𝒅𝒙
[L]
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
ddaass
SubstitutingP
. P aa . P P aa
get .a + c = 0, −a + b −2c =3, and −a −2c = −1 w .
in equation, So, equating the powers of M, L, and T on
.N
w
both sides, wew w
w unknowns a, b, and c. We have three equations, w w
won solving, we
w
We have w three
get a = −1, b = 4, and c = 1
w w
lai
𝑷 𝟏
Therefore, equation becomes, v= k𝜼−𝟏 𝒓𝟒 ( )
N NeetExperimentally,
t N Ne et thave v = 𝒍
𝝅𝒓𝟒 𝑷
l a
l i
a .i. the value of k is shown
l a
l i
to
a .i.
be , we
𝜋
l a
l i
a .
sa
8 𝟖𝜼𝒍
assaa 41. Obtain an expressionaforadthedaaexcess ssaaof pressure inside a i) liquid drop ddaassaa
aa
. P
.
ii) liquid bubble iii) P
air bubble.
ww inside air bubble in a liquid. ww . P
. P
i) Excess w ofw ww
da
wConsider
w an air bubble of radius R inside a ww
pressure
liquid having surface tension T as shown in Figure

Pa
N Neett (a). Let P1 and P2 be the pressures outside and

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
inside the air bubble, respectively. Now, the excess
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
pressure inside the air bubble is
d da ass
ΔP = P1 − P2. To find the excess pressure inside
ddaass
a a aa
w.
ww . P
. P
the air bubble, let us consider the forces acting on
w
w . P
. P
w w
the air bubble.
ww w
w w
w
ww
ii) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble.

Consider a soap bubble of radius R and the surface tension of the soap
N Neett N N ett
bubble be T as shown in Figure. A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
contact with air, one inside the bubble and other outside the bubble.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Therefore, the force on the soap bubble due to surface
dda ass
tension is 2×2πRT. The various forces acting on the soap d a
d s
a s
bubble are, .P P aa
. tension F = 4πRT towards right www. . P
P aa
w w w
www
i) Force due to surface T
www
ii) Force due to outside pressure F = P πR towards right
P1 1 2
iii) Force due to inside pressure FP2= P2πR2 towards left
N Neet t
As the bubble is in equilibrium, F =F + F P2
N Nett
e T P1
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aas saa
Kindly send me your P questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN eett
lalai .i. P πR = 4πRT + P πR ⇒(P – P )lπR a

l ai .i=.4πRT l a
l i
a .
assaa a a
2 2 2
2
Excess pressure is ∆P = d aas1

s a 2 1
aass a
PP aa Pd –P = 2 1
𝟒𝐓
P Pa ad d
w w .
iii) Excess pressure. inside the liquid drop
w w.
𝐑
.
ww w w a liquid drop of radius R and the surfaceww
Consider ww of the liquid
tension
is T as shown in Figure. The various forces acting on the liquid drop are,
i) Force due to surface tension FT = 2πRT towards right
N Nett
e N N ett
ii) Force due to outside pressure FP1= P1πR2 towards right
e
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
iii) Force due to inside pressure FP2= P2πR2 towards left
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa P πR = 2πRT + P πRa
2
ad d s aaF =F + F
s
As the liquid drop is in equilibrium,
a a– P ) πR = 2πRT
2
ad
a a
d s
a aa
sP2
2
T P1
2
. PP ⇒(P
.∆𝐏 = P – P = 1 2
. P
. P1
.N
w w w www
www www
𝟐𝐓
Excess pressure is 2 1
𝐑
lai
42. What is capillarity? Obtain an expression for the surface tension of a liquid
by capillary rise method.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
Consider a capillary tube which is held vertically
in a beaker containing water; the water rises in the l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aasaa
s
capillary tube to a height h due to surface tension.
aadd
The surface tension force FT, acts along the aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w
tangent at the point of contact downwards and its. P
. P
w
www w
www
da
reaction force upwards. Surface tension T, is

resolved into two components i) Horizontal
component Tsinθ and ii) Vertical component
Tcosθ acting upwards, all along the whole
Pa
NNeett circumference of the meniscus.

N Ne tt
e
l a
l i
a .i. Total upward force = (Tcosθ) (2πr)la =a
l i .i.
2πrTcosθ
l a
l i
a .
assaa aad d a
Where θ is the angle of contact,
as ra
sisathe radius of the
a d
a daasaa
s
w.
tube. Let ρ be the density of water and h be the

w w .
height to which theP
. P
liquid rises inside the tube.
w w . PP
. of
w w
the ww of Volume of the liquid radius
volume w ww
Volumewof liquid
r and height
ww
Then,(liquid column in)=( column of radius r )+ ( )

r − Volume of the
the tube, V height h
hemisphere of radius r
NNeetVt = πr h + (πr x r − πr ) ⇒ πr h + NπrNeet t

2 2 2 3 2 1 3
l a
l i
a .i. The upward force supports the weight l a
3
lai.i.the liquid column above the free lalai.
3
assaa aa aa
of
surface, therefore,
d da a s s ddaass
2πrT cosθ = 𝛑𝐫 . P
. P a a 𝟏
. P
𝟏
.
𝐫(𝐡+ 𝐫)𝛒𝐠
Pa a
w
If thew
ww (𝐡 + 𝐫) 𝟐
𝛒𝐠 ⇒ T =
𝟑
w
isw
w w 𝟑
𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
r w w ww
capillary is a very fine tube of radius (i.e., radius
can be neglected when it is compared to the height h. Therefore,
very small) then
3
rρgh
T=
N Neett 2cosθ
N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.43. Obtain an equation of continuitylalforai.ia. flow of fluid on the basis of lalai.
assaa conservation of mass.
aad aas saa
ofdvarying aad daassaa
w w PP
Consider a pipe AB
. . a and a such w w .P.P
that aw
w
cross sectional
w> w
1
area 1
a . A non-viscous and
2
2
www w
incompressible liquid flows steadily
through the pipe, with velocities v1
N Nett
e N Neett
and v2 in area a1 and a2, respectively as shown in Figure.
lalai.i. l a i
a .i.
Let m1 be the mass of fluid flowing through section A in time Δt,
l l a
l i
a.
et
assaa m1 = (a1v1Δt) ρ
a d a
dassaa
ad a
d
Let m2 be the mass of fluid flowing through section B in time Δt,
a a
s
a aa
s
m2 = (a2v2Δt) ρ . P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w w www
wawv w
Δt ρ = a v Δt ρ
1 1 2 2
www
For an incompressible liquid, mass is conserved m1 = m2
a1v1 = a2v2 ⇒ a v = constant
lai
which is called the equation of continuity and it is a statement of conservation
N Neettof mass in the flow of fluids.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
In general, a v = constant, which means that the volume flux or flow rate
assaa aad daa s saa
aad d aassaa
remains constant throughout the pipe. In other words, the smaller the cross
. P P
section, greater will be the velocity of the fluid.
ww . ww. P
. P
ww ww
da
44. State wand prove Bernoulli’s theorem for a floww

w w
of incompressible,
non-viscous, and streamlined flow of fluid.
Bernoulli’s theorem:
Pa
N Neett N Neett
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
energy, and potential energy per unit mass of an incompressible, non-viscous
a l a
l i
a .
assaa a a a a
fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.
𝐏 𝟏
d d aa s s ddaass
𝟐
a
𝐯 + 𝐠𝐡 = Constant,
a this is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
aa
w.
+
𝛒 𝟐
Proof:
w w. PP
. a flow of liquid w w. P
. P
w w AB as shown in Figure.
wwa pipe
Let us
through
consider
wwww
ww
Let V be the volume of the liquid when it

enters A in a time t which is equal to the
N Neettvolume of the liquid leaving B in the

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
same time. Let aA, vA and PA be the area
a l a
l i
a .
assaa saa s aa
of cross section of the tube, velocity of
ddaa s
the liquid and pressure exerted by the d a
d a s
.P. Paa
liquid at A respectively.
. P
. Paa
w w
w w w
w
www www
Let the force exerted by the liquid at A is FA = PAaA
Distance travelled by the liquid in time t is d = vA t
Therefore, the work done is W = FAd = PAaAvA t
But aAvAt = aAd =V, volume of the liquid entering at A.
N Neett N N e tt
Thus, the work done is the pressure energy (at A), W = FAd = PAV
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN ee tt
lalai .i. Pressure energy per unit volume at lAal=ai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Pressure energy PA V
= = P
Pressure energy per unitddaa ss Volume
Pressure energy PA V
V
dd aass
PA
A
PA
. PP aa mass at A = =
Mass
= =
.
. mass of the liquid entering at A in a givenwtime, P
.P aa
m
m
ρ
w
Since m
w w
is the
w of the liquid at A is E = P V = P V x ( w w ww therefore,
V
wwenergy
pressure PA A )w =mA
𝑚
𝑚
𝑃𝐴
𝜌
Potential energy of the liquid at A, PEA = mg hA,
Due to the flow of liquid, the kinetic energy of the liquid at A, KEA = ½ mVA2
N Nett
e N Neett
Therefore, the total energy due to the flow of liquid at A,
lalai.i. EA = EPA + KEA + PEA

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa
s s aa
s
𝑷
EA = m 𝑨 + ½ mVA2 + mghA
aad da
𝝆
a ad
a a
d a
Similarly, let aB, vB, and PB be the area of cross section of the tube,
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
velocity of the liquid, and pressure exerted by the liquid at B. Calculating the
wwwat E , we get E = m + ½ mV + mgh www
total energy B B
𝑷𝑩
𝝆
B2 B
From the law of conservation of energy, EA = EB
lai
P P
EA = m A + ½ mVA2 + mghA = EB = m B + ½ mVB2 + mghB
N Neett ρ
N Neett ρ
l a
l i
a .i. 𝐏𝐀
+ ½ VA2 + ghA =
𝐏𝐁
l a
l ai .i.
+ ½ VB2 + ghB = constant
l a
l i
a .
sa
𝛒 𝛒
assaa a adda a
Thus, the above equationssaabe written as + + h = constant aassaa
can
𝐏
aa
𝛒𝐠dd
𝟏 𝐯𝟐
𝟐 𝐠
Write any twoww . P

. P w
w . P
. P
ww off roofs during wind storm: w
www
da
45. applications of Bernoulli’s theorem.

w(a)wBlowing
1) In olden days, the roofs of the huts or houses were designed with a
Pa
NNeett N N ett
slope. One important scientific reason is that as per the Bernoulli’s
e
l a
l i
a .i. 2) l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
principle, it will be safeguarded except roof during storm or cyclone.
assaa aa aa
During cyclonic condition, the roof is blown off without damaging the
ddaass
other parts of the house.
ddaass
aa aa
w.
3)
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
In accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle, the high wind blowing over
4)
w
www w
www
the roof creates a low-pressure P1.
The pressure under the roof P2 is greater. Therefore, this pressure
ww
difference (P2 – P1) creates an up thrust and the roof is blown off.
(b) Aerofoil lift:
N Neet1)t N eett
The wings of an airplane (aerofoil) are so designed that its upper
N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
surface is more curved than the lower surface and the front edge is
assaa aasaa
s
broader than the real edge.
aadd ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
2)
w
w P. P
the bottom. w
w. P
. P
As the aircraft moves, the air moves faster above the aerofoil than at
.
3)
w
www w
www
According to Bernoulli’s Principle, the pressure of air below is greater
than above, which creates an up-thrust called the dynamic lift to the
aircraft.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.46. Write the applications of elasticity. lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa 1) The elastic behavior a
a ad d s
isa s
oneasuch
a property which especially decides theaassaa
a ad d
ww . PP
structural design of the columns and beams of a building.
ww.
the.structural engineering is concerned, the amount
P P
.of stress
2)
ww
wthatw
As far as
w w
wwfactor.
the design could withstand is a primary safety
3) A bridge has to be designed in such a way that it should have the
capacity to withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the force of winds,
NNett
e and even its own weight.
N Neett
lalai.i. 4) l a
l i
a .i. l a i
a.
The elastic behavior or in other words the bending of beams is a major
l
et
assaa 5) aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
concern over the stability of the buildings or bridges.
To reduce the bending of a beam for a given load, one should use the
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
material with a higher Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y).
6) www www
The Young’s modulus of steel is greater than aluminium or copper.
Iron comes next to steel.
lai
7) This is the reason why steel is mostly preferred in the design of heavy
N Neett N Neett
duty machines and iron rods in the construction of buildings.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa UNIT – VIII (HEAT s
aaddaa aaTHERMODYNAMICS)
s
AND
aaddaassaa
TWO MARKS AND
w w . P
. P
THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH . P
.
ANSWER:
ww P
w
w more heat’- is it a right statement? Ifw ww
da
wwcontains
1. ‘An object wwhy?
not
Heat is not a quantity. Heat is energy in transit which flows from higher
temperature object to lower temperature object. Once the heating process is
Pa
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stopped we cannot use the word heat. When we use the word ‘heat’, it is the
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
energy in transit but not energy stored in the body. An Object has more heat is
a l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa s aa
wrong, instead object is hot will be appropriate.
dd a a s d a
d a s
a a aa
w.
Obtain an ideal gas P P P P

2.
w w . .to Boyle’s law P 𝛼
law from Boyle’s and Charles’ law.
ww . .
1) w
ww to Charle’s law V 𝛼 T. By combining these
wAcceleration
Acceleration
1
𝑉
w
www
ww
2) two equations
We have PV = CT. Here C is a positive constant.
3) So we can write the constant C as k times the number of particles N.
N Neett N Nee tt
Here k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23 JK−1) and it is found to
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i.i.
be a universal constant. So the ideal gas law can be stated as follows
l a
l i
a .
assaa PV = NkT
aa ddaa ssaa
a addaasaa
s
3. Define one mole. .P P
.any substance is the amount of that w . PP
. which
One w ww w w w
ww
contains
mole of
wworw
Avogadro number (N ) of particles (such as atoms
A
substance
molecules).
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lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.4. Define specific heat capacity and givelalitsaiunit.

.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Specific heat capacity a
energy required to raiseaad d s
ofa
aa is defined as the amount of heataassaa
as
substance
a ad d
1°C w w. P
. P the
w w .P
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1 Kelvin
.P or
w
w∆𝑄w=wms ∆𝑇 w
www
1 ∆𝑄
Therefore, s =
𝑚 ∆𝑇
Where, s – Specific heat capacity of a substance and its value depends only on
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the nature of the substance not amount of substance.
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
∆𝑄 - Amount of heat energy ; ∆𝑇 - Change in temperature ;
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 5. Define molar specific heat aa aa
m – Mass of the substance; The SI unit for specific heat capacity is Jkg-1K-1
dda a s s d daass
. P
.Pa a capacity.
. P
. Paa
.N
w w w w ww
www of one mole of substance by 1K or 1°C.w
Molar specific
the temperature Cw=
w
heat capacity is defined as heat energy required to increase
𝟏 ∆𝑸
𝝁 ∆𝑻
lai
Here C is known as molar specific heat capacity of a substance and μ is
N Neet t SI unit for molar specific heat capacity N

number of moles in the substance.
is J e
N ettK .
l a
l i
a .i. The
l a
l i
a .i. mol -1 -1
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 6. What isThermal a thermal expansion? ss
a ad
isd
a a aa
the tendency of matter to change in shape,a add aassaa
and volume due w . P
expansion
P
to a. change in temperature.
w w w . P
. Parea,
w
threew wwheated. When
da
Allw
w states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expandww
when
a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate with higher amplitude about their fixed
points. The relative change in the size of solids is small.
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N7. e
N et t latent heat capacity. Give its unit. NNeet t
Define
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la
Latent heat capacity of a substance i .i.is defined as the amount of heat lalai.
assaa Q=mxL;L= a d
a da as saaof a unit mass of the material.
energy required to change the state
a add aasaa
s
w.
Where Lw =w. PP
. heat capacity of the substance; Q =wAmount
Latent
𝒎
ww . PP
. of heat
m = mass w
wwof w wwwis J kg .
the substance. The SI unit for Latent heat capacity -1
ww
8. State Stefan-Boltzmann law.
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Stefan Boltzmann law states that, the total amount of heat radiated per
e
l a
l i
a .i. l
of its absolute temperature. a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
second per unit area of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
assaa aaddaasaa
s
Its value is 5.67×10−8 Wm−2 k−4 ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
E 𝜶 T4 or E = 𝛔T4 ; Where, σ is known as Stefan’s constant.
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
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lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.9. What is Wien’s law? l al i

a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aad daa
Wien’s law states that,ssathea wavelength of maximum intensity ofaassaa
a ad d
temperature ofw w. P
emission of a black body
. P radiation
1 𝑏
ww .P
is inversely proportional to the absolute
.P
constant.
w
wwItsw the
value is 2.898× 10 m K
𝑚
-3
𝑇 𝑚
www
black body. 𝜆 𝛼 or 𝜆 = . Where, b is known
𝑇 w as Wien’s
10. Define thermal conductivity. Give its unit.
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The quantity of heat transferred through a unit length of a material in a
lalai.i. a i .i.
direction normal to unit surface area due to a unit temperature difference
l l a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa s aa
s
under steady state conditions is known as thermal conductivity of a material.
=
Q KA∆T
a d
a da
; Where, K is knownaas the coefficient of thermal conductivity. d
aa a
d a
L L
. PP
. conductivity is J s m K or W m Kw. ww. . P P
.N
w w w
The SI unit of thermal
w body?
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
11.
wa black
What isw
www
lai
A black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiations.
It is a perfect absorber and radiator of energy with no reflecting power.
NN eett NNe ett
l a
l i
a .i.12. What are the different types of thermodynamic
l a
l i
a .i. systems? l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a
Closed system exchange
ad daa
Open system can exchange boths s
energy,
amatter
a and energy with the environment. aassaa
but not matter with the environment. ad
a d
Isolated system .
ww P
.
can P
exchange neither energy nor matter with
w
the
w . P
. P
wwww wwww
da
environment.
13. What is meant by ‘thermal equilibrium’?

Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if they
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N Neett N Neett
are at the same temperature, which will not change with time.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 14. What isInmean by state variable?a
a ad da as s a example.
Give
the state of a thermodynamic system d
a a daasaa
s
w.
thermodynamics, is
ww P P
represented by a.set
. temperature, volume and internal energy
of variables called thermodynamic .
variables.
ww P
. P
w
ww
Examples:
wThe Pressure,
www
values of these variables completely describe
w etc.
the equilibrium
ww
state of a thermodynamic system.
N15.e
N etWhat
t are intensive and extensive variables?NNGivee et texamples.
l a
l i
a .i. Extensive variable depends on the size l a
lai .i.mass of the system.
or
l a
l i
a .
assaa Example: Volume, total mass, s
aad
Intensive variables do notda a saa internal energy, heat capacity etc. aassaa
entropy,
depend on the size or mass of the system.
ad
a d
w w .P.
Example: Temperature,P pressure, specific heat capacity, density
w .
etc.
w P
. P
www w wwww
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lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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NN eett N Nee tt
lalai .i.16. What is an equation of state? Give lanalaexample.

i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Equation of state:
a
The equation which ad da as s
connects
aa
aa
the state variables in a specific mannerdd
is
aassaa
called equation .of
w w PP
.state variables by the equation of state.wIfw
state. A thermodynamic equilibrium is
w . PP
. is
completely
specifiedw
not inw wwby these
thermodynamic equilibrium, then these equations
w specify the
wwcannotthe system
state of the system.

Example of equation of state called vander Waals equation. Real gases
N Nett
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obey this equation at thermodynamic equilibrium. The air molecules in the
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
room truly obey vander Waals equation of state. But at room temperature
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 17. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics. s aa s aa
with low density we can approximate it into an ideal gas.
d daa s dd aa s
. PP a a .
. of thermodynamics states that if two systems, P P aa
.A and B,
.N
w ww w ww
are inwww equilibrium with a third system, C, then Awand
The zeroth
thermal
law
ww B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
l a
l i
a NN et
18.
e t
Define
The internal
lai
the internal energy of the system.
.i. potential energies of all the molecules
energy of a
l a
l i
thermodynamic
a N N ee t t is the sum of kinetic and
.iof. the system with respect to the lalai.
system
sa
assaa dd
center of mass of the system.
a a a as saa
a add aassaa
w
and vibrationalw .
The energy due P P
motion
to molecular motion including translational,
. is called internal kinetic energy (E ) w Thew w . PP
rotational
. due to
energy
w w is called internal potential energy w ). w
da
K
w w
molecular interaction
Example: Bond energy. U = E + E K P
(Ew
P
Pa
NN et
19.
e t The amount of heat required at a pressure
Define one calorie.
N Neet tof standard atmosphere to
l a
l i
a .i. raise the temperature of 1g of waterlal1aiC..i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 20. State the first law of thermodynamics. aa aa
0
ddaas s d daass
a a a a
w.
w w . P P . PP
. energy (ΔU) of the system is equal towheatwwsupplied
. to
wwww
Change
the system
in internal
(Q) minus the work done by the system (W)w wthewsurroundings.
on
ww
21. Define the quasi-static process.
N Neett N Neett
A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process in which the system
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
changes its variables (P,V,T) so slowly such that it remains in thermal,
a
assaa saa s aa
mechanical and chemical equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. By
ddaa s d a
d a s
this infinite slow variation, the system is always almost close to equilibrium
state.
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
ww w w w w
w
22. What w
isw
PV diagram? www
PV diagram is a graph between pressure P and volume V of the system.
The P-V diagram is used to calculate the amount of work done by the gas
N Neett N Nee tt
during expansion or on the gas during compression.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.23. Give the equation of state for an adiabatic

l a
l i
a .i.process. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa d da
The equation of statea s safora an adiabatic process is given byaassaa
aa dd
𝛄
w w PP
𝐏𝐕 = Constant. .Here
. gas. The equation implies that if the w
𝛾 is called adiabatic exponent (𝛾 = )
.
which
ww P P
𝐶𝑝
.from an
depends
𝐶𝑣
w
wwwstate (P ,V ) to another equilibrium state (P w
on the nature
equilibrium
of the
i i ,Vw f
w
gas goes
) adiabatically then
f
it satisfies the relation.
N ee
24.
N t t
Give an equation state for an isochoric process. t t
N Nee
lalai.i. l
The equation of state for an isochorica
l i
a .
i .
process is given by P= ( )T,
𝝁𝑹
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa s aa
s
𝑽
Where, ( ) = Constant d
𝜇𝑅
aa da a ad
a a
d a
𝑉
. PP
. for ; . P
. P
.N
25. Draw thew w w w ww
www PV diagram
a. Isothermal process
www
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Pa
N Neet t
b. Adiabatic process
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l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
w w . P
. P w
w . P
. P
wwww w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. c. isobaric process l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww . P
. P w
w .P.P
www w w
www
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e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w ww www
www
d. Isochoric process
www
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaassaa
a addaassaa
w w . P
. P ww. P
. P
w w process? ww
da
26. What w
isw
a cyclic ww
This is a thermodynamic process in which the thermodynamic system
returns to its initial state after undergoing a series of changes. Since the
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N Neett N Neett
system comes back to the initial state, the change in the internal energy is
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
zero. In cyclic process, heat can flow in to system and heat flow out of the
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa system.
a ad da as saa
a ad daasaa
s
w.
27.
w w
What is meant by . P. P
reversible and irreversible processes?
w w . P
. P
w w w w process: A thermodynamic process wcan
Reversible
wwwbe considered
ww
reversible only if it possible to retrace the path in the opposite direction in

such a way that the system and surroundings pass through the same states
as in the initial, direct process. Example: A quasi–static isothermal expansion
N Neett N Neett
of gas, slow compression and expansion of a spring.
l a
l i
a .i. l aai.i.
Irreversible process: All natural processes are irreversible. Irreversible
l l a
l i
a .
assaa a d d as saa
process cannot be plotted in a PV diagram, because these processes cannot
a a d d
have unique values of pressure, temperature at every stage of the process.
a a aasaa
s
ww .P P
. of the second law of thermodynamics www. . P
P
28.
www w
State Clausius
“Heat
form
www
always flows from hotter object to colder object spontaneously”.
This is known as the Clausius form of second law of thermodynamics.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.29. State Kelvin-Planck statement of second

l a
l ai .ilaw
. of thermodynamics. l a
l i
a .
assaa a a da a
Kelvin-Planck statement:
d s a
isa
Its impossible to construct a heat engine thata
a ad d s
a aa
s
w w.
work. This implies P
operates in a cycle, whose
P
. that no heat engine in the universewcanww .P
sole effect is to convert the heat completely
P into
. 100%
have
wwww
efficiency. www
30. Define heat engine.
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e N Neett
Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input and converts this
heat in to work by undergoing a cyclic process.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 31. State“For aas saa in terms of entropy.
the second law of thermodynamics
aad d a ad daassaa
. PP
all the processes
P P
that occur in nature (irreversible process),
. For reversible process entropyw . the
.change”.
.N
entropy always
w ww increases.
w the direction in which natural processwwshould willww
not
w occur.
wwdetermines
Entropy
lai
32. Define the coefficient of performance.
NNeett N N ett
COP is a measure of the efficiency of a refrigerator. It is defined as the
e
l a
l i
a .i. the compressor W. COP = 𝛃 = lalai.i.
ratio of heat extracted from the cold body (sink) to the external work done by
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 33. Can water be boiled without aa aa
𝐐𝐋
d da as s 𝐖
d daass
. P
. Paa heating?
. P
. Paa
Yes, atww w w
w w when the pressure is made low, theww wwstarts boiling
da
low pressure, the water boils fast at low temperature below the
room w w
temperature, water
without supplying any heat.
Pa
NNeet
34.
t This is conductor when we are withoutNclothes N e et tair carries away heat from
As air is a bad conductor of heat, why do we not feel warm without clothes?
l a
l i
a .i. our body due to convection and hence l a
lai
we.i.feel cold. l a
l i
a .
assaa 35. Why is it hotter at theasame a dd a as saa
distance over the top of a fire than in fronta d
ofa daasaa
s
w.
it?
w w P P
At a point in .front
. above the fire, heat reaches both duewtow
of fire, heat is received due to the process
w .
of PP
. and
radiation
www w
only, while
convection.
at a point
www radiation
ww
36. Define Triple point.
N Neett N Neett
Triple point the triple point of a substance is the temperature and
l a
l i
a .i. a i.i. a i .
pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid and solid) of that substance
l la l l a
assaa saa
s s aa
s
coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. The triple point of water is at 273.1 K
aaddaa ad
a a
d a
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.37. Write the applications of thermal conversion.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
a
the bottom of the a a
d
pot as
Boiling water in a cooking
d sapot
a is an example of convection. Water ataassaa
receives more heat. Due to heating, the a add
water
w w
expands and. P
. P
the density of water decreases at the
w
bottom.
w. P P
. same
2) Duew
wwthe molecules at the top receive less heatwand
wtime to this decrease in density, molecules rise to
ww
thewtop. At the
become denser
and come to the bottom of the pot.
3) This process goes on continuously. The back and forth movement of
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e molecules is called convection current.
N Neett
lalai.i. 4) l l i
a .i.
To keep the room warm, we use room heater. The air molecules near
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
the heater will heat up and expand.
5) d da a s d a
d a s
As they expand, the density of air molecules will decrease and rise up
. P
.Pa a . P
. Paa
while the higher density cold air will come down. This circulation of air
.N
ww ww
molecules are called convection current.
w
www
38.
w w
Write the main features of Prevost theory?
w
w
lai
1) Every object emits heat radiations at all finite temperatures
N Neett N N ett
(except 0 K) as well as it absorbs radiations from the surroundings. For
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
example, if you touch someone, they might feel your skin as either hot
a
sa
assaa saa s aa
or cold.
2) ddaa s ddaa s
A body at high temperature radiates more heat to the surroundings than
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
it receives from it. Similarly, a body at a lower temperature receives
www w w
w
www www
da
more heat from the surroundings than it loses to it.

3) Prevost applied the idea of ‘thermal equilibrium’ to radiation. He
suggested that all bodies radiate energy but hot bodies radiate more
Pa
N Neett N N ett
heat than the cooler bodies. At one point of time the rate of exchange
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
of heat from both the bodies will become the same. Now the bodies are
assaa aa aa
said to be in ‘thermal equilibrium’. Only at absolute zero temperature a
d aass
body will stop emitting.
d ddaass
aa aa
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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N Neett NN eett

l i
a .iWITH
. ANSWER: l a
l i
a .
assaa 39. Explain in detail the thermal
a ad da a ssaa
expansion.
a add aassaa
1)
w w. P P
.due to a change in temperature. www.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in .PP
shape, area,
and
2) w
ww states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand
volume
wthree
All wwwwhen heated.
When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate with higher amplitude about
their fixed points. The relative change in the size of solids is small.
N Nett
e N Neett
Railway tracks are given small gaps so that in the summer, the tracks
lalai.i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
expand and do not buckle. Railroad tracks and bridges have expansion
a
et
assaa aa aa
joints to allow them to expand and contract freely with temperature
changes.
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
3)
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
Liquids, have less intermolecular forces than solids and hence they
.N
w w
w www
expand more than solids. This is the principle behind the mercury
4)
www
thermometers. www
In the case of gas molecules, the intermolecular forces are almost
lai
negligible and hence they expand much more than solids. For
NNeett expand and take up more space.

N Neett
example, in hot air balloons when gas particles get heated, they
l a
l i
a .i. 5) l a
l i
a .i. l
The increase in dimension of a body due to the increase in itsa
l i
a .
sa
assaa 6)
aadda saa
s
temperature is called thermal expansion.
a aaddaassaa
The expansion in length is called linear expansion. Similarly, the
w w . P
. P w
w . P
. P
expansion in area is termed as area expansion and the expansion in
www w w
www
da
volume is termed as volume expansion.
Linear Expansion:
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aad d aas aa
s
aad a
d s
a aa
s
w.
w w . P
. P w w . P
. P
w w
wInwsolids, www w
ww
for a small change in temperature ΔT, the fractional change

∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
in length ( ) is directly proportional to ΔT. = aL ΔT
N Neett 𝐿
Therefore, 𝛼L =
∆𝐿
N N ee tt 𝐿
; Where, αL = coefficient of linear expansion.
l a
l i
a .i. 𝐿∆𝑇
l a
lai.ilength
. ; l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
ΔL = Change in length; L = Original
dd aa s s
ΔT = Change in temperature. d a
d s
a s
.P. Pa a . P
. Paa
w ww w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. Area Expansion: l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa a(a)d
a as saa ΔT the fractional
For a small change in temperature
d aaddaassaa
ww . PP
change in area
∆𝐴
𝐴
of a substance is directly
.to ΔT and it can be written as = 𝛼 ΔTwww..PP
w
ww
proportional
wTherefore,
∆𝐴
𝐴 www A
∆𝐴
𝛼A = ; Where, αA = coefficient of area expansion.
𝐴∆𝑇
N Nett
e ΔA = Change in area; A = Original area;
N N ee tt
lalai.i. ΔT = Change in temperature la
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a
Volume Expansion:
ad da a ssaa
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
For a small.P
.P . P
. P
.N
w ww change in temperature
w change in volume( ) of a
ΔT the
w
www
wfractional
w ∆𝑉
𝑉
substance is directly proportional to ΔT.
w
w
lai
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
= 𝛼V ΔT , Therefore, 𝛼V =
N Neett 𝑉 𝑉∆𝑇
N Neett
Where, αV = coefficient of volume expansion;
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
ΔV = Change in volume; V = Original volume;
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa s aa s aa
ΔT = Change in temperature. Unit of coefficient of linear, area and
d da a s
volumetric expansion of solids is ˚C-1 or K-1 d a
d a s
. P Paa
. and derive an expression for final temperature. PPa a
. two
w ww w w w
www systems are mixed. www
da
40. Explain Calorimetry when

thermodynamic
Calorimetry:
1) Calorimetry means the measurement of the amount of heat released
Pa
N Neett or absorbed by thermodynamic

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
system during the heating
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
process. When a body at higher
ddaass
temperature is brought in
ddaass
aa aa
w.
ww. P
contact with another body at
. P
lower temperature, the heat lost w
w . P
. P
w
www
by the hot body is equal to the w
www
ww
heat gained by the cold body. No

heat is allowed to escape to the
surroundings. It can be
N Neett mathematically expressed as
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l aai.i.
Qgain = – Qlost ; Qgain + Qlost=0
l l a
l i
a .
assaa 2)
a dd asaa
s
Heat gained or lost is measured
a ad a
d s
a aa
s
with a calorimeter. Usually the calorimeter is an insulated container of
a a
w
w .P. P
water as shown in Figure.
w
w. P
. P
3) w
www w
www
A sample is heated at high temperature (T1) and immersed into water
at room temperature (T2) in the calorimeter. After some time both
sample and water reach a final equilibrium temperature Tf . Since the
calorimeter is insulated, heat given by the hot sample is equal to heat
N Neett N Nee tt
gained by the water. It is shown in the Figure.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. Q =–Q l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aThe
a heat lost is aa
gain lost
d da as
Note the sign convention. s ddaass
denoted as.P P a a
denoted by negative sign and heat gained is
. of specific heat capacity .P.Paa
w ww positive.
w w
w
www
From the definition
Q =m s (T – T ) ;
gain 2 2
w
w w
f 2
Qlost= m1s1 (Tf – T1)
N Nett
e N Ne ett
Here s1 and s2 specific heat capacity of hot
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i.we can l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
sample and water respectively. So
d da ass d a
d s
a s
write
. PPa a
. m s (T – T ) = − m s . P
. Paa
.N
w ww www
www (T – T ) www
2 2 f 2 1 1
f 1
lai
m2s2Tf – m2s2T2= − m1s1Tf + m1s1T1
N Neett NNe ett

m2s2Tf + m1s1Tf = m2s2T2 + m1s1T1
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. T = l a
l i
a .
sa
𝐦𝟏 𝐒𝟏 𝐓𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐒𝟐 𝐓𝟐
assaa aa aa
The final temperature
d daas s f
ddaass
𝐦𝟏 𝐒𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐒𝟐
. PPa a
. of heat transfer. . P
. Paa
41.
w ww
Discuss various modes
w ww
www www
da
Conduction:
Conduction is the process of direct transfer of heat through matter due
to temperature difference. When two objects are in direct contact with one
Pa
N Neett N N ett
another, heat will be transferred from the hotter object to the colder one.
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of the material.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Convection:
ddaass ddaass
Convection is the process in which heat transfer is by actual movement
aa aa
w.
of molecules in fluids such as liquids and gases. In convection, molecules

ww. P
. P
move freely from one place to another. w
w . P
. P
w
www
Radiation: w
www
ww
Radiation is a form of energy transfer from one body to another by

electromagnetic waves. Radiation which requires no medium to transfer
energy from one object to another.
N Neett N Neett
Example: 1. Solar energy from the Sun. 2. Radiation from room heater.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne tt
e
lalai .i.42. Explain in detail Newton’s law of cooling.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Newton’s law of cooling:
aa dd a assaa
aaddaassaa
1)
rate ofw w . P
Newton’s law of
P cooling states that the
.of heat of a body is directly w
w .P.P
w
ww to the difference in the
loss
wproportional w
www
temperature between that body and its
surroundings .
NNett
e 𝒅𝑸
N Nee
𝜶 – (T – T) ------------- 1
tt
lalai.i. 2) 𝒅𝒕
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
The negative sign indicates that the
d as
a s
quantity of heat lost by liquid goes on
d d a
d s
a s
. P
.Paa
decreasing with time. Where, T =
. P
. Paa
.N
w w
w www
www
Temperature of the object
www
Ts = Temperature of the surrounding.
From the graph in Figure, it is clear that the rate of cooling is high
lai
initially and decreases with falling temperature.
N Neet3)t N Neett
Let us consider an object of mass m and specific heat capacity s at
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
temperature T. Let Ts be the temperature of the surroundings. If the
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a assaa
temperature falls by a small amount dT in time dt, then the amount of
a ad d
heat lost is, dQ = msdT ---------------- 2 aaddaassaa
ww . P
. P -------------3w
w . P
. P
ww w𝑑𝑄
w
msdT
da
4) Dividing both sides of equation (2) by =

wwFrom Newton’s law of cooling 𝛼 – (T – T )
w w
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
S
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑸
= – a (T – TS) ---------- 4
Pa
N Neett 𝒅𝒕
N eett
Where a is some positive constant. From equation (2) and (4)
N
l a
l i
a .i. l al
𝑑𝑇
ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
– a (T – T ) = ms
= – adtd d
S
a a s s 𝑑𝑡
ddaass
𝑑𝑇
a 𝑎
aa
w.
--------------------- 5
w . PP
. equation (5) on both sides,
(T – TS)
w
Integrating
𝑚𝑠
w
w . P
. P
w
ww∫w =– ∫ dt
∞ 𝑑𝑇 𝑡 𝑎 w
www
ww
0 (T – TS) 0 𝑚𝑠
𝑎
In (T – TS) = t + b1
N Neett N
𝑚𝑠
Neett
Where b1 is the constant of integration. taking exponential both
l a
l i
a .i. sides, we get,
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa T=T +b
aa aas
t . Here
d
S
d sa= eb = Constant
ba
2e
𝒎𝒔
𝒂
2
ad
1
a a
d s
a aa
s
ww.P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.43. Discuss the l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa a. Thermal equilibrium
aaddaassaa b. Mechanical equilibrium
aaddaassaa
w w . P
. P
c. Chemical equilibrium d. Thermodynamic
. PP
equilibrium.
w w .
a.
w
ww equilibrium:
wThermal www w
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each
other if they are at the same temperature, which will not change with
NNett
e time.
N Ne tt
e
lalai.i. b. l a
l ai.i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa
Mechanical equilibrium: a a with piston as shown in Figure. Whenaassaa
Consider a dgasa
d as s
container d d
some massP
. .P
is aa
placed on the piston, it will move
. P
.
downward Paa
due to
.N
w w w w ww
ww www
downward gravitational force
wand after certain humps and
jumps the piston will come to
lai
rest at a new position. When
N Neett the downward gravitational

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
force given by the piston is
l a
l i
a .
sa
balanced by the upward force
assaa aasaa
s
exerted by the gas, the system
aadd
is said to be in mechanical aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
equilibrium. A system is said
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
to be in mechanical
equilibrium if no unbalanced
force acts on the thermodynamic system or on the surrounding by
thermodynamic system.
Pa
NNeett NNe ett

l a
l i
a .i. c. Chemical equilibrium:
l a
la .i. reaction between two lalai.
ichemical
assaa
If there is no a acontact with each other then it is said to beaassaa
d da
thermodynamic systemsa s s
in
net
d d
a a a a
w.
in chemicalP P P P
w w. .
equilibrium.
w w . .
d. www
wThermodynamic equilibrium: www w
ww
If two systems are set to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, then

the systems are at thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with
N Neett N N ett
each other. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the macroscopic
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
values and do not change with time. l a
l i
a .
variables such as pressure, volume and temperature will have fixed
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNe ett

lalai .i.44. Explain Joule’s Experiment of the mechanical

l a
l i
a .i. equivalent of heat. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1) a ass aa energy can
Joule showed that mechanical
aad d aaddaassaa
versa. w
Inw . P
be converted into
P internal energy and vice
his.experiment, two masses were ww .P.P
w
ww with a rope and a paddle wheel. www
wattached w
2) When these masses fall through a distance
h due to gravity, both the masses lose
potential energy equal to 2mgh.
N Net3)t
e N Neett
When the masses fall, the paddle wheel
lalai.i. l a i
a .i.
turns. Due to the turning of wheel inside
l l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a dd s
a aa
s
water, frictional force comes in between
a
the water and the paddle wheel.
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
4) . P
.P . P
. P
This causes a rise in temperature of the water. This implies that
.N
w w
w www
5) www www
gravitational potential energy is converted to internal energy of water.
The temperature of water increases due to the work done by the
masses. In fact, Joule was able to show that the mechanical work has
lai
the same effect as giving heat.
N Neet t
6)
N Neett
He found that to raise 1 g of an object by 1°C, 4.186 J of energy is
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
required. In earlier days the heat was measured in calorie.
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 45. Derive Mayer’s relationaaforddaanasideal
saa aa
1 cal = 4.186 J.This is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat.
ddaass
. P
. P gas.
. P
. Paa
w w
Meyer’s w
relation
w μ mole of an ideal gas in a container withwww ww
w V, pressure
da
1) w
w
Consider
P and temperature T.
volume
2) When the gas is heated at constant volume the temperature increases

by dT. As no work is done by the gas, the heat that flows into the
Pa
N Neett N Neett
system will increase only the internal energy. Let the change in internal
l a
l i
a .i. energy be dU.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
ad assaa
dU = μCvdT -------------- 1
aadd asaa
s
If Cv is the molar specific heat capacity at constant volume,
a a
w.
3)
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
Suppose the gas is heated at constant pressure so that the
w
www w
www
temperature increases by dT. If ‘Q’ is the heat supplied in this process
and ‘dV’ the change in volume of the gas. Q = μCpdT ------------ 2
ww
4) If W is the work done by the gas in this process, then

W = PdV -------------3
N Neett N N ett
But from the first law of thermodynamics, Q = dU + W ---------4
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
Substituting equations (1), (2) and (3) in (4), we get,
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
μCpdT = μCv dT + PdV ------------5
5)
ddaass d a
d s
a s
For mole of ideal gas, the equation of state is given by
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
PV = μRT ⇒ PdV+VdP = μRdT ----------- 6
w w
w w w
w
Since the pressure is constant, dP=0
www ∴CpdT = CvdT +RdT www
∴CP = Cv +R (or) Cp - Cv = R ------------ 7
This relation is called Meyer’s relation
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.46. Explain in detail the isothermal process.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
Isothermal process
It is a processa a
indda as
which
saa
the temperature remains constant but a add
the
aassaa
w w
pressure and. PP
. is PV= μRT , Here, T is constant forwthisww
volume of a thermodynamic system will .P.P
change. The
w
wSowthewequation of state for isothermal process iswgiven
ideal gas equation
wwby process
PV = constant ----- 1
2) This implies that if the gas goes from one equilibrium state (P1,V1) to
N Nett
e N Neett
another equilibrium state (P2,V2) the following relation holds for this
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
process P1V1 = P2V2 --------2
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa
s s aa
s 1
3) Since PV = constant, P is inversely proportional to P α .
aaddaa
This implies that PV graph is a hyperbola. ad
a a
d a V
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w
w w
The pressure-volume graph for constant
w w w
www www
temperature is also called isotherm.
PV diagram for quasi-static isothermal
expansion and quasi-static isothermal
lai
compression.
N Neett N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a ad da assaa
a a ddaassaa
4)
w w .
We know thatPP ideal gas the internal energy is a
ww .
. only. For an isothermal process sincewtemperature
for an PP
. is
function of
w w the internal energy is also constant. www
temperature
da
wconstant,
w
This implies that dU or ∆U = 0. For an
isothermal process, the first law of
Pa
NNeett N N ett
thermodynamics can be written as
e
l a
l i
a .i. 5) l a
lai .i.
follows, Q = W ------------ 3
From equation (3), we infer that the l a
l i
a .
assaa aassaa
heat supplied to a gas is used to do
ad
ad aaddaasaa
s
w.
only external work.

6)
ww. P
. P
The isothermal compression takes
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
place when the piston of the cylinder is
pushed. This will increase the internal
ww
energy which will flow out of the system through thermal contact.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.47. Derive the work done in an isothermal

l a
l ai .i.
process l a
l i
a .
assaa 1) aa
Consider an ideal dda
gas as s
Work done in an isothermalaaprocess:
which is aaddaassaa
allowed to.P. P .P.P
w w w expand quasi-statically at
w w
w
ww(P ,V ) to the final state (P , V ).
wstate
constant
i
temperature
i
from initial
f f
www
We can calculate the work done by the
gas during this process. From
N Nett
e equation the work done by the gas,
N Neett
lalai.i. W=
𝑽𝒇
∫𝑽𝒊 𝑷𝒅𝑽 -------------- 1
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 2)
a as saa
As the process occurs quasi-statically,
a
at every stage the a d d
gas is at equilibrium ad
a d aassaa
. P P
.at every stage . P
. P
.N
w w
with the surroundings.
w Since it is in
wis valid. Writing pressure in terms of volume w ww
wgas
wlaw
equilibrium the ideal
wwandwtemperature,
lai
𝝁𝑹𝑻
P= ---------------------2
𝑽
N Neett Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get,

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 𝐕 𝛍𝐑𝐓
W = ∫𝐕 𝐟 dV ;
l a
l a i
𝐕 𝐝𝐕
.i.
W = 𝛍RT ∫𝐕 𝐟 -------------- 3
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
𝐢 𝐕 𝐢 𝐕
ddaas s
throughout the isothermal process. ddaass
In equation (3), we take μRT out of the integral, since it is constant
. P Pa a
.𝝁RT In ( ) ---------------- 4
By performing the integration in equation (3), . P
. Paa
wew
ww w w
w
www www
da
𝑽𝒇
get W =
𝑽𝒊
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
3) Since we have an isothermal expansion, > 1, So In ( ) >0.
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
As a result, the work done by the gas during an isothermal expansion
Pa
N Neett is positive.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i. l a
l i
The above result in equation (4) is true for isothermal compression also.
a a .
assaa ssaa <1, So In ( ) <0. As a result, theaassaa
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
work done ona ad da

But in an isothermal compression
a 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
a a d d
w.
ww
isothermal . PP the gas in an
. compression is ww . P
. P
www
wnegative. w
www
ww
4) In the PV diagram the work done

during the isothermal expansion
is equal to the area under the
N Neett N Neett
graph. Similarly, for an isothermal
l a
l i
a .i. l aai.i.
compression, the area under the
l l a
l i
a .
assaa a dd asaa
s
PV graph is equal to the work
a
done on the gas which turns out to
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P
be the area with a negative sign.
w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.48. Explain in detail an adiabatic process.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
Adiabatic process:
This is a processa ind
a daa s
which
aa
s
a add
no heat flows into or out of the system (Q=0).
aassaa
w w
But the gas . P P
.through some external work. So the pressure,
can expand by spending its internal energy
ww
or .P
gas P
. and
can be
w
ww of the system may change in an adiabatic
wtemperature
compressed w
wwwprocess.
volume
2) The equation of state for an adiabatic process is given by

𝐏𝐕 𝛄 = Constant--------------1
N Nett
e N Neett 𝐶𝑝
Here 𝛾 is called adiabatic exponent (𝛾 = ) which depends on the
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l
𝐶𝑣
a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
nature of the gas.
3)
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
The equation (1) implies that if the gas goes from an equilibrium state
P aa P aa
(Pi,Vi) to another equilibrium state (Pf ,Vf) adiabatically then it satisfies
. .P . . P
.N
w
w
the relation
w www
4)
www www
PiViγ = PfVfγ ------------- 2
The PV diagram of an adiabatic expansion and adiabatic compression
lai
process. The PV diagram for an adiabatic process is also called adiabat.
5) Note that the PV diagram for isothermal and adiabatic processes look
N Neet t N Neett
similar. But actually the adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal
l a
l i
a .i. curve.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 6)
aa dd s aa
s
To rewrite the equation (1) in terms of T and V. From ideal gas
a a
equation, the pressure P =
𝜇𝑅𝑇
aaddaassaa
. Substituting this equation in the
ww . P P
(1),. we have
𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑉
w
w .𝑇P
. P 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
w
equation V = Constant or V =
w
wwhere that is another constant. So it can be written
wwwas
da
γ γ
7) wNote 𝑉 𝑉 𝜇𝑅
T Vγ-1 = Constant ------------3

The equation (3) implies that if the gas goes from an initial equilibrium
Pa
N Neett N Neett
state (Ti, Vi) to final equilibrium state (Tf, Vf) adiabatically then it
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
satisfies the relation TiViγ-1 = TfVfγ-1 --------------- 4
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
The equation of state for adiabatic process can also be written in terms
d a as s
of T and P as TγP1-γ = constant.
d d d aass
aa aa
w.
49. w w
Derive the work . PP
. in an adiabatic process
done ww . P
. P
w w w
Work wdone in an adiabatic process: w ww w
ww
1) Consider μ moles of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder having perfectly

non conducting walls and base. A frictionless and insulating piston of
cross sectional area A is fitted in the cylinder. Let W be the work done
N Neett N e e tt
when the system goes from the initial state (Pi,Vi,Ti) to the final state
N
l a
l i
a .i. (P ,V ,T ) adiabatically. W = ∫ lalai.i.---------------- 1
𝑽𝒇
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa process occurs quasi-statically, at everyaassaa
𝑷𝒅𝑽
f f f
By assuming that thea
d ass 𝑽𝒊
d
gasdlaw is valid. Under this condition, the adiabatic d
2) adiabatic
stage the ideala a aa
w w . P
. P ww . P
. P
w
winwthewequation (1), we get W = ∫
equation of state is PV = constant (or) P =
γ
𝑽𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
w
www
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
can
𝑉𝛾
be substituted
adia dV
𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝜸
𝑉𝑓
= Constant ∫𝑉 𝑉 𝛾 dV
N Neett 𝑖
N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. 𝑉 la
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a .
assaa ] a
𝑉a aa
𝑉 −𝛾+1
= Constant [
d a
d s
a s −𝛾+1
𝑓
𝑖
ddaass
= .P . Paa
Constant Constant
.P.Paa
Constant
w ww [ − ] 𝛾−1
w w
w 𝛾−1
ww www
1−𝛾 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
wBut, P V = P V = constant.
i iγ f fγ
𝛾
𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝛾
1 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Wadia = [ 𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1 ]
1−𝛾 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
N Nett
e Wadia =
𝟏
[PfVf – PiVi] -------- 2
N N eett
lalai.i. 𝟏−𝜸
l a
l i
a .i.
From ideal gas law, PfVf = μRTf and PiVi = μRTi l a
l i
a.
et
assaa In adiabaticP aadd a a
Substituting in equations saawe get, W = [T – T ]
(2),
a ad daa
adiassaa μR
𝛾−1
i f
3)
. P
the. gas cools during adiabatic expansion. w
expansion, work is done by the gas. i.e., W is
. P
. P
positive. As
.N
adia
T >T ,w w w
i
w w w work is done on the gas. i.e., W wiswnegative.
f
wcompression, w w As T <T ,
In adiabatic
adia i f
the temperature of the gas increases during adiabatic compression.
l a
l i
a N
50.
Neet t Isobaric process:
lai
.i. 1) This is a thermodynamic process l a
l i
a NN eett
Explain the isobaric process and derive the work done in this process
.i.occurs at constant pressure. Even lalai.
sa
that
assaa internal energya a
are daa
though pressure is constant
d s aain this process, temperature, volume andaassaa
s
not constant. From the ideal gas equation, wea add
have
V=( w w .
𝝁𝑹P P
. Here = Constant
----------1
𝜇𝑅
w w . P
. P
w w )T
wwww
da
2) w w 𝑷 𝑃
In an isobaric process the temperature is
directly proportional to volume. V ∝ T
(Isobaric process) ---- (2)
Pa
N Neett This implies that for a isobaric process, the

N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. l l ai .i.
V-T graph is a straight line passing through
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
the origin.
d aa ss d aass
a aad a a d
w.
3) If a gas goes from state (V ,T ) to (V ,T ) at constant pressure, then the

systemw w . P P
. the following equation = i
w w .
i
P
. P
f f
𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑖
wThe w
wworkw done in an isobaric process:
satisfies
www w 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
ww
𝑽
Work done by the gas W = ∫𝑽 𝒇 𝑷𝒅𝑽
𝒊
N Neett N N e tt
In an isobaric process, the pressure is constant, so P comes out of the
e
l a
l i
a .i. integral,
l a
lai.i-----------3
. l a
l i
a .
assaa aain the volume. If ΔV is negative, W is alsoaassaa
𝑽𝒇
W = P ∫ 𝒅𝑽 W = P [V – V ] = P∆V
4)
𝑽𝒊
a
Where ΔV denotesdchange
d a s s f i
dd
. P
.
negative. ThisP aa
implies that the work is done on the gas. If ΔV
.
isP
. Pa a
positive,
w ww positive, implying that work is done by the gas. w
w (3) can also be rewritten
W is also
w w w
5) wThe
w equation
using the ideal gas equation.
w w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. From ideal gas equation PV =la l i

a
μRT .iand. l a
l i
a .
assaa V =
𝛍𝐑𝐓
𝐏
Substitutinga
a ad d as
thissainaequation (3) we
aaddaassaa
w w
get, W = μRT .fP
. P
(1 −
𝑇𝑖
)
ww.P.P
6) w
wthewisPVequal
wIncurve
𝑇𝑓
diagram, area under the isobaric w www
to the work done in isobaric
process. The shaded area in the following
N Net7)t
e N Nee tt
Figure is equal to the work done by the gas.
The first law of thermodynamics for isobaric
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
process is given by ∆U = Q - P∆V l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 51. Explain in detail the isochoric
aad a
das saa
process. ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
ww
Isochoric process:
w www
1)
ww of the system is kept constant. But www
wvolume
This is a thermodynamic process in which the
lai
pressure, temperature and internal energy
N Neett N N e tt
continue to be variables. The pressure - volume
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i.
graph for an isochoric process is a vertical line
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
parallel to pressure axis.
2)
dd aass
The equation of state for an isochoric process
dd aass
is given by.PP
. P a a
𝜇𝑅 𝜇𝑅
. P
. Pa a
w w w = ( ); Where, ( ) = Constant
w ww
wwIt that w
da
𝑉 𝑉
wimplies the pressure is directly proportionalw

that the P-T graph for an isochoric
w
to temperature. This
process is a straight line passing through

Pa
N Neett N Neett
origin. If a gas goes from state (Pi,Ti) to (Pf,Tf)
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
at constant volume, then the system satisfies
a l a
l i
a .
assaa the following equation ss a=a saa
s
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑓
aad daa 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑓
aaddaa
w.
thew w w . P P
.becomes ΔU = Q
For an isochoric process, ΔV=0 and W=0. Then
w
w . P
. P
3) ww that the heat supplied is used to www
first
wImplying law w
ww
increase only the internal energy. As a result, the temperature

increases and pressure also increases.
N Neet4)t N Neett
Suppose a system loses heat to the surroundings through conducting
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
walls by keeping the volume constant, then its internal energy
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
decreases. As a result, the temperature decreases; the pressure also
w
w P. P
decreases.
. w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.52. What are the limitations of the firstllaw

al i
a .i.thermodynamics?
of l a
l i
a .
assaa Limitations of first law ofd
a a da as saa
thermodynamics
a ad d aassaa
heat and w w w .
The first law P P
. it does not indicate the direction of change.
of thermodynamics explains well the inter .P.P
convertibility
ww of
www work.
For example,
But
www w
a. When a hot object is in contact with a cold object, heat always flows
from the hot object to cold object but not in the reverse direction.
N Nett
e N Neett
According to first law, it is possible for the energy to flow from hot object
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
to cold object or from cold object to hot object. But in nature the
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
direction of heat flow is always from higher temperature to lower
. PP
temperature.
. . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
www www
b. When brakes are applied, a car stops due to friction and the work
done against friction is converted into heat. But this heat is not
reconverted to the kinetic energy of the car. So the first law is not
lai
sufficient to explain many of natural phenomena.
NN eett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i.53. ExplainHeat l a
l ai .
i .
the heat engine and obtain its efficiency.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a adda
input and converts this heat a
in
s s
to
awork
a takes
engine is a device which
by
heat as
undergoing
aaddaassaa
a cyclic process. .P P . P P
A heat enginew
w w . w w
w .
w (b) Working substance www
da
has three parts:

ww
(a) Hot reservoir
(c) Cold reservoir
Pa
N Neett in the figure

N Neett
A Schematic diagram for heat engine is given below
l a
l i
a .i. 1) l a
lai .i.
Hot reservoir (or) Source: l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
It supplies heat to the engine. It is always
aaddaasaa
s
w.
maintained at a high temperature TH

2)
w . P
. P w . P
.
Working substance: It is a substance like
w w P
w
www
gas or water, which converts the
heat supplied into work.
w
www
ww
i) A simple example of a heat engine is a

steam engine. In olden days’ steam
N Neett N Neett
engines were used to drive trains. The
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
working substance in these is water which absorbs heat from the
a
assaa aa aa
burning of coal.
ddaass d a
d s
a s
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
w w
w w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. ii) The heat converts the l a

l i
a .i.
water l a
l i
a .
assaa aas aais does
s
into steam. This steam
work by a add
rotating the wheels of aaddaassaa
w w P P
the .train,
. thus making the train
w
w .P.P
wColdw
wwreservoir (or) Sink: The heat
move. w
www
3)
engine ejects some amount of heat
N Nett
e N Neett
(QL) in to cold reservoir after it doing
work. It is always maintained at a low
lalai.i. temperature TL. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
For example, in the automobile
engine, the cold reservoir is the ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
surroundings at room temperature.
w www
www www
The automobile ejects heat to these
surroundings through a silencer.
4) The heat engine works in a cyclic
lai
process. After a cyclic process it returns
N Neett N Neett
to the same state. Since the heat engine returns to the same state after
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
it ejects heat, the change in the internal energy of the heat engine is
a
sa
assaa aa aa
zero.
5)
ddaass ddaass
The efficiency of the heat engine is defined as the ratio of the work
. P
. Paa . P Paa
done (output) to the heat absorbed (input) in one cyclic process. Let
.
www w w
w
the working substance absorb heat QH units from the source and
www www
da
reject QL units to the sink after doing work W units

We can write Input heat = Work done + ejected heat
QH = W + QL
Pa
N Neett W = QH - QL
NNeett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai
Then the efficiency of heat engine .i𝛈.= = =
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐𝐇 −𝐐𝐋
l a
l i
a .
assaa ssaa saa
s
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐇
a=d
a da a aad daa
w.
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐𝐋
𝛈= =1–
ww . PP
. Q , Q and W all are taken as positive,w
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐇
w w . P
. P
6) w
ww in this expression.
Note here
wfollowed that H L
www a sign convention
ww
Since QL < QH, the efficiency (η) always less than 1. This implies that
N Neett NNeett
heat absorbed is not completely converted into work. The second law
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. restrictions on converting heat alalai.
assaa
of thermodynamics placedaa
fundamental a
completely intoa dda ass d daass
. P
. P a
work.
. P
. Pa a
w ww w ww
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.54. Explain in detail the working of a refrigerator.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa Refrigerator:
aa d
A refrigerator is a Carnot’sda assaa
engine working in the aaddaassaa
reverse order.w .
w . P
P w
w .P.P
wThe
Working w w
wPrinciple: w
w w
w
working substance (gas) absorbs a
quantity of heat QL from the cold body (sink) at a
lower temperature TL. A certain amount of work W
N Nett
e N eett
is done on the working substance by the
N
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
compressor and a quantity of heat QH is rejected to
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aadd s
a aa
s
the hot body (source) ie, the atmosphere at TH.
a ad
a
When you stand beneath of refrigerator, you can feel a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
.
warmth air. rom the first law of thermodynamics, P
.N
w w
w www
www
we have QL +W = QH
www
As a result, the cold reservoir (refrigerator) further
cools down and the surroundings (kitchen or
lai
atmosphere) gets hotter.
N Neett NNe ett

l a
l i
a .i. UNIT – IX (KINETIC THEORY
l a
l i
a .i. OF GASES) l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa TWO MARKS AND THREE
a a dda a s aa QUESTION WITH ANSWER: aassaa
s
MARKS
aad d
w w . PP
. origin of pressure? w w . P
. P
1. What is thew w
ww www
da
wWith
microscopic
the help of kinetic theory of gases, the pressure is linked to the
1𝑁
velocity of molecules. P = mV-2 m – mass of a molecule;
Pa
3𝑉
N Nee
Nt t eet t
- Avogadro Number; V – Volume; V – Avogadro velocity
-2
N N
molecules.
l a
l i
a .
i . l a
lai .
i . l a
l i
a .
assaa 2. What is the Average Kineticaad d as
microscopic origin of
a saa
temperature?
aaddaasaa
s
w.
w w. P
. P Energy / Molecule : KE = 𝜺 = NkT
2
w w . P
. P
3. Why moon
w
wwhaswno atmosphere? wwww
ww
The escape speed of gases on the surface of Moon is much less than
the root mean square speeds of gases due to low gravity. Due to this all the
N Neett
gases escape from the surface of the Moon.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 4. Write of a gas molecule. aa da assaaaverage speed and most probable speedaassaa
the expression for rms speed,
d a add
w w .P P
.; V V̅ = √ ; V = √ w w. P
. P
V w w
www www
3RT 8RT 2RT
=
rms√ ave mp
M πM M
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNee tt
lalai .i.5. Define the term degrees of freedom.lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa The minimum number a
a ad d ofas saa coordinates needed to specify theaassaa
independent
aa d d
the degree ofw w . P
position and configuration
P
. of the system.
freedom ww .P
of a thermo-dynamical system in space is called
.P
ww w w www w
6. State the law of equipartition of energy.
According to kinetic theory, the average kinetic energy of system of
N Nett
e N Ne ett
molecules in thermal equilibrium at temperature T is uniformly distributed to
lalai.i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
all degrees of freedom (x or y or freedom will get ½ kT of energy. This is called
a
et
assaa 7. Define mean free pathaaand aa aa
law of equipartition of energy.
d daas s d daass
. PP write down its expression.
.
. travelled by the molecule between collisions P P a a
.is called
.N
w w w w w w
meanw ww
Average
free
distance w on kinetic
wwbased
path (λ). We can calculate the mean free path
theory.
l a
l i
a N
.i.8. e
N etDeduce
lai
t Charles’ law based on kinetic theory.
l a
l Pi =
a NN
2𝑈
e tt
e
.i. = u we get PV = U
2 2
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa of the gas is proportional to internalaassaa
Charles’ law: From the equation
dd
For a fixed pressure,a as
the s
volume
3𝑉 3 3
dd
.
energy of the gas or P
. Pa a
average kinetic energy of the gas and the
. P
.
average Pa a
kinetic
w w w
wV α T or = Constant. w ww
www
da
energy is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

wwthat
It implies
V
T
9. Deduce Boyle’s law based on kinetic theory.

Pa
NNeet t Boyle’s law: From the equation P = NN=eeut twe get PV = U

2𝑈 2 2
l a
l i
a .i. But the internal energy of an ideal gas
l a
l ai .iequal
. to N times the average kinetic lalai.
3𝑉 3 3
assaa aa aa
is
a aUs
=sN∈ aass
d d
energy (∈) of each molecule.
aa aad d
w.
constant.w Itw
.
implies
PP
ww.that PV = N∈ Thus PV = constant wwww.
For a fixed temperature, the average
𝟐
translational kinetic energy ∈
. P
willPremain
ww pressure of a given gas is inversely proportional

Therefore,
𝟑
ww to its volume
ww
provided the temperature remains constant. This is Boyle’s law.
N10.e
N etList
t the factors affecting the mean free path.
N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. 1) Mean free path increaseslawith lai.i.increasing temperature. As the lalai.
assaa temperature increases,
increase. It is a a
thedd aass
reason
aaaverage speed of each molecule willaassaa
the
aadd
why the smell of hot sizzling food reaches
severalw
w .
meterP P
. away than smell of cold food. w w . P
. P
2) w w w
Meanwfree path increases with decreasing pressure
ww w wof the gas and
diameter of the gas molecules.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Nee tt
lalai .i.11. What is the reason for Brownian motion?l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa a a d daa ss
According to kinetic theory,
aaany particle suspended in a liquid or gas isaassaa
aad d
ww .
almost negligible.P
continuously bombarded
P from
.This leads to the motion of the particleswin aww .P
all the directions so that the mean free path
P
. and
random
is
ww
zig–zag ww
manner. www
12. What are the factors which affect Brownian motion?
N Nett
e 1)
eett
Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature.
N N
lalai.i. 2)
l l i
a .i.
Brownian motion decreases with bigger particle size, high viscosity and
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 13. Why No hydrogen in Earth’s aa aa
density of the liquid (or) gas.
d d aass d d aass
. P Paa
. square speed of hydrogen is muchwlessww
atmosphere?
. PP aa
. that of
.N
As w ww
wwitw
nitrogen,
the root mean
easily escapes from the earth’s atmosphere.w
wthe presence
wfact,
In
than
of nonreactive nitrogen instead of highly combustible hydrogen deters many
lai
disastrous consequences.
NN eett N N eett
l a
l i
a .i.14. What is an ideal gas? (or) What is perfect
l a
l i
a .i.gas? l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa Boyle’s law etc, at all aa da
An ideal gas is that gas
d
values
as saa obeys the gas laws. i.e. Charle’s law,aassaa
which
of temperature and pressure. Molecules ofaadd
such
w w .
a gas should be freePP
. from intermolecular attraction. www. . PP
ww w
da
wwFIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER

ww
15. Write down the postulates of kinetic theory of gases.
Pa
N Neett 1)
eett
All the molecules of a gas are identical, elastic spheres.
N N
l a
l i
a .i. 2)
l lai .i.
The molecules of different gases are different.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
3) The number of molecules in a gas is very large and the average
ddaass ddaass
separation between them is larger than size of the gas molecules.
aa aa
w.
4)
. P P . P P
The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous random motion.
ww . w
w .
5)
w w
The molecules collide with one another and also with the walls of the
www
container. www
ww
6) These collisions are perfectly elastic so that there is no loss of kinetic

energy during collisions.
N Neett 7)
velocity.
N N ett
Between two successive collisions, a molecule moves with uniform
e
l a
l i
a .i. 8) l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on each
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a
potential energy and the energy is wholly kinetic.
aa
s
other except during collision. The molecules do not possess any
9)
w .P. P w. P
. P
The collisions are instantaneous. The time spent by a molecule in
w w
w
www w
www
each collision is very small compared to the time elapsed between two
consecutive collisions.
10) These molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion even though they
move randomly.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e e tt
lalai .i.16. Explain in detail the kinetic interpretation

l a
l ai .i.of temperature. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
Rewrite theP a ad da as
To understand the microscopic
aa origin of temperature in the same way, aassaa
s
aadd
w w . P P = ̅̅̅
. m𝒗̅̅̅ ; PV = m𝒗̅̅̅ ---------------1
equation nm𝑣 2
𝑥
w
w .P.P
w
ww the equation (1) with ideal gas equationwwPV=NkT,
wComparing
P =
𝟏𝑵
𝟑 𝑽
𝟐 𝟏
𝟑
𝟐 w
w
1 ̅̅̅2 ;
NkT = Nm𝑣
N Nett
e
3
𝟏
N N e ett
lalai.i. ̅̅̅𝟐 -----------------2
KT = m𝒗
𝟑
l al a i .i.on both sides, l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa ssaa
Multiply the above equation by 3/2
𝟑
KT = a
𝟏
m𝒗ad
̅̅̅d a a
---------------------- 3
𝟐
a ad daa
. P P
the. equation (3) is called average kinetic energy . PP
of.a single
.N
𝟐 𝟐
R.H.S w
ofw ww
w
ww (𝐾𝐸
wmolecule ̅̅̅̅ ). Th e average kinetic energy per molecule w
www
𝟑
̅̅̅̅
𝐾𝐸 = ∈ = KT ------------- 4
lai
𝟐
N Neet t
2)
N Neett
Equation (3 ) implies that the temperature of a gas is a measure
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
of the average translational kinetic energy per molecule of the gas.
sa
assaa aa aa
Equation 4 is a very important result from kinetic theory of gas. We
ddaass
can infer the following from this equation.
ddaass
3)
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
The average kinetic energy of the molecule is directly proportional to
www w w
w
www www
da
absolute temperature of the gas. The equation (3) gives the

connection between the macroscopic world (temperature) to
microscopic world (motion of molecules).
4) The average kinetic energy of each molecule depends only on
Pa
N Neett N Neett
temperature of the gas not on mass of the molecule. In other words, if
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
the temperature of an ideal gas is measured using thermometer, the
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
average kinetic energy of each molecule can be calculated without
d da a ss
seeing the molecule through naked eye.
d daass
aa a a
w.
5)
w w . P
.
By multiplying P
the total number of gas molecules with . P
.
average
w
isw
P
kinetic
w
ww energy of ideal gas U = N( 𝒎𝒗̅̅̅) www
energy
wInternalof w
each molecule, the internal energy of the gas obtained.
ww
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝟑
By using equation (3) U = NKT ----------- 5
N Neett 𝟐
N Neett
From equation (5), we understand that the internal energy of an ideal
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
gas depends only on absolute temperature and is independent of
assaa aadd asaa

s
pressure and volume.
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.17. Describe the total degrees of freedom l a

l i
a .i.mono-atomic molecule, diatomic
for l a
l i
a .
assaa aas
molecule and tri-atomic molecule.
Mono-atomic molecule: a ad d saa
A mono-atomic molecule by aad daassaa
ww .
virtue of its natureP P
. f=3
has only three translational degrees of
ww . P
.P
freedom. w w Neon, Argon w
wwHelium,
Example:
Therefore,
www
Diatomic molecule: There are two cases.
1) At Normal Temperature A molecule of a diatomic
N Nett
e N Neett
gas consists of two atoms bound to each other by
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
a force of attraction. Physically the molecule can
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
be regarded as a system of two point masses fixed
ddaa s d a
d a s
at the ends of a mass less elastic spring. The center
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
of mass lies in the center of the diatomic molecule.
.N
w w
w www
www www
So, the motion of the center of mass requires three
translational degrees of freedom (figure a). In
addition, the diatomic molecule can rotate about
lai
three mutually perpendicular axes (figure b). But
N Neett N N ett
the moment of inertia about its own axis of rotation
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
is negligible (about y axis in the figure). Therefore,
l a
l i
a .
sa
it has only two rotational degrees of freedom (one
assaa aasaa
s
rotation is about Z axis and another rotation is
aadd aad
about Y axis). Therefore, totally there are fivedaassaa
ww. P
. P
degrees of freedom.
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
f=5
2) At High Temperature At a very high temperature
such as 5000 K, the diatomic molecules possess
additional two degrees of freedom due to
Pa
N Neett N Neett
vibrational motion [one due to kinetic energy of
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
vibration and the other is due to potential energy]
a l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa saa
(Figure c). So totally there are seven degrees of
freedom. ddaa s ddaa s
aa aa
w.
ww . P
. P
f = 7.
w
w . P
. P
w
ww molecules There are two cases. www
Examples: Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen.
wTri-atomic w
ww
3)
Linear tri-atomic molecule In this type, two atoms lie on either
N Neett N N ett
side of the central atom as shown in the Figure. Linear tri-atomic
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
molecule has three translational degrees of freedom. It has two
rotational degrees of freedom because it is similar to diatomic
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
molecule except there is an additional atom at the center. At normal
temperature, linear tri-atomic molecule will have five degrees of
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
freedom. At high temperature it has two additional vibrational degrees
w
www w
www
of freedom. So a linear tri-atomic molecule has seven degrees of
freedom. Example: Carbon dioxide
Non-linear tri-atomic molecule In this case, the three atoms lie at
the vertices of a triangle as shown in the Figure. It has three
N Neett N Nee tt
translational degrees of freedom and three rotational degrees of
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NNe ett

lalai .i. freedom about three mutually l a

l ai .i. axes. The total degrees of lalai.
orthogonal
assaa freedom, f = 6
Example: Water, a adda a s saa
Sulphurdioxide. aa ddaassaa
w w . P P
.two specific heat capacities of mono-atomic,
w w .P.P
Derive thew w
18.
www molecules.
ratio
and Tri-atomic
of
www diatomic
Application of law of equipartition energy in specific heat of a gas:
NNet
e t
mole
N N
P
of an ideal gas. Equipartition law of energyeet tused to calculate the value
Meyer’s relation C − C = R connects the two specific heats for one
is
V
lalai.i. of C − C and the ratio between lthem a

l ai .iγ. = . Here γ is called adiabatic lalai.
et
CP
assaa s saa ssaa

P V
exponent.
aad da a a ad daa CV
. PP
.molecule: . P
. P
.N
i) ww
Monatomic
w w w w
ww kinetic energy of a molecule = [ 𝐤𝐓] www
wAverage 3
𝟑
𝟐
3
Total energy of a mole of gas kT x NA ; = RT
lai
2 2
For one mole, the molar specific heat at constant volume
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. CV =
𝑑𝑈
𝑑𝑇
=
𝑑
𝑑𝑇 2
3
[ RT]
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa C = [ R] ; C = Cs+a
s Ra ssaa
3
V
aa dda a
2
P V
aaddaa
ww . P
. P = R + R = R
w
w
3
2. P
. P 𝟓
𝟐
w w of specific heats, γ = ; w
www
da
wThe
wratio 5
CP
CV
R 5
= 2
3 = 𝛄 =1.67
3
Pa
NNeetii)t Diatomic molecule: NN e ett 2
l a
l i
a .i. Average kinetic energy of a diatomiclamolecule
l ai .i. at low temperature = kT l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa 5
Total energy of a d a
d a s s d a
d s
a s 2
a a a
w.
5 5
one mole of gas = kT x N ; = RT
ww . P
. P w w . P P
.heat at
2
A
2
w
(Here, the
wconstant total energy is purely kinetic) For one molew
ww volume. C = ; =[ RT] ; C = R www Specific
ww
𝑑𝑈 5 5
V V
𝑑𝑇 2 2
But, CP = CV + R
N Neett 𝟓
= R+R= R
N Neett
𝟕
l a
l i
a .i. 𝟐
l a
lai.;i=. = 𝛄 =1.40
𝟐
7
R
l a
l i
a .
assaa
The ratio of specific heats,a aa
a ass a
γ=
CP
CV
2
5
R
aass
7
5
Energy of a P
Pa ad d P Pa
2
add 𝟕
w w . diatomic
. w w.
molecule at high temperature is equal to
. RT
𝟐
w
wwwCBut,= C =; =[C +RT]R ; C = R
V
𝑑𝑈
𝑑𝑇
7
2
V www w7
2
P V
𝟕 𝟗
= R+R= R
N Neett 𝟐
N Nee tt 𝟐
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N ee tt
lalai .i. Note that the C and Cla

l ai
are .ihigher
. for diatomic molecules than lalai.
assaa aaIt implies that to increase the temperatureaassaa
V P
of diatomic gasa d daas s

the mono atomic molecules.
by 1°C it require more heat energya dd
. P
. P a
molecules
.P.P a
than
w w
mono-atomic
w
molecules.
w of specific heats, γ = ; w ww
wThe
wratio 9
www CP
CV
R 9
= 2
7 = 𝛄 =1.28
N Netiii)t
e N Ne
2
ett
R 7
lalai.i. Tri-atomic molecule:

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a a a a
a) Linear molecule:
d d as
a s 7
d a
d s
a s 7
. PPa
Energy of one mole
a = kT x N ; = RT
. [ RT] ; C = R 2
.
A
P
. Paa 2
.N
w w
Cw
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 7
www 7
wwwBut, C = C + R
= ; =
V
𝑑𝑇
P
𝑑𝑇
V
2
www V
2
lai
7 9
= R+R= R
2 2
N Neett The ratio of specific heats, γ =

N Neet
= t𝛄 =1.28
CP
; = 27
9
R 9
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. CV
l a
lR
i
a . 7
sa
assaa aa aa
2
b) Non-linear molecule:ss ss
a=d
a daa 6 6
aaddaa
w;w . P
Energy of a mole
. P kT x N ; = RT = 3RT
2
A
w
w .
2 P
. P
C w=w w
www
da
𝑑𝑈
= 3R ;
wBut,
wC = C + R ;
V
𝑑𝑇
P V
= 3R + R = 4R
Pa
N Neett The ratio of specific heats, γ =

N Ne= t𝛄
e t = 1.33CP
=
4R 4
l a
l i
a .i. a ai .i.theory model of gases the specific lalai.
Note that according tolkinetic
l
CV 3R 3
assaa independent ofa ad daa s

heat capacity at constant saa volume and constant pressure areaassaa
aad d
w.
temperature. But in reality it is not sure. The specific

ww . P
.
heat capacity P
varies with the temperature.
w w . P
. P
w w w w ww ww
ww
19. Derive the expression for mean free path of the gas.
Expression for mean free path
N Neett1)
N N ett
We know from postulates of kinetic theory that the molecules of a gas
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
are in random motion and they collide with each other. Between two
a
assaa aa aa
successive collisions, a molecule moves along a straight path with
ddaas
uniform velocity.s d a
d s
a s
2)
. . Paa . P
. Paa
This path is called mean free path. Consider a system of molecules each
P
w w
w w w
w
with diameter d. Let n be the number of molecules per unit volume.
www www
Assume that only one molecule is in motion and all others are at rest
as shown in the Figure.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N Ne ett
lalai .i. 3) l
If a molecule moves with averagea
l i
a .i.speed v in a time t, the distance lalai.
assaa a
imaginary cylindera da as saat, consider the molecule to move in anaassaa
travelled is vt. In this time
d of a d
a d
volume πd.P P
. with any .P.P
It w
w w vt.
2
w w w
4)
ww whose center is
wmolecule
collides
www
within this cylinder.
Therefore, the number of
N Nett
e collisions is equal to the
NN eett
lalai.i. number of molecules in
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
the volume of the imaginary cylinder. It is equal to πd2vtn. The total
ddaa s d a
d a
path length divided by the number of collisions in time t is the means
.
free path. PP
. =aa . P P
.1 aa
.N
w w w w w w
wwwe have assumed that only one moleculeww w
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝒗𝒕 𝟏
Mean free path ; = = --------------
5)
wThough 𝝀
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒕
is moving at a time
𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐
lai
and other molecules are at rest, in actual practice all the molecules
are in random motion. So the average relative speed of one molecule
N Neett N Neett
with respect to other molecules has to be taken into account. After
l a
l i
a .i. l a i
a .i.
some detailed calculations (you will learn in higher classes) the correct
l l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a s saa 𝝀 = ------------------- 2 a ssaa
𝟏
The equation a ad d a
expression for mean free path.
√𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐
aad d a
6)
ww .
proportional
PP (1)
.to number density. When the number w w
w
density
P
. P
implies that the mean free path is inversely
.increases
ww wthe distance
da
wthe
w w w
molecular collisions increases so it decreases
travelled by the molecule before collisions.
Pa
Case1: Rearranging the equation (2) using ‘m’ (mass of the molecule)
N Neett 𝒎
NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i. 𝝀=
√𝟐𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒎𝒏
l a
lai .i(density
. of the gas) l a
l i
a .
assaa aa that PV = NkT aa
But mn=mass per unit volume = ρ
𝜆= d𝑚
da
Also as
we s
know ddaass
aa aa
w.
𝑁
P = kTw w . PP
√2𝜋𝑑2 ρ
. ;n=
= nkT
𝑃
w
w . P
. P
w
ww n = in equation (2), we get www
wSubstituting
𝑉
𝑃
𝑘𝑇
w
ww
𝑘𝑇
𝒌𝑻
𝝀=
N Neett √𝟐𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝑷
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N
N e ett
lalai .i.20. Describe the Brownian motion. lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa 1) Brownian motion isss
a a dda a adue
a to the
aaddaassaa
.
bombardment
w w P P
. the surrounding fluid.
of suspended particles by
w
w .P.P
w ww
molecules
w of
w
w w
w
2) According to kinetic theory, any particle
suspended in a liquid or gas is
N Nett
e NN e tt
e
lalai.i. continuously bombarded from all the
l a
l ai .ipath
. is l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
directions so that the mean free
d da a s ddaa s
. PP aa
almost negligible. This
. manner . P
. Paa
leads to the motion of the particles in a random
.N
w ww w w w
wwaffecting Brownian motion: www
and zig–zag
wFactors
lai
1) Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature.
N Neet2)t N Neett
Brownian motion decreases with bigger particle size, high viscosity
l a
l i
a .i. a i
a
and density of the liquid (or) lgas.
l .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a ad d aas saa
aaddaassaa
w w . P
. P
UNIT – X (OSCILLATIONS)
w
w . P
. P
w
wwwAND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH w
wwwANSWER:
da
TWO MARKS
1. What is meant by periodic and non-periodic motion? Give any two examples,
Pa
N Neett for each motion.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 1)
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
Periodic motion Any motion which repeats itself in a fixed time interval
assaa add assaa

is known as periodic motion.
a a ddaasaa
s
Examples: Hands in pendulum clock, swing of a cradle, the revolution of
a a
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
the Earth around the Sun, waxing and waning of Moon, etc.
2) w
www w
www
Non-Periodic Motion Any motion which does not repeat itself after a
regular interval of time is known as non-periodic motion.
ww
Example: Occurrence of Earth quake, eruption of volcano, etc.
NN
2.
eet t
What is meant by force constant of a spring?
N N e et t in terms of linear
l a
l i
a .i. displacement 𝐫⃗ . The restoring force islal𝐅⃗a=i.i–.k𝐫⃗, where k is a spring constant or lalai.
The displacement of the particle is measured
assaa force constant.

a ad d a s
a saa
ad
a d aasaa
s
w w . P
.
1) OscillationsPof a loaded spring 2) Vibrations of a turning
w . P
.
force
w P
www w www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.3. Define time period of simple harmoniclalmotion.

a i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa d da
The time period is definedas sathe time taken by a particle to completeaassaa
asa
by T. For one complete revolution, theaa dd
ww . P
one oscillation. It is usually
P denoted
. ωT = 2π ⇒T = 𝟐𝝅
w w .P. P time
www w
taken is t = T, therefore,
𝝎
www w
4. Define frequency of simple harmonic motion.
The number of oscillations produced by the particle per second is called
N Nett
e N Neett
frequency. It is denoted by f. SI unit for frequency is s−1 or hertz
lalai.i. (In symbol, Hz).

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aato time period by f =
s s aa
s
𝟏
Angular frequency is related
a
The number of cycles (or
ad da a
revolutions)
𝐓
ad
a
per second is called angular frequency. a
d a
It is usually.PP
. and frequency are related by ω =w . P
. P
.N
w ww denoted by the Greek small letter ‘omega’,
w
ω.
w
wSIwunitwfor angular frequency is rad s .
Angular frequency
www
−1
2πf
lai
5. What is an epoch?
N Neett N N ee tt
The displacement time t = 0 s (initial time), the phase φ = φ0 is called
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
epoch. (initial phase) where φ0 is called the angle of epoch.
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 6. Write down the time period a adda a
of
s saa pendulum.
simple
a ad daassaa
ww. P
.
The angular P
frequency of this oscillator (natural .
frequency
ww P
. P
of this
w
wwis ωw= ⇒ ω = √ in rads www w
da
𝒈 𝒈
system) 2 -1
𝒍 𝒍
1 𝑔
The frequency of oscillations is f = √ 𝑙 in Hz, and time period of oscillations
Pa
N Neetist T = 2𝝅√ 2𝜋
N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. 𝒍
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 7. State the laws of simple
𝒈
a assaa aasaa
s
aad d a a dd
w.
pendulum?
Law ofw w . PP .
. For a given value of acceleration due towgravity,
length: ww P P
.the time
periodw
w w
of aw
simple pendulum is directly proportional to wwthewsquare root of
ww
length of the pendulum. T 𝜶 √𝒍

Law of acceleration: For a fixed length, the time period of a simple
N Neett N N ett
pendulum is inversely proportional to square root of acceleration due to
e
l a
l i
a .i. gravity. T 𝜶
𝟏
l a
l ai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 8. Write down the equation aa aa
√𝒈
dda ass d daass

.P Pa a of time period for linear harmonic oscillator. a
. PP a
. second law, we can write the equationwforwwthe.particle
ww
From Newton’s
ww harmonic motion m = k 𝒙 ; www
wwsimple
executing
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
=– 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑚
N Neett N N e tt
Comparing the equation with simple harmonic motion equation,
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa ssaa
𝑘
we get, ω = √ rad s -1
𝑚
a ad daa aaddaa
ww . P P
Natural frequency .of the oscillator is f = = √ Hertz.
𝛚 𝟏
w
w .P.
𝒌P
www w 𝟐𝝅
𝟏
w
www
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
𝒎
and the time period of the oscillation is T = = 2𝝅√ second.
𝒇 𝒌
N9. e
N tWhat
et is meant by free oscillation? NNeet t
lalai.i. When the oscillator is allowed toa
l l i
a .i. by displacing its position from lalai.
oscillate
et
assaa a a d s
equilibrium position, it oscillates
natural frequency of thed a a saawith a frequency which is equal to theaassaa
oscillator.
aadd
Such an oscillation or vibration is known
as free oscillation.P
.P
or free vibration. . P
. P
.N
w w w w w w
www
10. Explain damped oscillation. Give an example.
www
lai
1) Due to the presence of friction and air drag, the amplitude of oscillation
N Neett N Neett
decreases as time progresses. It implies that the oscillation is not
sustained and the energy of the SHM decreases gradually indicating the
l a
l i
a .i. loss of energy.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 2)
aaddaasaa
s
aadda
oscillatory motion is known as damped oscillation.assaa
The energy lost is absorbed by the surrounding medium. This type of
ww. P
. P w . P
. P
Examples (i) The oscillations of a pendulum (including air friction) or
w
w
www w
www
da
pendulum oscillating inside an oil filled container. (ii) Electromagnetic

oscillations in a tank circuit. (iii) Oscillations in a dead beat and ballistic
galvanometers.
Pa
NN eet
11. t
Define forced oscillation. Give an example.
N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. its natural l a
l ai .
i .
In this type of vibration, the body executing vibration initially vibrates with
l a
l i
a .
assaa frequency and due toa
body later vibrates withd
a a d a
theas s a presence
the
frequency of the
of external periodic force, the
applied periodic force.
a dd
Such
a aasaa
s
w.
instruments. w w .
vibrations are known P
. Pas forced vibrations. Example: Sound boards
w w .
ofP
. P
stringed
w w w w w w w w
ww
12. What is meant by maintained oscillation? Give an example.

While playing in swing, the oscillations will stop after a few cycles, this is
N Neett N Neett
due to damping. To avoid damping we have to supply a push to sustain
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
oscillations. By supplying energy from an external source, the amplitude of
a
assaa aa aa
the oscillation can be made constant. Such vibrations are known as
d a
maintained vibrations.
d ass d a
d s
a s
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
Example: The vibration of a tuning fork getting energy from a battery or
w
w
from external power supply.
w w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N e ett
lalai .i.13. Explain resonance. Give an example.lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa the natural frequencya d
ofa da as
The frequency of external
a
s a force (or driving force) matches withaassaa
periodic
a ad d
body begins w tow. PP the
. such that its amplitude increases w
vibrate w w
at each . P
vibrating body (driven). As a result, the oscillating
P
.step and
www w
ultimately it has a large amplitude. Such a phenomenon wwwis known as
resonance and the corresponding vibrations are known as resonance
vibrations.
Example: The breaking of glass due to sound.
NN eett N N e ett
lalai.i.14. State five characteristics of SHM. lalai.i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa of time t from its mean aadda s
position
s
Displacement: The distance travelled
a aa by the vibrating particle at any instantaassaa
is known as displacement. ad
a d
P
Velocity: The rate.of P
. of change of velocity of the particle w . P
. P
.N
w w w change of displacement of the particle is
w
velocity.
w
www
Acceleration:
Amplitude:
The rate
The maximum displacement on either side w ofw
is w
acceleration.
mean position.
Time Period: The time taken by the particle executing SHM to complete one
lai
vibration.
N e
15.
N ett eett
Will a pendulum clock loss or gain time when taken to the top of a
N N
l a
l i
a .i. mountain?
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
On the top of the mountain, the value of g is less than that on the
d da s
a s ddaass
surface of the earth the decreases in the value of g increases the time period
. P
. Paa . P Paa
of the pendulum on the top of the mountain. So the pendulum clock loses
.
time.
w ww w ww w w
da
16.
w w w w
Why are army troops not allowed to march in steps while crossing the
bridge?
Pa
N Neett N Neett
Army troops are not allowed to march in steps because it is quite likely
that the frequency of the footsteps may match with the natural frequency of
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
the bridge and due to resonance the bridge may pick up large amplitude and l a
l i
a .
assaa break.
aad da assaa
a ad daasaa
s
w.
17.
w . P
How can earthquakes
w P
. may cause disaster during the earthquake,
cause disaster sometimes?
w
w . PP
. if the
The w w
wwofwoscillation present within the earth per chance
frequency
resonance
wwwcoincides with
ww
natural frequency of some building, which may start vibrating with large
amplitude due to resonance and may get damaged.
N Ne tGlass
e t windows may be broken by a far-away NN e et t Explain why?
l a
l i
a .i.18.
l a
lai.i.As these sound waves strike the lalai.
explosion.
assaa aaforced oscillations. aa

A large amplitude in all directions.
d
glass windows, they set them
d aas s
into
d d aass
Since glass P
. P a a
is brittle,
. P P
so the glass windows break as soon as they
. oscillations. . aa
start
w w
oscillating due w
to forced
w ww
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN eett

l i
a .iWITH
. ANSWER l a
l i
a .
assaa 19. What is meant by angular a ad d aa ssaaoscillation? Compute the time period ofaassaa
harmonic
a ad d
.
angular harmonic
ww P
. P
oscillation.
w w. P
.P
w
wwa body is allowed to rotate freely about aww
wWhen w w
1) given axis then the
oscillation is known as the angular
N Nett
e oscillation. The point at which the
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
resultant torque acting on the body
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
is taken to be zero is called mean
position.
d da ass d a
d s
a s
. PP aa
. is displaced from the . P
. Paa
.N
2) If the ww
body ww
w
wmean
w wposition, then the resultant w
w w
w
torque acts such that it is
lai
proportional to the angular
N Neett displacement and this torque has a

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. tendency to bring the body towards
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aadd as s aa
the mean position. Let 𝜃⃗ be the angular displacement of the body and
a𝜏⃗⃗⃗acting on the body is 𝜏⃗⃗⃗ 𝛼 𝜃⃗ ------------- 1 aaddaassaa
w w . P
the resultant torque
P
.⃗⃗ w w . P
. P
w
wkwis w w w
da
⃗⃗⃗ =–k𝜽 ------------- 2

𝝉 w w
the restoring torsion constant, which is torque per unit angular
displacement. If I is the moment of inertia of the body and 𝛼⃗ is the
Pa
N Neett N Neett
angular acceleration then 𝜏⃗⃗⃗ = I𝛼⃗ =–k𝜃⃗ .
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i=. = ⃗𝜽⃗ ------------- 3 l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
𝑑2 𝜃
⃗⃗ 𝒅𝟐 𝜽
⃗⃗ 𝒌
But 𝛼⃗ =
𝑑𝑡 2
This differentialad d as s
and therefore,
a ⃗
𝜶⃗⃗
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑰
resembles simple harmonic differentiala ddaass
a a
w.
3) equation
w
equation.w . P
So,P
. comparing equation with simple harmonic ww. P P
. given
motion
ww we have 𝝎 = √ rad s ----------- 4 www
winwequation, 𝒌
w
ww
-1
𝑰
N Neett eett
The frequency of the angular harmonic motion is f =
N N = √ Hz…5
𝛚 𝟏 𝒌
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai.i. 𝟐𝝅
l
𝟐𝝅
a
l i
a .𝑰
assaa ssaoscillation
a is T = = 2𝝅√ second. s aa
s
𝟏 𝑰
aad da
and the time period of the
a 𝒇
ad
a a
d
𝒌 a
w w .P. P w
w. P
. P
wwww w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN e ett NNe ett

lalai .i.20. Write down the difference betweenlalsimple

ai .i. harmonic motion and angular lalai.
assaa S. simple harmonic motion. aadda assaa
aa d a
d s
a aa
s
No. ww . P
. P
Simple Harmonic Motion Angular Harmonic .P.
Motion
w w P
w w w w of the particle The displacementww
The displacement
w w particle is
of the
1 is measured in terms of linear measured in terms of angular
displacement 𝑟⃗ displacement 𝜃⃗
N 2e
N tt
e Acceleration of the particle is
N Neett
Angular Acceleration of the particle
lalai.i. ⃗⃗ = −𝝎𝟐 𝒓
𝒂 ⃗⃗
l a
l i
a .i.
⃗⃗⃗ = −𝝎𝟐 ⃗𝜽⃗
is 𝜶
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s saa s aa
s
Force , ⃗F⃗= m𝐚⃗⃗ where m is called Torque, 𝜏⃗ = I𝜶 ⃗⃗⃗ where I is called
3
mass of the particle.
aa dd aa d
moment of inertia of a body.
aa a
d a
. P P
.⃗F⃗= – k 𝑟⃗ where . P
. P
.N
The restoringw w
The restoring torque τ⃗⃗= – k 𝜃⃗ where k
4 w
k is restoring
w
wwwforce constant
force is restoring w
www w torsion constant.
Note: k pronounced “kappa”
lai
𝑘 𝑘
5 Angular frequency 𝜔 = √ rad-1 Angular frequency 𝜔 = √ rad-1
NN eett 𝑚
N N e ett 𝐼
l a
l i
a .i.21. Explain the horizontal oscillations oflalaaspring.
i .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 1) Consider a d
aa da as
system sacontaining
a a block of
aaddaassaa
w w . P
.
mass m attached P to a mass less spring with
w
w . P
. P
w w k placed on a smooth horizontal surface www w
da
stiffness constant or force constant or spring

wconstant
w
(frictionless surface) as shown in Figure.
2) Let x0 be the equilibrium position or mean
Pa
N Neett N N ett
position of mass m when it is left undisturbed.
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
Suppose the mass is displaced through a small
displacement x towards right from its equilibrium l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaa
position and then released, it will oscillate backsaa
s
w.
and forth about its mean position x0.

3)
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
Let F be the restoring force (due to
w
www w
www
stretching of the spring) which is proportional to
the amount of displacement of block. For one
ww
dimensional motion, mathematically, we have

Fα 𝑥 ; F = – k 𝑥
N Neet4)t N Neett
Where negative sign implies that the
l a
l i
a .i. a i.i.
restoring force will always act opposite to the
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa dd asaa
s
with the displacement.
aa ad
a d s
a aa
s
direction of the displacement. Notice that, the restoring force is linear
a a
5)
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
This is not always true; in case if we apply a very large stretching
w
www w
www
force, then the amplitude of oscillations becomes very large (which
means, force is proportional to displacement containing higher powers
of x) and therefore, the oscillation of the system is not linear and hence,
it is called non-linear oscillation.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN ee tt
lalai .i. 6) a
We restrict ourselves lonly
l ai .toi.linear oscillations throughout our lalai.
assaa a ad daa
discussions, which meanss saHooke’s
have a linear relationship).
a law is valid (force and displacementaassaa
a a d d
w w . P
.
From Newton’s P second law, we can write the equation
w
for
w .P
the.Pparticle
ww simple harmonic motion m =– k 𝒙 ;ww=w
wexecuting
w 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒕𝟐
w 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝐤
– 𝐱 ------------1
𝐦
Comparing the equation (1) with simple harmonic motion equation, we
k
get ω2 =
N Nett
e m
N N eett
Which means the angular frequency or natural frequency of the
lalai.i. l al a i.i.2 l a
l i
a.
et
assaa
oscillator is 𝝎 = √ rsd s a a aa
𝒌
--------------
dd
𝒎
aa ss -1
d a
d s
a s
. P
.Pa
Natural frequency aof the oscillator is f =
𝛚
= √
𝟏
Hertz
𝒌
. P.
---------P3aa
.N
w w w 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
w w𝒎
w
ww
wand the time period of the oscillation is T = = 2𝝅w
𝟏
𝒇
√
w --------- 4
wsecond 𝒎
𝒌
Notice that in simple harmonic motion, the time period of oscillation
lai
is independent of amplitude. This is valid only if the amplitude of
N Neett oscillation is small.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 22. Describe1) Consider a mass aa d d a ass
the vertical oscillationsaofaa spring.
less spring with aaddaassaa
w w . P P
.to a ceiling
stiffness constant or force constant
w
w . P
. P
w
wwLet the length of the spring w
www
da
wFigure.
k attached as shown in
before loading mass m be L. If the

block of mass m is attached to the
Pa
N Neett N Neett
other end of spring, then the spring
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
elongates by a length l.
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa 2)
ad
ad assaa
Let F1 be the restoring force due to
a aaddaasaa
s
stretching of spring. Due to mass m, the gravitational force acts
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
vertically downward. We can draw free-body diagram for this system as
w
www w
www
shown in Figure. When the system is under equilibrium,
F1 + mg = 0---------------- 1
ww
3) But the spring elongates by small displacement l,
N Neett therefore, F1 ∝ 𝒍 ⇒ F1 = − k 𝒍 ------------ 2

N N e e tt
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get – k 𝑙 + mg = 0
a l a
l i
a .
assaa 3 a
mg = kl or = ----------- s a saa
m 𝑙
𝑘 𝑔
d
ad
aa s d d aa s
4)
mass w .P
Suppose we apply
P a a P a
very small external force on the mass such that
. displaces downward by a displacement . P athe
. it will
w w
further
w
w up and down. Now, the restoring force duewwto thiswy,wthen
w stretching of
woscillate
w
spring (total extension of spring is y + 𝑙 ) is
F2 ∝ (y + 𝒍) F2 = − k (y + 𝒍) = −ky−k𝒍 ------4
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN e ett
lalai .i. l a
l ai.i. with acceleration , by drawing alalai.
assaa
Since, the mass moves upa
𝑑2𝑦
a a s s a
and down
𝑑𝑡 2
aass a
a ad
the free body diagram
PP d aa
for this case, we get −ky − k𝒍 + mg = m ------
PP dd
5
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
The netww . .
. acting on the mass due to this stretchingwiswFw= F. +mg 𝒅𝒕𝟐
w
wFw= −wky−kl +mg ------------- 6
force
www
2
5) The gravitational force opposes the restoring force. Substituting

equation (3) in equation (6), we get F = −ky − k𝒍 + k𝒍 = −ky
N Nett
e N Ne et; mt = − y ------------- 7
lalai.i. Applying Newton’s law, we get m
l a
l ai .i.
𝑑2𝑦
= −ky
𝑑𝑡 2
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒌
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa The above equation issina athe form of simple harmonic differentialaassaa
𝒎
6)
d d aa s d d
. PPa a
equation. Therefore, we get the time period as T
. can be rewritten using equation (3) www.= =
𝟏
2𝝅√
. P P
seconda a𝒎
.N
Thew
ww 𝒇 𝒌
www time period

𝒎 𝒍
www
T= 2𝝅√ = 2𝝅√ second
lai
𝒌 𝒈
N Neet t N Neet t
The acceleration due to gravity g can be computed from the formula
l a
l i
a .
i . g = 4𝛑 ( )ms
𝟐 𝒍
-1
l a
l ai .
i . l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 23. Write short notes on the aa aa
𝐓𝟐
d da as s d daass
. P
. P aa oscillations of liquid column in U-tube.
. P
. Pa a
w ww
w cross-sectional area A. Let us pour a w w w w
w uniform
da
1) Consider a U-shaped glass tube which consists of two open arms with
wuniform
w w
non-viscous
incompressible liquid of density ρ in the U-shaped tube to a height h as
shown in the Figure.
Pa
N Neet t
2)
N Neett
If the liquid and tube are not disturbed then the liquid surface will be in
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
equilibrium position O. It means the pressure as measured at any point
on the liquid is the same and also at the surface on the arm (edge of
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
the tube on either side), which balances with the atmospheric pressure.
w.
3) Due to this the level of liquid in each arm will be the same. By blowing
ww. P
. P
air one can provide sufficient
w
w . P
. P
w
www
force in one arm, and the liquid
gets disturbed from equilibrium
w
www
ww
position O, which means, the

pressure at blown arm is higher
NNeett than the other arm.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 4) This creates difference in
l alai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa
s s aa
s
pressure which will cause the
a ad da a ad
a a
d a
liquid to oscillate for a very short duration of time about the mean or
w
w . P
. P
equilibrium position and finally comes to rest.
w
w. P
. P
w
wTime 𝒈
w
wwperiod of the oscillation is T = 2𝝅√ secondwww
𝒍
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.24. Explain the effective spring constantlalinaiseries

.i. connection and parallel l a
l i
a .
assaa connection
a a dda assaa
aaddaassaa
. PP
. more springs are connected in series,wall w
a) Springs connected
ww in series
w . P P
. in
1) w
wwwith an equivalent
When
wseries two or
www the springs
spring (effective spring)

whose net effect is the
N Nett
e N Ne
same as if all the springs areett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
in series connection.
2) as
a s
Given the value of individual
dd d a
d s
a s
. P
.Paa . P Paa
spring constants k1, k2, k3,... (known quantity), we can establish a
.
.N
w w
w www
www www
mathematical relationship to find out an effective (or equivalent)
spring constant ks (unknown quantity). For simplicity, let us consider
only two springs whose spring constant are k1 and k2 and which can be
lai
attached to a mass m as shown in Figure.
N Neet3)t N Neett
The results thus obtained can be generalized for any number of springs
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
in series. Let F be the applied force towards right as shown in Figure.
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Pa
N Neet t
4)
N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .fori. different spring are different and lalai.
assaa s aa them is not rigidly fixed, the strings canaassaa
Since the spring constants
d
the connection pointsd aa s
between d d
aa aa
w.
. P P
wwx .be the elongation of springs from their equilibrium
stretch in different lengths.
w w . PP
.position
Letwxw w
5)
w(un-stretched
w 1and
position) due to the applied forcew
2
w F.wThen, the net
ww
displacement of the mass point is x = x1 + x2 ------------1
N Neett From Hooke’s law, the net force

N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
F = – ks (x1+x2) ⇒ x1 + x2 = –
------------2
𝐅
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
𝐤𝐬
d a
ind as s d a
d s
a s
. P aa
For springs
P series connection
−k x .= −k x = F . P
. Paa
w ww 1 1 2 2
w w
w
wwwx = – and x = – -----------3
1
𝐅
𝐤𝟏
2
𝐅
𝐤𝟐
www
Therefore, substituting equation (3) in equation (2), the effective spring
N Neett constant can be calculated as –

N Nee tt
𝐅
𝐤𝟏
–
𝐅
𝐤𝟐
=
𝐅
𝐤𝐬
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N eett
lalai .i. l a
l a i .i. 4 l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐤𝟏𝐤𝟐
= + or k = Nm -------------
-1
𝐤𝐬 𝐤𝟏 𝐤𝟐
Suppose we haved a
s
as s𝐤 𝟏 +𝐤 𝟐
d
ndsprings connected in series, the effective springdaass
. P
in . Pa a . P
. Paa
ww
constant
w
𝟏
series is = + + +…. + = ∑
𝟏 𝟏
w w
𝟏
w
----------5
𝟏 𝐧 𝟏
www www
𝐤𝐬 𝐤𝟏 𝐤𝟐 𝐤𝟑 𝐤𝐧 𝐢=𝟏 𝐤
𝐢
If all spring constants are identical i.e., k1 =k2 =... = kn = k

𝟏 𝐧 𝐤
then = ⇒ ks = ----------- 6
N Net6)t
e
𝐤𝐬 𝐤 𝐧
N Ne e tt
This means that the effective spring constant. reduces by the factor n.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
Hence, for springs in series connection, the effective spring constant is l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aas saa
lesser than the individual spring constants.
aad d ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
7)
P P P P
From equation (3), we have, k1x1 = k2x2 Then the ratio of compressed
. .elongated distance x and x is = ------------7 . .
.N
w ww
distancewor w w w w 𝐱𝟐 𝐤𝟏
wThe
welastic w w
1 2
potential energy stored in first and second springs are

𝐱𝟏 𝐤𝟐
lai
1 1
v1 = k1 x12 and v2 = k 2 x22 respectively.
N Neett 2 2
𝟏
N e
𝐤 𝐱𝟐
N ett
l a
l i
a .i. Then, their ratio is
𝐯𝟏
l a
l
=
ai .i.
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
𝐤 𝐱𝟐
------------ 8
l a
l i
a .
sa
𝐯𝟐
assaa aa aa
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
b) Springs connected ins s ss
a d
a daa parallel
a add aa
1)
ww
all these . P
When two or more
P
. with an equivalent spring (effective w
springs w w
spring)
P
springs are connected in parallel, we can replace,
. P
. net
whose
w
wwis same as if all the springs are www
da
weffect
in parallel connection.
2) Given the values of individual spring
Pa
N Neett N Neett
constants to be k1,k2,k3, ... (known
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i.
quantities), we can establish a
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
ad assaa
mathematical relationship to find out
a aaddaasaa
s
w.
an effective (or equivalent) spring

ww. P
. P
constant kp (unknown quantity).
w
w . P
. P
3) w
www w
www
For simplicity, let us consider only two springs of spring constants k1
ww
and k2 attached to a mass m as shown in Figure. The results can be

generalized to any number of springs in parallel.
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
4)
w
www w
www
Let the force F be applied towards right as shown in Figure. In
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN eett
lalai .i. l a
l
this case, both the springs elongatei
a .i.or compress by the same amount lalai.
assaa a a d a
of displacement. Therefore,
d s
a aanet force for the displacement of mass maassaa
s
a add
is
F = −kw xw
. P P
. 1 w w .P.P
w --------------
wwk is called effective spring constant. www
wwhere
p
p
w
5) Let the first spring be elongated by a displacement x due to force F1 and
second spring be elongated by the same displacement x due to force
N Nett
e F2, then the net force F = − k1x – k2x ------------- 2
N N e tt
e
lalai.i. Equating equations (2) and (1), we get
l al a i .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa k =k +
ap
a d1
d a a
2kss
aa
--------------------- 3
a addaassaa
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
n
Generalizing, for n springs connected in parallel, k = ---------- 4
w w w p i=1
w
∑
wi
wk
ww
wthen
If all spring constants are
k = nk -------------- 5.
p
identical i.e.,
1 k
2 = k =
www
...
n = k = k
lai
6) This implies that the effective spring constant increases by a factor n.
N Neett N N ett
Hence, for the springs in parallel connection, the effective spring
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
constant is greater than individual spring constant.
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aadda
UNITas
–
saa(WAVES)
XI
aaddaassaa
ww. PP
.THREE MARKS QUESTION WITHwANSWER:
ww. P
. P
w
www www
da
TWO MARKS AND
1. What is meant by waves?

The disturbance which carries energy and momentum from one point in
Pa
N Neett N Neett
space to another point in space without the transfer of the medium is known
l a
l i
a .i. as a wave.
l a
la i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 2. What are transverse waves? aa ddaa s saa
a ad d aasaa
s
w.
Give one example.

w w .
In transverse P P
.mean positions in a direction perpendicularwtoww
wave motion, the constituents of the medium . P P
.direction
oscillate or
w
www (direction of energy transfer) of waves. www
vibrate about
of propagation
their the
ww
Example: light (electromagnetic waves)
N3. e
N etWhat
t are longitudinal waves? Give one example. NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i. In longitudinal wave motion, thea
l la i.i. of the medium oscillate or lalai.
constituent
assaa a a d s
energy
s
vibrate about their mean positions
propagation (direction ofd aa aain a direction parallel to the direction ofaassaa
transfer) of waves.
a add
Example: Sound .
ww P
. P
waves travelling in air.
ww . P
. P
www w www w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.4. Define wavelength. l a

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa a ad da
For transverse waves,as s
the
adistance
a between two neighbouring crestsaassaa
a ad d
ww . P
or troughs is known as
P the wavelength.
. waves, the distance between two
For longitudinal w
w . P
.P
neighbouring
w
wwwor rarefactions is known as the wavelength.
compressions w
www
The SI unit of wavelength is meter.
5.What is meant by interference of waves?

NNet
e t Interference is a phenomenon in whichNNtwo e etwaves
t superimpose to form
lalai.i. a resultant wave of greater, lower orlaltheai.isame
. amplitude. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 6. Explain the beat phenomenon.a d
a daas saa
a ad daassaa
. PP
. waves superimpose each other withwslightly . P P
.different
.N
When two
ww wwor more
w ww
w w
frequencies, then a sound of periodically varying
w
w
amplitude at a
observed. This phenomenon is known as beats. The number of amplitude
point is
maxima per second is called beat frequency. If we have two sources, then their
lai
difference in frequency gives the beat frequency.
NN eett N N eett
Number of beats per second n = | f1 - f2| per second.
l a
l i
a .i.7. Define intensity of sound and loudness l a
l i
a.ofi.sound. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aad
The intensity of soundd a as saa
is defined as “the sound power transmitted per
a addaassaa
ww . P P
.of sound is defined as “the degree of sensation
unit area taken normal to the propagation of the sound wave”.
w w. P P
.of sound
w
wwinwthe ear or the perception of sound by the listener”.
www w
da
The loudness
produced
8. Explain Doppler Effect.

Pa
N Neett N Neett
When the source and the observer are in relative motion with respect
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
to each other and to the medium in which sound propagates, the frequency
l a
l i
a .
assaa s saa saa
s
of the sound wave observed is different from the frequency of the source. This
aadd aa
phenomenon is called Doppler Effect.
aad daa
w.
w w . P
. P w
w . P
. P
9.
w
Explain red shirt
wwspectral
The
and blue shift in Doppler Effect.
w
w lines of the star are found to shift towards
wwwred end of the
ww
spectrum (called as red shift) then the star is receding away from the Earth.
Similarly, if the spectral lines of the star are found to shift towards the blue
NN eett NN e tt
end of the spectrum (called as blue shift) then the star is approaching Earth.
e
l a
l i
a .i.10. What is meant by end correction inlresonance
a
l ai.i. air column apparatus? l a
l i
a .
assaa a a dd
The antinodes are not aas saa formed at the open end, we have toaassaa
exactly
ad
a d
w w . P
.
include a correction,Pcalled end correction. L +
1 e =
𝝀
and L + e
w2=
w . P
. P𝟑𝝀
wwww www
𝟒
w 𝟒
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.11. What is meant by an echo? Explain.lalai.i. l a

l i
a .
assaa 1) An echo is a repetition
a ad daas aa produced by the reflection of soundaassaa
ofssound
a add
w
of soundw . P
waves from a wall,
P mountain
in .air at 20°C is 344 m s . If we shout at a wall
-1
ww P
or other obstructing surfaces. The speed
. P
. is at
which
ww
w344 w m away, then the sound will take 1 second tow
w w wthe wall.
reach
2) After reflection, the sound will take one more second to reach us.
Therefore, we hear the echo after two seconds. Scientists have
estimated that we can hear two sounds properly if the time gap or time
N Nett
e N Ne
1 thet ta second (persistence of
lalai.i. interval between each sound is( )
l a
l ai .i. of
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
10
dd a ss
hearing) i.e., 0.1 s. Then,
a ; 2d = 344 x 0.1=34.1m; d = 17.2d d aass
Velocity =
. PPa
Distance travelled
a
. distance
Time taken
;=
2d
. PP aa m
from a sound reflecting wall to hear.an echo
t
.N
at ww w w
The minimum
ww ww
ww 20°C is 17.2 meter.
ww
12. What is reverberation?
tt
lai tt
In a closed room the sound is repeatedly reflected from the walls and
i N
.i. Nee i N
.i. Nee
it is even heard long after the sound source ceases to function. The residual
i .
l a
l a l a
l a l
sound remaining in an enclosure and the phenomenon of multiple reflections a
l a
sa
assaa 13. Write characteristics a d
ofa d as saa
of sound is called reverberation.
a aad daassaa
For theww. P
. P wave motion.
of the waves, the medium must w w. PP
. both
w w
wand elasticity, which decide the velocitywofwthewwave in that
da
1) propagation possess
winertia
w
medium.
2) In a given medium, the velocity of a wave is a constant whereas the
Pa
N Neett N N ett
constituent particles in that medium move with different velocities at
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
zero at extreme positions. l a
l i
a .
different positions. Velocity is maximum at their mean position and
assaa 3)
aadaassaa
aa daasaa
s
Waves undergo reflections, refraction, interference, diffraction and
d d
w.
Polarization.
ww . P
. P w
w . P
. P
ww MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER
wwFIVE w
www
ww
14. Discuss how ripples are formed in still water.

1) A stone in a trough of still water, we can see a disturbance produced
N Neett N Neett
at the place where the stone strikes the water surface. We find that
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i. l a
l i
a .
this disturbance spreads out (diverges out) in the form of concentric
a
assaa aa aa
circles of ever increasing radii (ripples) and strike the boundary of the
trough.
ddaass d a
d s
a s
2)
.P Paa . P Paa
This is because some of the kinetic energy of the stone is transmitted
. .
w w
w w w
w
to the water molecules on the surface. Actually the particles of the water
3)
www www
(medium) themselves do not move outward with the disturbance.
This can be observed by keeping a paper strip on the water surface. The
strip moves up and down when the disturbance (wave) passes on the
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Ne e tt
lalai .i. a
water surface. This shows lthat
l i
a .the
i . water molecules only undergo lalai.
assaa a as aamean positions.
s
vibratory motion about their
a add aad d aassaa
15.
ww .
Briefly explain the P
. P
difference between travelling waves and
w w .P
standing.Pwaves.
S. ww waves
wwProgressive ww
wwwaves
Stationary
No.
Crests and troughs are formed in Crests and troughs are formed in
transverse progressive waves, and transverse stationary waves, and
NNe tt
e compression and rarefaction are
N Neett compression and rarefaction are
lalai.i. 1 l a
l i
a .i.
formed in longitudinal progressive
l a
l i
a.
formed in longitudinal stationary
et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
waves. These waves move forward
or backward in a medium i.e., they
a ad d s
a aa
s
waves. These waves neither move
a
forward nor backward in a
. P
.P
will advance in a medium with a . P
. Pmedium i.e., they will not advance
.N
w w
w w ww
www
definite velocity.
w w w in a medium.
Except at nodes, all other particles
lai
of the medium vibrate such that
All the particles in the medium
amplitude of vibration is different
N Ne
2 tt
e vibrate such that the amplitude of
N Nee tt for different particles. The
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
the vibration for all particles is
a a .i. l a i
a .
amplitude is minimum or zero at
l
sa
assaa aa aa
same.
ddaass d a
d s
a s
nodes and maximum at anti-
.
These wavewcarryPPaa . P Paa
. energy while These waves downotwwtransport
.
nodes.
3
wwww w www
da
propagating. energy.
𝑻
16. Show that the velocity of a travelling wave produced in a string is v = √
Pa
N Neet1)t N N ee t tas shown in the Figure. 𝝁
l a
l i
a .i. Consider an elemental segment in the
Let A and B be two points on lthe ala i .i. at an instant of time. Let dl and lalai.
string
assaa aaof the elemental string, respectively. Byaassaa

string
dm be the length and
d d a a s s
mass
d d
a a a a
w.
w w . P P
. 𝝁dl ------------ 2
definition, linear mass density, μ is 𝝁 = ---------
𝒅𝒎
1
𝒅𝒍
ww . P
. P
2)
w
ww
wThe dm =
elemental string AB has a curvature which looks
w
wwwlike an arc of a
ww
circle with centre at O, radius R and the arc subtending an angle θ at

the origin O as shown in Figure. The angle θ can be written in terms of
N Neett 𝑑𝑙
e e tt
arc length and radius as θ= . The centripetal acceleration supplied by
N N
l a
l i
a .i. the tension in the string is a la
i..
=lai---------------- 3
𝑅
𝑣2
l a
l i
a .
assaa ssaabe obtained when mass of the string (dm)aassaa
cp
3) a
dd (3)
Then, centripetal force
is included P aa a can
𝑅
a ad d
w. . inP
equation
w . P
. P
F w =ww ---------------- 4 w w
wwcanwbe calculated
(𝒅𝒎)𝒗𝟐
4)
wThe
wcentripetal force experienced by elemental string
cp
𝑹
by substituting equation (2) in equation (4) we get,
N Neett (𝒅𝒎)𝒗𝟐
=
𝝁𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒍
N Nee tt
------------- 5
lalai.i. 𝑹 𝑹
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN e e tt
lalai .i. 5) a ai .i. of the elemental segment of the lalai.

The tension T acts along the ltangent
l
assaa tension force a a
can
a
d a
string at A and B. Since
d ss aaarc length is very small, variation in theaassaa
the
be ignored. We can resolve T into horizontala ad d
ww
component . P P
.T cos( ) and vertical component T sin( ).www.
𝜃 .PP 𝜃
www w 2
www 2
N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
www www
lai
6) The horizontal components at A and B are equal in magnitude but
N Neett N N ett
opposite in direction; therefore, they cancel each other. Since the
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
elemental arc length AB is taken to be very small, the vertical
l a
l i
a .
sa
components at A and B appears to acts vertical towards the centre of
assaa a s
a aa
s
the arc and hence, they add up. The net radial force Fr is
a a d d aad daassaa
.
F = 2T sin(
r
ww P
.)P 𝜃
----------6
ww. P
. P
w w
wwthe amplitude of the wave is very small whenwwit iswcompared with
da
7)
wSince
the length of the string, the sine of small angle is approximated as
Pa
N Neett 𝜽 𝜽
e
sin( ) ≈ . Hence, equation (6) can be written as
N N ett
l a
l i
a .i. 𝟐 𝟐
𝜽
F = 2T x = T 𝜃 ---------7
l a
la i .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa in equation (7), aa
r
8)
𝟐
But 𝜃 = , therefore a
𝑑𝑙
d d a ss
substituting
d daass
a a aa
w.
𝑅
we get F =.TPP
. Newton’s second law to the elemental . P P
. in the
𝑑𝑙
------------8
w ww r
w w
w
wwdirection, under equilibrium, the radial component
www of the force
𝑅
wradial Applying string

ww
is equal to the centripetal force. Hence equating equation (5) and

equation (8), we have
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 𝒅𝒍
T = 𝝁𝒗𝟐
𝑹
𝒅𝒍
𝑹
l a
lai.i. 𝑻
v = √ measured in ms-1 ---------9
𝝁
l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne e tt
lalai .i.17. Describe Newton’s formula for velocityl a

l i
a
of.isound
. waves in air and also discuss lalai.
assaa the Laplace’s correction.
1) Newton assumed aad da
thata ssaa
when sound propagates in air, the formationa add
of
aassaa
w w .
compression P P
.is isothermal in nature.
and rarefaction takes place in a very slow
ww .P.
mannerPso that
thew w
2) w wwis, the heat produced during compressionw(pressure
That
process
ww increases,
volume decreases), and heat lost during rarefaction (pressure
decreases, volume increases) occur over a period of time such that the
N Nett
e N Neett
temperature of the medium remains constant. Therefore, by treating
lalai.i. l l i
a .i.
the air molecules to form an ideal gas, the changes in pressure and
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
volume obey Boyle’s law,
d d a a s
PV = Constant ------------ 1 d a
d a s
3)
. P Paa
. B -------- 2
Differentiating equation (1), we get PdV + VdP = 0 or
. P
. Paa
.N
P =w w w w w w
wwBT is an isothermal bulk modulus of air. w ww equation
𝐝𝐏
– V =
wwhere, 𝐝𝐕
T
Substituting
lai
B
(2) in equation V = √ the speed of sound in air is
N Neett ρ
N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. VT = √
𝐁𝐓
=√
𝐏
l a
l i
a .i.
--------------3
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aawhose value at NTP (Normal Temperatureaassaa
𝛒 𝛒
d d as
Since P is the pressure of
a sair
dd
P = (0.76 .×P Paa
and Pressure) is 76 cm of mercury, we have
. m-3. here ρ is density of air
13.6 ×10 × 9.8) N m . P
. Paa
ρ =w w w 3
w
-2
w w
wwthe speed of sound in air at Normal Temperature
www
da
1.293 kg
wThen and
𝟎.𝟕𝟔 𝐱𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐱 𝟗.𝟖
Pressure (NTP) is VT =√ =279.80 ms-1 ≈ 280 ms-1
Pa
N Neett N Neett 𝟏.𝟐𝟗𝟑

(theoretical value)
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
But the speed of sound in air at 0°C is experimentally observed as
a l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa s aa
332ms-1 which is close upto 16% more than theoretical value
(Percentage error d a
isd a s (332−280)
d a
d a s
aa aa
w.
x 100% = 15.6%) This error is not small.

ww . PP
. assumed that when the sound propagates
Laplace’s correction:
332
w w . P P
. a
1) w w
wwwmedium, the particles oscillate very rapidly
Laplace
wwwsuch that the
through
ww
compression and rarefaction occur very fast. Hence the

exchange of heat produced due to compression and cooling
N Neett N Neett
effect due to rarefaction do not take place, because, air
l a
l i
a .i. a i.i.
(medium) is a bad conductor of heat.
l la l a
l i
a .
assaa saa
s s aa
s
2) Since, temperature is no longer considered as a constant here,
aaddaa ad
a a
d a
sound propagation is an adiabatic process. By adiabatic
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
considerations, the gas obeys Poisson’s law (not Boyle’s law as
www w Newton assumed), which is

P𝒗𝜸 = Constant -----------4
w
www
𝐶
Where, 𝛾 = 𝑃 , which is the ratio between specific heat at
𝐶𝑉
constant pressure and specific heat at constant volume.
N Neett N Nee tt
Differentiating equation (4) on both the sides, we get
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Ne tt
e
lalai .i. ) =la
0a
l i.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa
𝒗 dP + P(𝜸𝑽𝜸 𝒅𝑽a
𝜸
where, BA isd a ass a bulk modulus of air. Now, substitutingaassaa

−𝟏 𝑷 𝒅𝑷
or 𝜸 = −V B -------------5
𝒅𝑽
A
PP aa d
the adiabatic
P Pa ad d
w w . . (5) in equation V = √ the speed w
equation
B
w
of soundw. .in air is
w
www 𝐁𝐓 𝜸𝑷 www ρ
VA = √ =√ = √𝜸VT -------------6
𝛒 𝝆
VA = 331ms-1
NN e tDiscuss
et the law of transverse vibrations inNstretched Ne et t strings.
lalai.i. i) The law of length:
18.
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a dd
For a given wire with
a a as saa
a d d
tension T (which is fixed) and mass per unit length
a aassaa
. P
μ (fixed) the frequencyP
.f = ⇒l × f = C, where C is a constant. www.
varies inversely with the vibrating length. . P
P
.N
Therefore,w w w w 1 𝑐
w
w w f 𝛼 ⇒ 𝑙
ii) The law of tension:
𝑙 w w
lai
For a given vibrating length l (fixed) and mass per unit length μ (fixed)
N Neett N N ett
the frequency varies directly with the square root of the tension T, f α √T
e
l a
l i
a .i. ⇒f = A√T where A is a constant
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa iii) The law of mass:
a ad d
For a given vibrating
aas saa
length 𝑙 (fixed) and tension T (fixed) the a ad a
d s
a aa
s
w w . P P
. inversely with the square root of thewmass
frequency varies
w w . PP
. unit
per
w
wwμ, f α ⇒f = , where B is a constant. www
da
wlength 1
√𝜇 √𝜇
𝐵
19. Explain the concepts of fundamental frequency, harmonics and overtones

Pa
N Neett in detail.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 1)
a i .i.
Keep the rigid boundaries at x = 0 and x = L and produce a standing
l l a l a
l i
a .
assaa d
ad assaa
aadd asaa
s
wave by wiggling the string (as in plucking strings in a guitar). Standing
a a
waves with a specific wavelength are produced. Since, the amplitude
a
w.
w
w . P
. P w w . P
. P
must vanish at the boundaries, therefore, the displacement at the
w
wwthe nodes formed are at a distance apart,www w
boundary y(x = 0, t) = 0 and y(x = L, t) = 0 --------------1
wSince λn
we have n[ ]=L
λn
ww
2 2
2) where n is an integer, L is the length between the two boundaries and
λn is the specific wavelength that satisfy the specified boundary
NNeett N Neett2𝐿
l a
l i
a .i. 3) l a
lai.i.
conditions. Hence, λn = ( ) -----------------2
𝑛
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Therefore, not all wavelengths are allowed. The (allowed) wavelengths
ddaass d a
d s
a s
should fit with the specified boundary conditions, i.e., for n = 1, the first
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
mode of vibration has specific wavelength λl = 2L. Similarly for n=
w ww w w
w
2, the second mode of vibration has specific wavelength
wλw= w
2
𝟐𝑳
( )=L
𝟐
www
2L
For n = 3, the third mode of vibration has specific wavelength λ3 = ( )
3
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN ee tt
lalai .i. and so on. The frequency ofla l ai

each.i.mode of vibration (called natural lalai.
assaa a a d d a as
frequency) can be calculated.saaf = = n ( ) -------------3
n
𝐯
𝛌𝐧
𝐯
𝟐𝐋
a add aassaa
4)
ww P P
The lowest.natural
.) -------------4
frequency is called the fundamental .P.P
frequency.
w w
f =ww ww
𝐯 𝐯
wThe
1
wsecond
𝛌𝟏
= (
𝟐𝐋 w w
natural frequency is called the first over tone.
𝐯 𝟏 𝐓
f2 = 2( ) = √
N Nett
e 𝟐𝐋 𝐋 𝛍
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
The third natural frequency is called the second over tone.
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s asoaon. Therefore, the nth natural frequencyaassaa
𝐯 𝟏 𝐓
f = 3( ) =3( √ ) and
3
𝟐𝐋
dd a
𝟐𝐋
a s
𝛍
dd
P
can be computed
. P aa P
as integral (or integer) multiple of fundamental
. f = nf , where n is an integer -------------w5 ww. . Paa
.N
w ww
frequency, i.e.,
w frequencies are written as integral multiplewww
n 1
5) wIffrequencies,
wnatural of fundamental
then the frequencies are called harmonics. Thus, the first
lai
harmonic is f1 = f1 (the fundamental frequency is called first harmonic),
the second harmonic is f2 = 2f1 , the third harmonic is f3 = 3f1 etc.
NN eett NN ee tt
l a
l i
a .i.20. What is a sonometer? Give its construction
l a
l ai .i. and working. Explain how to l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa determine the frequency of tuning
1) Sono means sound
a a d da a s aaforkandusing
s
related,
sonometer.
sonometer implies d
sound-related
aa daassaa
w w .
measurements.P
. P It is a device for demonstrating the
ww . P
. P
relationship
w w
w wave in a string, and the tension, lengthwwandwmass per unit
da
between the frequency of the sound produced in the transverse

wstanding
w
length of the string.
2) Therefore, using this device, we can determine the following quantities:
Pa
N Neett N N ett
a) the frequency of the tuning fork or frequency of alternating current
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
b) the tension in the string
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
c) the unknown hanging mass
a
Construction:
dd ass ddaass
aa aa
w.
3)
ww P
The sonometer is made up of a
. . P
hollow box which is one-meter- w
w . P
. P
w
www
long with a uniform metallic w
www
ww
thin string attached to it. One

end of the string is connected to
a hook and the other end is
NNeett N Neett
connected to a weight hanger through a pulley as shown in Figure.
l a
l i
a .i. 4) l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
Since only one string is used, it is also known as monochord. The
assaa a
of the wire.
add asaa
s
ad
a d s
a aa
s
weights are added to the free end of the wire to increase the tension
a a
5)
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
Two adjustable wooden knives are put over the board, and their
w
www w
www
positions are adjusted to change the vibrating length of the stretched
wire.
Working:
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett NN e tt
e
lalai .i. 6) l a
l i
a
A transverse stationary or standing .iwave
. is produced and hence, at the lalai.
assaa anti-nodes are a a da
formed. as
knife edges P and Q, nodes
d saaare formed. In between the knife edges,aassaa
a ad d
ww .
If the length
PP
.of the vibrating element is 𝒍 then 𝒍 = ⇒w𝝀 w =w .P
2𝒍 .
P
𝝀
7) wLet
w wfw
be the frequency of the vibrating element, Tw w
the w of in the
tension
𝟐
string and μ the mass per unit length of the string. Then using equation
𝐓 𝒗 𝟏 𝐓
v =√ , we get f = = √𝛍 in Hz ------------1
N Net8)t
e 𝛍 𝝀 𝟐𝒍
N Neett
lalai.i. l l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
Let ρ be the density of the material of the string and d be the diameter
a
et
assaa aa aa
of the string. Then the mass per unit length μ,
d aa ss d a s
a s
a a =d aa d
𝝅𝝆𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻
μ = Area × density πr ρ = ;f= = √ f= √
. P
.P 2
. P
. P 𝝅𝝆𝒅𝟐
.N
Writew w w w
wnotes on intensity and loudness.
𝟒
www
𝝀
w
𝟐𝒍
𝟒
𝒍𝒅 𝝅𝝆
21. w
short
Intensity of sound:
w
w
lai
1) When a sound wave is emitted by a source, the energy is carried to all
N Neett N Neett
possible surrounding points. The average sound energy emitted or
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
transmitted per unit time or per second is called sound power.
sa
assaa 2)
aadd asaa
s
aadd assaa
Therefore, the intensity of sound is defined as “the sound power
a a
transmitted per unit area taken normal to the propagation of the
ww. P
. P
sound wave”.
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
3) For a particular source (fixed source), the sound intensity is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
power of the source 1
I= ⇒Iα
Pa
N Neett 4πr2
N Neett r2
This is known as inverse square law of sound intensity.
l a
l i
a .i. l
Loudness of sound: a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
aadaassaa
aa daasaa
s
Two sounds with same intensities need not have the same loudness.
d d
w.
For example, the sound heard during the explosion of balloons in a

ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
silent closed room is very loud when compared to the same explosion
w
www
happening in a noisy market. w
www
ww
2) Though the intensity of the sound is the same, the loudness is not. If
the intensity of sound is increased, then loudness also increases. But
N Neett N Neett
additionally, not only does intensity matter, the internal and subjective
l a
l i
a .i. a i.i. a i .
experience of “how loud a sound is” i.e., the sensitivity of the listener
l la l l a
assaa 3)
aaddaasaa
s
also matters here.
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
This is often called loudness. That is, loudness depends on both
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
intensity of sound waves and sensitivity of the ear (It is purely observer
w
www w
www
dependent quantity which varies from person to person) whereas the
intensity of sound does not depend on the observer.
4) The loudness of sound is defined as “the degree of sensation of sound
N Neett N N e tt
produced in the ear or the perception of sound by the listener”.
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne tt
e
lalai .i.22. Explain how overtones are producedlalinaia.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa (a) Closed organ pipe
aad a
(b)
d assaaorgan pipe
Open
aaddaassaa
1) w w
It is a pipe. P
a) Closed organ
P pipes:
. one end closed
with w
w .P.P
wand
w w w
the other end open. If one w
w w
w
end of a pipe is closed, the
wave reflected at this closed
N Net2)t
e N Neett
end is 180° out of phase with the incoming wave.
Thus there is no displacement of the particles at the closed end.
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
Therefore, nodes are formed at the closed end and anti-nodes are
et
assaa 3) aaddas aa
s
formed at open end.
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
Consider the simplest mode of vibration of the air column called the
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
fundamental mode. Anti-node is
w www
www
formed at the open end and node at
www
closed end. From the Figure, let L be
the length of the tube and the
lai
wavelength of the wave produced.
N Neett For the fundamental mode of

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. vibration, we have,
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa ssaa The ssaa
𝛌𝟏
L = or 𝛌 = 4L ;
𝟒 𝟏
a
frequency of the
adda
note a
emitted is aaddaa
f = w
𝐯
w .𝐯P P
. is called the fundamental note. www.
= which . P
P
1
w
wwfrequencies higher than www
da
𝛌𝟏 𝟒𝐋
4) wThe
fundamental frequency can be
produced by blowing air strongly at
Pa
N Neett open end. Such frequencies are called

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. overtones.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
The Figure 2 shows the second mode of
d daa s s
vibration having two nodes and two
ddaass
a a aa
w.
anti-nodes..P . P . P
. P
𝟑𝛌𝟐 𝟒𝐋
4L = 3𝛌 L = or 𝛌 =
w w w w 𝟐 𝟒
w
w
𝟐
w
w 𝟑
wThe
w frequency of this f = 2 = = 3f
𝛌𝟐
𝐯
w
w𝟑𝐯
𝟒𝐋
1
ww
is called first over tone, since here, the

frequency is three times the fundamental frequency it is called third
N Neet5)t harmonic.
N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. three anti-nodes. 4L = 5𝛌 aLl=a l ai.ior. 𝛌 =
The Figure 3 shows third mode of vibration having three nodes and
l a
l i
a .
assaa a aa
𝟓𝛌𝟑 𝟒𝐋
d d a as s 𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟓
ddaass
since nw .
5. P aa
The frequency of this
P f = 3
𝛌𝟑
𝐯 𝟓𝐯
𝟒𝐋
1
. . Paa
= = 5f is called second over tone, and
P
w =w here, this is called fifth harmonic.
w ww
6)
wwthe closed organ pipe has only odd harmonics
wHence, wwandw frequency of
the nth harmonic is f = (2n+1)f . Therefore, the frequencies of
n 1
harmonics are in the ratio f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :…= 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : …
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. b) Open organ pipe: l a

l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1)
aas
It is a pipe with both the
open. At both a add
open
saends
a
ends, anti- aaddaassaa
w
nodes are
w . PP
. simplest mode of
formed. Let us
w
w .P.P
w
ww of the air column
wvibration
consider the w
www
called fundamental mode.
Since anti-nodes are formed at
NNett
e the open end, a node is formed
N Neett
lalai.i. 2) at the mid-point of the pipe.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
From Figure, if L be the length of
d d aa s d a
d
the tube, the wavelength of the wave produced is given by a s
L = or λ .P
λ1
. Pa a . P
. Paa
.N
= 2L
w w w 1
w of the note emitted is f = = www
2
www
wThe
w frequency
which is called the fundamental note.
1
𝐯
𝛌𝟏
𝐯
𝟐𝐋
lai
3) The frequencies higher than
N Neett fundamental frequency can be

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. produced by blowing air strongly at
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
one of the open ends. Such
assaa a as saa
frequencies are called overtones.
aadd aaddaassaa
4)
. P
The Figure shows
w w P
.in open pipes. It has two
the second mode
w
w . P
. P
w
of vibration
wand three anti-nodes, and w
w
da
wnodes
w
therefore, L =λ or λ = L .
2 2
w
w
𝒗 𝐯
The frequency f2 = =
Pa
N Neett 𝐯
𝝀𝟐
N Neett𝐋
l a
l i
a .i. =2x
𝟐𝐋
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
= 2f1 is called first over tone. Since n = 2 here, it is called the
assaa aa aa
second harmonic.
5) aass
The Figure shows the third mode of
dd ddaass
aa aa
w.
ww P
. P
vibration having three nodes and
. 𝟑 𝟐𝐋
w
w . P
. P
w
wfw= w= = 3 x = 3f
four anti-nodes L = 𝛌𝟑 or 𝛌𝟑 = ;
𝐯 𝟑𝐯 𝐯
𝟐 w
www 𝟑
ww
3 1
𝛌𝟑 𝟐𝐋 𝟐𝐋
is called second over tone. Since n
NNeett = 3 here, it is called the third

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 6) harmonic.
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Hence, the open organ pipe has all
ddaass
the harmonics and frequency of nth
d a
d s
a s
. . Paa . P
. Paa
harmonic is fn = nf1. Therefore, the frequencies of harmonics are in
P
w w
w w w
w
the ratio f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :…= 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : …….
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN eett
lalai .i.23. How will you determine the velocitylala

ofi.isound
. using resonance air column lalai.
assaa apparatus?
aaddaas aa
s
a addaassaa
1) The
w w
apparatus. P
resonance
P air column
. one of the simplest
is ww . P
. P
w
ww to measure the speed
wtechniques wwww
of sound in air at room
temperature.
2) It consists of a cylindrical glass tube
N Net
e t N Neett
of one-meter length whose one end
lalai.i. l a i
a .i.
A is open and another end B is
l l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a dd s
a aa
s
connected to the water reservoir R
a
through a rubber tube as shown in
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P
Figure. This cylindrical glass tube is . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
www
mounted on a vertical stand with a
scale attached to it. www
3) The tube is partially filled with
lai
water and the water level can be
N Neett N N ett
adjusted by raising or lowering the
e
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
water in the reservoir R. The surface
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
of the water will act as a closed end
ddaass
and other as the open end.
ddaass
4)
P aa
Therefore, it behaves like a closed
. . P . P
. Paa
www w w
w
organ pipe, forming nodes at the surface of water and antinodes at the
www www
da
closed end.
5) When a vibrating tuning fork is brought near the open end of the tube,
longitudinal waves are formed inside the air column. These waves
move downward as shown in Figure, and reach the surfaces of water
Pa
NNeett N Neett
and get reflected and produce standing waves.
l a
l i
a .i. 6) l a
lai .i. l a i
a .
The length of the air column is varied by changing the water level until
l
assaa add assaa
a dd asaa
s
a loud sound is produced in the air column. At this particular length
a a
the frequency of waves in the air column resonates with the frequency
a a
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
of the tuning fork (natural frequency of the tuning fork).
7) w
www w
www
At resonance, the frequency of sound waves produced is equal to the
frequency of the tuning fork. This will occur only when the length of air
ww
1 𝑡ℎ
column is proportional to ( ) of the wavelength of the sound waves
4
NNeett N N eett 𝟏
produced. Let the first resonance occur at length L1, then 𝝀 = L1
l a
l i
a .i. 8) l lai.i. 𝟒
But since the antinodes are not exactly formed at the open end, we have
a l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa s aa
to include a correction, called end correction e, by assuming that the
d da a s
antinode is formed at some small distance above the open end. d a
d a s
. P
Including thisP aa
end correction, the first resonance
𝟏
is = L .
+ P
eP
. of the air column is increased towgetwwthe. secondaa
w ww 𝝀 1
ww Let L be the length at which the second w occurs.

𝟒
9)
wresonance.
Now the length
2
wwresonance
𝟑
Again taking end correction into account, 𝝀 = L2 + e
𝟒
N Neett In order to avoid end correction,

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN e e tt
lalai .i. l a
l ai .i. 𝜆 = L, l a
l i
a .
assaa a:…=a 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : … aa
1
let us take the difference of equation
and equation f : f : afa:sfs aass
4
𝜆 –.P P a a
1
d d 2 3 4
P Paadd
3
w w . 1
𝜆 = (L + e –2L + e) 1
w
w . .
w
www⇒ 𝝀 = L – L = 𝚫𝑳 ⇒ 𝝀 = 2 𝚫𝑳
4
𝟏
𝟐
4
2 1 w
www
24. Write the expression for the velocity of longitudinal waves in an elastic
NNett
e medium.
N N eett
lalai.i. 1) a
Consider an elastic medium l(here
l i
a .iwe. assume air) having a fixed mass lalai.
et
assaa d aas
contained in a long tube
maintainedP a a d saa whose cross sectional area is A andaassaa
(cylinder)
ad
a d
. . Punder a
. P. P
.N
w ww w w w
ww longitudinal www
pressure P. One can
wgenerate
waves in the fluid either
lai
by displacing the fluid
N Neett using a piston or by

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l
keeping a vibrating a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aasaa
s
tuning fork at one end of
aadd aaddaassaa
2) ww. P
the tube.
. P
Let us assume that the w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
direction of propagation
of waves coincides with
the axis of the cylinder.
Pa
N Neett N Neett
Let ρ be the density of the fluid which is initially at rest. At t = 0, the
l a
l i
a .i. a i .i. a i .
piston at left end of the tube is set in motion toward the right with a
l la l l a
assaa speed u.
ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
3) Let u be the velocity of the piston and v be the velocity of the elastic
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
wave. In time interval Δt, the distance moved by the piston Δd = u Δt.
w
www w
www
Now, the distance moved by the elastic disturbance is Δx = vΔt. Let Δm
ww
be the mass of the air that has attained a velocity v in a time Δt .

Therefore, Δm = ρ A Δx = ρ A (v Δt)
N Neet t
4)
N Neett
Then, the momentum imparted due to motion of piston with velocity u
l a
l i
a .i. is Δp = [ρ A (v Δt)]u
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
But the change in momentum is impulse.
ddaass d a
d s
a s
The net impulse is I = (ΔP A)Δt Or (ΔP A)Δt = [ρ A (v Δt)]u
.P. Paa
ΔP = ρ v u ---------------1 . P
. Paa
w w
w w w
w
5)
www www
When the sound waves passes through air, the small volume element
(ΔV) of the air undergoes regular compressions and rarefactions. So,
∆V
the change in pressure can also be written as ΔP = B
V
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
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N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. a
where, V is original volume land
l aiB.i.is known as bulk modulus of the lalai.
assaa elastic medium.
But V = Aaad da as saa
a ad daassaa
ww . PP Δx = A v Δt and ΔV = A Δd =A u Δt
. ΔP = B = B --------------- 2 www. . P P
w
ww equation (1) and equation (2), www
Therefore,
wComparing
𝐀𝐮 ∆𝐭
𝐀𝐯 ∆𝐭
𝐮
𝐯
𝐮 𝐁 𝐁
we get ρ v u = B or v2 = ⇒ v = √ --------3
N Nett
e
𝐯 𝛒
N
𝛒
Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
In general, the velocity of a longitudinal wave in elastic medium is
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa ssaa of elasticity of the medium. s aa
s
E
ρ
a ad da
v = √ , where E is the modulus
a ad
a a
d a
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w w w ww
i) ww rod (1D)
Cases: For a solid:
wOne-dimension www
lai
Y
v = √ , -----------4 where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material of the
N Neett ρ
N eett
rod and ρ is the density of the rod. The 1D rod will have only Young’s
N
l a
l i
a .i. modulus. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aad da ass aa
aaddaassaa
ii)
w w. P
. P
Three-dimension rod (3D)
w w . P
. P
w w
w of longitudinal wave in a solid is v =√ ww--------5
w
da
wThe
wspeed 3
4+ η
ρ
4
where η is the modulus of rigidity, K is the bulk modulus and ρ is the

Pa
N Neett density of the rod.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. K
l al a i ..
6iwhere, K is the bulk modulus and ρ l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Cases: For liquids: v = √ , --------
d da as sρ
d daass
a a
is the density of the rod.
aa
w.
w w. P
. P ww . P
. P
www w wwww
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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w ..
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NN eett NNee tt
lalai .i.25. Write the applications of reflection lofalasound

i .i. waves: l a
l i
a .
assaa a) Stethoscope: It works ona
aadd as
the saa of multiple reflections.
principle
a addaassaa
w w . P
. P
It consists of three main parts:
w w.P.P
i) Chest piece (ii) Ear piece (iii) Rubber tube
w
i) Chest piece: w
wwwIt consists of a small disc-shaped resonatorw(diaphragm)
ww which is
very sensitive to sound and amplifies the sound it detects.
N Nett
e ii) Ear piece:
NN eett
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i. which are used to hear sounds lalai.
et
assaa aa aa
It is made up of metal tubes
detected by the chesta
dd as s
piece.
d daass
P
.P
iii) Rubber.tube:
aa . P
. Paa
.N
w w w w w w
wwThisthetube
wtransmit connects both chest piece and ear ww w It is used to
piece.
sound signal detected by the diaphragm, to the ear piece.
lai
The sound of heart beats (or lungs) or any sound produced by internal
organs can be detected, and it reaches the ear piece through this tube
N Neett by multiple reflections.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. b) Echo:
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 1)
aadd asaa
s
aadd assaa
An echo is a repetition of sound produced by the reflection of sound
a a
waves from a wall, mountain or other obstructing surfaces. The speed
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
of sound in air at 20°C is 344 m s-1. If we shout at a wall which is at
w
www w
www
da
344 m away, then the sound will take 1 second to reach the wall.
2) After reflection, the sound will take one more second to reach us.
Therefore, we hear the echo after two seconds. Scientists have
estimated that we can hear two sounds properly if the time gap or time
Pa
N Neett interval between each sound is( )

N e
1 th
N oft ta second (persistence of
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
10
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa ; 2d = 344 x 0.1=34.1m; d = 17.2 maassaa
hearing) i.e., 0.1 s. Then,
Velocity =
d a as s
Distance travelled
d ;=
2d
dd
aa a a
w.
The minimum
at w w w . P
. P Time taken
distance from a
t
sound reflecting wall to
w .
hear
w P
. P
an echo
w
20°C
wc)wSONAR:is 17.2 meter.
wwww
ww
SOund NAvigation and Ranging. Sonar systems make use of

reflections of sound waves in water to locate the position or motion of
N Neett N N ett
an object. Similarly, dolphins and bats use the sonar principle to find
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
their way in the darkness.
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
d) Reverberation:
ddaass d a
d s
a s
In a closed room the sound is repeatedly reflected from the walls
P aa P aa
and it is even heard long after the sound source ceases to function.
. . P . . P
w w
w w w
w
The residual sound remaining in an enclosure and the phenomenon of
www www
multiple reflections of sound is called reverberation.
The duration for which the sound persists is called reverberation
time. It should be noted that the reverberation time greatly affects the
quality of sound heard in a hall. Therefore, halls are constructed with
N Neett some optimum reverberation time.
N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.26. Write characteristics of progressivelwaves:

a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 1) Particles in the mediumss
same amplitude. aa d daa aa about their mean positions with theaassaa
vibrate
a a dd
2) ww
The phase . P P
. every particle ranges from 0 to 2π. www.
of . PP
3) w w
No ww remains at rest permanently. Duringwwwavewpropagation,
particle
particles come to the rest position only twice at the extreme points.
4) Transverse progressive waves are characterized by crests and troughs
N Nett
e N Neett
whereas longitudinal progressive waves are characterized by
lalai.i. a i .i.
compressions and rarefactions.
l l a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 5)
aadd s
a aa
s
with the same maximum velocity.
ad
a d s
a aa
s
When the particles pass through the mean position they always move
a a
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
6)
w
w ww
The displacement, velocity and acceleration of particles separated from
w w
www www
each other by nλ are the same. where n is an integer, and 𝜆 is the
wavelength.
l a
l i
a .
i N
.
27.
Neet t
Derive
1) A jerk on a lai
the equation of a plane progressive wave.t t
stretched string at
l a i
a
time
l .
itN.
= N
0
e e
s. Let us assume that the wave
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a a
with constant speeddd a
pulse created during this
as saa moves along positive x directionaassaa
disturbance
v as shown in Figure. a d
a d
ww . P
. P w w . P
. P
w w pulse, mathematically wwww
da
2) We can represent the shape of

wthewwave
as y = y(x, 0) = f(x) at time
t = 0 s. Assume that the shape
Pa
N Neett e
of the wave pulse remains the
N N ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
same during the propagation.
l a
l i
a .
assaa aassaa
After some time t, the pulse
ad
ad aaddaasaa
s
w.
moving towards the right and any point on it can be represented by x'
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
(read it as x prime) as shown in Figure. Then, y(x, t) = f(x´) = f(x − vt)
3) w
www w
www
Similarly, if the wave pulse moves towards left with constant speed v,
ww
then y = f(x + vt). Both waves y = f(x + vt) and y = f(x − vt) will satisfy
the following one dimensional differential equation known as the
NNeett wave equation

𝛛𝟐 𝐲
=
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
N
.
N e e tt
l a
l i
a .i. 4) 𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
where the symbol ∂ representla l ai.i. derivative. Not all the solutions l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
partial
dd aa ss
satisfying this differential equation can represent waves, because anya
dd s
a s
.P. Pa a
physical acceptable wave must take finite values for all
.
valuesP
. P
of a
x a
and
t. ww w w ww
5) wifwthe function represents a wave then it must w
wBut wwthe differential
satisfy
equation. Since, in one dimension (one independent variable), the
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. l
partial derivative with respecta
l a
toi .xi.is the same as total derivative in lalai.
assaa dd
coordinate x, we write
a a aas saa .
𝛛𝟐 𝐲
=
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
a ad daassaa
w w. P. P 𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
w w. P
. P
28. w
Derive the w
wwrelation between intensity and loudness. www w
1) According to Weber-Fechner’s law, “loudness (L) is proportional to the
logarithm of the actual intensity (I) measured with an accurate non-
N Nett
e N Neett
human instrument”. This means that L ∝ lnI , L = klnI where k is a
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
constant, which depends on the unit of measurement.
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 2)
a a ssaa
The difference between two loudness, L1 and L0 measures the relative
a add a a dd
loudness between two precisely measured intensities and is called as
aassaa
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
ww
sound intensity level.
w w w w
3) wwintensity level is ΔL = L −L = klnI − klnI =ww
wSound 1 0
w
kln[ ] if k = 1, then
1 0
𝐈𝟏
𝐈𝟎
lai
sound intensity level is measured in bel, in honour of Alexander
NNeett Graham Bell. Therefore, ΔL = In [ 1 ]bel

N N
I
eett
l a
l i
a .i. 4) l a ai
However, this is practically a bigger
l .iunit,
. so we use a convenient smaller lalai.
I0
sa
assaa a as
unit, called decibel. Thus,
a ad d sa a = bel ,
decibel
𝟏
𝟏𝟎
aaddaassaa
5)
.
Therefore, by
w w P P
.10(𝐈𝐧 [ ]) bel ; ΔL = 10 In [ ]decibel w
multiplying and dividing by 10,
ww . P
. P
wew w w
da
𝐈𝟏 𝟏 𝐈𝟏
wForwpractical
get ΔL =
𝐈𝟎 𝟏𝟎 w w with
𝐈𝟎
k = 10
purposes, we use logarithm to base 10 instead of natural
𝐈
logarithm, ΔL =10 log10[ 𝟏 ]decibel.
Pa
N Neett N e
𝐈𝟎
N ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
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w ..
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N Neett NN e ett
lalai .i. UNIT – 1 (NATURE OFaPHYSICAL l a

l i.i. WORLD AND
a l a
l i
a .
assaa a ddaa ss a
MEASUREMENT)
a a ad daassaa
w w . PP
. ground, the top of a tree is seen to w w w. P P
.angle of
1.
elevation
w
ww60w. The distance between the tree and a pointwwis w
From a point on
0
the have an
50 m. Calculate
the height of the tree?
Solution
N Nett
e N N ee tt
θ = 600, The distance between the tree and a point x = 50 m,
lalai.i. Height of the tree (h)=?

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aaθ = aa
ℎ
For triangulation method
d
×d
aa sstan
𝑥
ddaass
. P
. P aa
h = 𝒙 tan θ ; = 50 tan 60 ; = 50 × 1.732
0
. P
. Paa
.N
w w w
h = 86.6 m; The height of the tree is 86.6 m.
w ww
2. www
A RADAR signal is beamed towards a planet and w
w is received
wecho
its
7 minutes later. If the distance between the planet and the Earth is
lai
6.3 × 1010 m. Calculate the speed of the signal?
N NeettSolution
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
The distance of the planet from the Earth
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa saa s aa
d = 6.3 × 1010 m
d da a s
Time t = 7 minutes = 7 × 60 s.
ddaa s
. P Pa a
. signal V = =
the speed of signal V =?
. P
. Paa
Thew
w w w w
w
ww ms www
da
2𝑑 2x6.3x1010
wV=3x10
speed of
8 -1
𝑡
;
7x60
Pa
3. Two resistances R = (100 ± 3) 𝛀, R = (150 ±2) 𝛀, are connected in series.

NNeet t is their equivalent resistance? NNeet t
What
1 2
l a
l i
a .i. Solution l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa R = 100 ± 3 Ω, R = 150
1
aad d
Equivalent resistanceaas s
2
R =?
a±a2Ω
aa dd aasaa
s
w.
w w P P
Equivalent.resistance
.+ (150 ±2) ; = (100 + 150) ± (3 + 2) www.
R = R +R 1 2 . P P
w w ±5) 𝛀
= (100
wRw= (250
±3)
www
ww
4. The temperatures of two bodies measured by a thermometer are
N Neett N Ne e tt
t1 = (20 + 0.5)°C, t2 = (50 ± 0.5)°C. Calculate the temperature difference
l a
l i
a .i. and the error therein.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Solution
d d aas s d
t1 = (20 ±0.5)°C t2 = (50 ±0.5)°C ‘ temperature difference t=? a
d s
a s
.P. Pa a
t = t2 - t1 ; = (50 ±0.5) - (20 ±0.5)°C
. P
. Paa
w www
= (50 – 20) ± (0.5+0.5) ; t = (30 ±1)°C
w
w w
w
5.
w w
State the number of significant figures in the following
w
w
i) 600800 - Four ii) 400 - One iii) 0.007 - One
N Neett iv) 5213.0 - Five

N Nee tt
v) 2.65 × 10 m - Three vi) 0.0006032 – Four
24
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.6. Round off the following numbers aslaindicated

l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa i) 18.35 up to 3 digits ss
ii) 19.45 up to a3a d da
digitsa aa : 1.84
: 19.4 aaddaassaa
iii) 101.55.×P P
.up to digits 3 digits : 248000 www. .PP
iv) w
w w 10 up
w up to 3 digits
to 4 digits
6 : 101.6 x 10 6
wv)w12.653
248337
: 12.7 www
7. Convert 76 cm of mercury pressure into Nm−2 using the method of
N Nett
e dimensions.
N Neett
lalai.i. Solution
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s aa s aa
In cgs system 76 cm of mercury pressure = 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne cm−2
ddaa s
The dimensional formula of pressure P is [ML−1T−2] d a
d a s
. PP a a
T. ] = P [M L T ] ; P = P [ ] [ ] [ ] w . P
. Paa M1 a L1 b T1 c
.N
P [M w
Lw a b c a b
w c
w
wMw=w1g, M = 1kg; L = 1 cm, L = 1m; T = 1 s, Tww
1 1 1 1 2 2
w2
w 2 2 1
M2 L2 T2
1 2 1 = 1s 2 1 2
lai
As a =1, b= -1, and c = -2
N Neett N Neet[ t] 1𝑘g 1 1cm −1 1s −2
l a
l i
a .i. Then P2 = 76 x 13.6 x 980 [
l a
l i
a .i. ] ] [
l a
l i
a .
sa
1kg 1m 1s
assaa aa
= 76 x 13.6 x 980d[da assaa
] [
10−3 𝑘𝑔
] [ ]
1
aaddaassaa
10−2 m
−1
1s −2
w w . PP
.× 980 × [10 ] × 10 1kg
w
w . P
. P 1m 1s
w
wPw=w w
w
da
= 76 × 13.6
2 1.01 × 10 Nm 5 −2
w
w−3 2
Pa
N8.
Neet N Neet
Ift the value of universal gravitational constant in tSI is 6.6x10 Nm kg , −11 2 −2
l a
l i
a .
i . then find its value in CGS System?
l a
la i .
i . l a
l i
a .
assaa aconstant
a in the SI system and G in the cgsaassaa
Solution
d daa s
Let G be the gravitationals dd
SI
aa aa cgs
w.
G =?w w .
system. ThenP
. P
G = 6.6 ×10-SI Nm kg 11
ww. P
. P 2 −2
cgs
w
wnw=w n [ ] [ ] [ ] ;G =G [ ] [ ] [ ] w
𝐌𝟏 𝐚 𝐋𝟏 𝐛 𝐓𝟏 𝐜 www 𝐌𝟏 𝐚 𝐋𝟏 𝐛 𝐓𝟏 𝐜
ww
2 1 cgs SI
𝐌𝟐 𝐋𝟐 𝐓𝟐 𝐌𝟐 𝐋𝟐 𝐓𝟐
M1 = 1 kg, L1 = 1m, T1 = 1s ; M2 = 1 g, L2 = 1 cm, T2 = 1s
N Neett N Neett
The dimensional formula for G is M-1L3T-2 ; a = -1, b = 3 and c = -2
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa] [ ] aa
1𝑘g −1 1m 3 1s −2
G = 6.6 x 10 [ ] s [s s s
cgs
aaddaa -11
1g 1cm
ad
a a
d a 1s
= 6.6 xww
10.P P
.[ ] [ ] [ ]
-11
1𝑘𝑔 −1
ww1m. P
. P 3 1s −2
w
w=w6.6w× 10 × 10 x 10 × 1 ; G = 6.6 × 10 w
10−3 𝑘𝑔
www 10−2 m 1s
−11 −3 dyne cm g
6 cgs -8 2 -2
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne tt
e
lalai .i.9. Check the correctness of the equation
l a
l ai .i½. mv = mgh using dimensional lalai.2
assaa analysis method.

Solution aad da as saa
a add aassaa
w w .
DimensionalPP
.formula for mgh = [M][LT- ][L]=[ML T ] www.
formula for ½ mv = [M][LT ] =[ML2T ] .PP -1 2 2 -2
ww
w[MLw
Dimensional
T ] = [ML T ]
2 −2 2 −2 www 2 2 -2
Both sides are dimensionally the same, hence the equations

½ mv2 = mgh is dimensionally correct.
NN eett N N e ett
lalai.i.10. Obtain an expression for the time period
l a
l i
a .i.T (ii)of length
a simple pendulum. The time
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa ss aatathe place where the pendulum ssaa
period T depends on (i) mass ‘m’ of the bob ‘𝒍’ of the pendulum and
d da a
(iii) acceleration due to gravity
a a g
aaddaa
. P
.P
is suspended. (Constant k = 2π)
. P
. P
.N
w w w w ww
wT∝w𝑚w𝑙 𝑔 ; T = k 𝑚 𝑙 𝑔 www
Solution
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Here k is the dimensionless constant. Rewriting the above equation
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
[T1]= lai
with dimensions
[Ma] [Lb] [LT−2]c
l a
l= i[M
a NN
[M0L0T1]
ee tt
.i. L T ] a b+c −2c
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa Comparing the powers
aad d a s
a
of aaL and T on both sides, a=0, b+c=0, -2c=1 aassaa
s
M,
aadd
w w P
. P
Solving for.a,b and c a = 0, b = 1/2, and c = −1/2
w w . P
. P
w
wwthe above equation T = k. m 𝑙 𝑔 www w
da
wFrom 0 1/2 1/2
𝒍 𝟏/𝟐
T=k( ) ; k √𝒍⁄𝒈 ; Experimentally k = 2π, hence T = 2π √𝒍⁄𝒈
Pa
NN eett N Ne tt
e
l a
l i
a .i.11. In a submarine equipped with sonar,lalthe
EXERCISE PROBLEM
i
a .itime
. delay between the generation lalai.
assaa of a pulse and its echo aftera
aad d as saa from an enemy submarine is observedaassaa
reflection
a d
a d
w.
to be 80 s. If the speed of sound in water is 1460 ms . What is the distance

w w .
of enemy submarine? P
. P ww . P
. P -1
Solution ww
wvw= 80s , v = 1460 ms , D = ? wwww
ww
-1
vt 1460 x 80
D= = ; = 1460 x 40 ; 58400m
NN eett 2
D = 58.4km
2
NN eett
l a
l i
a .i.12. Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 lmillion
alai .i. km from the Earth. Its angular lalai.
assaa diameter is measured to bea
aa dd s
a aa Calculate the diameter of Jupiter aassaa
s
35.72˝.
aad d
Solution
ww
X = 824.7 .P P
. km = 824.7 x 10 x 10 m
million ww .
6
P
. P 3
ww = 35.72 x 4.85 x 10 rad; b = ? www
wθw= 35.72’’ w -6
𝑏
𝑥 = ; 𝑏 = 𝑥θ ;
𝜃
= 824.7 x 109 x 35.72 x 4.85 x 10-6
N Neett N Nee tt
= 1.428 x 105 x 103 m ; b = 1.428 x 105km
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. UNIT – 2 l al i

a .i.
(KINEMATICS) l a
l i
a .
assaa 13. Two vectors 𝐀⃗⃗ and ⃗𝐁⃗⃗ a ofad da as s
magnitude
aa
a
5 units and 7 units respectively makeadandaassaa
w w . P
angle 60 with each
0 P
. other.Find the magnitude of the resultant w w . PP
. and its
vector
w
wrespect to the vector 𝐀⃗⃗
wwwith
direction wwww
Solution
⃗⃗ is given by
The magnitude of the resultant vector R
N Nett
e eett
R = |𝑅⃗⃗ | = √52 + 72 + 2x5x7cos600 ; = √25 + 49 +
N N ;
70x1
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a. 2
et
assaa s aa⃗⃗ s aa
𝐑 = √𝟏𝟎𝟗 units
dda a s d a
d a s 𝐁 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉
. P P aa
The angle α between ⃗⃗
R and A is given by tan 𝛼 =
. ; = = ; ≅ 0.713 ; 𝜶 ≅ 35 www. . P Paa 𝐀+𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
.N
w ww
𝟕 𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟕 𝐱 √𝟑 𝟕 𝐱 √𝟑
www
=
www
0
𝟓+𝟕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎+𝟕 𝟏𝟕
14. Two vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝐁⃗⃗ are given in the component form as 𝐀 ⃗⃗ = 𝟓𝒊⃗ + 𝟕𝒋⃗ − 𝟒𝒌 ⃗⃗
lai
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟔𝒊⃗ + 𝟑𝒋⃗ + 𝟐𝒌
and 𝐁 ⃗⃗. Find 𝐀
⃗⃗ + 𝐁⃗⃗⃗, 𝐁
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐀
⃗⃗, 𝐀⃗⃗ - 𝐁
⃗⃗⃗, 𝐁
⃗⃗⃗ - 𝐀
⃗⃗.
N Neett Solution
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. ⃗⃗ + 𝐁
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
⃗⃗⃗ = (5𝑖⃗ + 7𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗ ) + (6𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) ; = 𝟏𝟏𝒊⃗ + 𝟏𝟎𝒋⃗ − 𝟐𝒌 ⃗⃗.
sa
assaa aa aa
𝐀
⃗𝐁⃗⃗ + 𝐀 aass aass
⃗⃗ = (6𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) + (5𝑖⃗ + 7𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗ ) ; = 𝟏𝟏𝒊⃗ + 𝟏𝟎𝒋⃗ − 𝟐𝒌
dd dd ⃗⃗.
𝐀
. P
⃗⃗ - 𝐁
. Paa . P Paa
⃗⃗⃗ = (5𝑖⃗ + 7𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗ ) - (6𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) ; = −𝒊⃗ + 𝟒𝒋⃗ − 𝟔𝒌
. ⃗⃗.
www w w
w
www www
da
⃗𝐁 ⃗⃗ = (6𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) - (5𝑖⃗ + 7𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗ ) ; = 𝒊⃗ − 𝟒𝒋⃗ + 𝟔𝒌

⃗⃗ - 𝐀 ⃗⃗.
Note that the vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ + 𝐁⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐀⃗⃗ are same and the vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ - 𝐁
⃗⃗⃗
and ⃗𝐁 ⃗⃗ - 𝐀
⃗⃗ are opposite to each other.
Pa
N15.e
N etGiven
t the vector 𝐀⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊⃗ + 𝟑𝒋⃗, what is 3𝐀⃗⃗ ?NNeet t
l a
l i
a .i. Solution l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 3A⃗⃗ = 3(2𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗) = 6𝑖⃗ s
a a d d aa a⃗a. The vector 3A⃗⃗ is given as in the sameaassaa
+s
9𝑗
aadd
w.
w w . P
direction as vector
. P ⃗A
⃗
w w. P
. P
16. Checkw
w ww the following vectors are orthogonal. www
whether w
ww
i) 𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝒊⃗ − 𝟓𝒋⃗ ii) 𝐂⃗ = 𝟓𝒊⃗ + 𝟐𝒋⃗ and 𝐃

⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊⃗ + 𝟑𝒋⃗ and 𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊⃗ − 𝟓𝒋⃗
Solution
N Neett ⃗A⃗.B
N Neett
⃗⃗ = 8 -15 = -7≠0 . Here A ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗B⃗ are not orthogonal to each other.
l a
l i
a .i. ⃗C⃗.D
l a
lai.i.
⃗⃗⃗ = 10 -10 = 0 . Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗
C and ⃗D
l a
l i
a .
⃗⃗ are orthogonal to each other.
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.17. Two vectors are given as 𝒓⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊⃗ +l𝟑𝒋al⃗a+i.i𝟓𝒌.⃗⃗ and 𝑭⃗⃗ = 𝟑𝒊⃗ − 𝟐𝒋⃗ + 𝟒𝒌⃗⃗. Find the lalai.
assaa resultant vector 𝝉 ⃗⃗ = 𝒓
a a 𝑭 a
d
⃗⃗ 𝐱⃗⃗⃗⃗
d s
a aa
s
aad daassaa
Solution
w w . P P
. 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ w w . P
. P
w
w𝜏⃗w= w
𝑟⃗ x⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = |2 3 5 | www w
3 −2 4
= (12− (−10) 𝑖̂ + (15−8) 𝑗̂ + (−4−9) 𝑘̂ ; 𝝉 ̂
⃗⃗= 22𝒊̂ + 7𝒋̂ −13 𝒌
NN eett NN e e tt
lalai.i.18. The position vector of a particle is given
l a
l i
a .𝒓⃗i⃗.= 𝟐𝒕𝒊⃗ + 𝟑𝒕 𝒋⃗ − 𝟓𝒌⃗⃗. 𝟐
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa b) Calculate the velocity d
aa da
and assaaof the particle at any instant t
a) Calculate the velocity and speed
speed of the particle at time t = 2 s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
Solution . P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w w
w 𝒗̿ = = 2𝑖⃗ + 6𝑡𝑗⃗ ; w w w
w
wThe
w velocity
𝒅𝒓̿
𝒅𝒕
The speed 𝑣 (𝑡 ) = √2 + (6𝑡 ) ms 2 2
w w-1
lai
The velocity of the particle at t = 2 s ;
N Neett 𝑣⃗(2sec) = 2𝑖⃗ + 12𝑗⃗

N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
The speed of the particle at t = 2 s ;
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa s saa ssaa
𝑣 (2𝑠) = √22 + 122 = √4 + 144
aa d d
= √148 ; ≈ 12.16 ms-1a a a ad daa
w w . P
. P ww . PP
. travels
w
ww speed? ⃗⃗ wwww
da
19. The velocity of three particles A, B, C are given below. Which particle
at thew
greatest
̅𝑨 = 𝟑𝒊⃗ − 𝟓𝒋⃗ + 𝟐𝒌 ; 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗⃗
̅𝑩 = 𝒊⃗ + 𝟐𝒋⃗ + 𝟑𝒌 ; 𝒗 ⃗⃗
̅𝑪 = 𝟓𝒊⃗ + 𝟑𝒋⃗ + 𝟒𝒌
Solution
Pa
NN eetSpeed
t of A = |𝑣̅ | = √(3) + (−5) + (2) NN 2 ; =eet t+ 25 + 4 ; ; = √38 ms
√9 2 2 -1
l a
l i
a .i. Speed of B = |𝑣̅ | = √(1) + (2) +la(l3a)i.i.; = √1 + 4 + 9 ; ; = √14 ms
𝐴
2 2 2
l a
l i
a . -1
assaa (s
a+ (4) ; = √25 + 9 + 16 ; ; = √50 ms aassaa
) a
𝐵
Speed of C = |𝑣̅ | = √(5) a+a 3s
thea
𝐶
ad d 2 2 2
aadd -1
w.
The particle C has P P

w w . . Pgreatest speed √𝟓𝟎 > √𝟑𝟖 > √𝟏𝟒
ww . . P
w
20. A train w w
wasw moving at the rate of 54 km h when brakesw w w w
were applied. It
-1
ww
came to rest within a distance of 225 m. Calculate the retardation produced

in the train.
NNeett Solution
NN eett
l a
l i
a .i. The initial velocity of the particle u =la54laix.i. ms = 15 ms ; s = 225 m
The final velocity of the particle v = 0
l a
l i
a .
assaa aathe velocity of the particle. aa
5
d
Retardation is always da a s s
against
18
d a
d s
-1
a s -1
v = u − 2aS;
2
.P
2
P 0aa
.; =0.5 ms ; Retardation = =0.5 ms www.
= (15) – 2a (225);2 450 a = 225 . PPaa
a =w
ww
www www
225
ms -2 -2 -2
450
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N ee tt
lalai .i.21. In the cricket game, a batsman strikesl a

l i
a .the
i . ball such that it moves with the lalai.
assaa speed 30 m s at an angle 30ss
-1
aa
cricket ground is locatedd d
at
aa aa the horizontal. The boundary line of theaassaa
with 0
a distance of 75 m from the batsman? Will a ad d

the
ball go for a six?.P P
.). . P
.P
w w w (Neglect the air resistance and take
ww
acceleration
w
due to
www
gravity g =
Solution
10 m s -2
www
The motion of the cricket ball in air is essentially a
projectile motion. As we have already seen, the range
N Nett
e NN eett
(horizontal distance) of the projectile motion is given by
lalai.i. R=
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
; The initial speedlu=al i
a .i. s
30m -1
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa s
=s
aa ssaa
𝑔
The projection angle a θa aa
P P aa d d
The horizontal distance
30 0
travelled by the cricket ball

P Paa dd
. . . .
.N
w w w w ww
wRw= wThis distance w
√3
(30)2 x 𝑠𝑖𝑛600 900 x
10
= ; = 77.94 m
10
2
w w
is greater than the distance of the boundary line.
lai
Hence the ball will cross this line and go for a six.
NN eett EXERCISE PROBLEM

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i.22. The position vectors particle has length
l a
l i
a .i1m. and makes 30 with the x-axis. lalai.
sa
assaa aay components of the position vector? aassaa 0
What are the lengths of thea

d d xass
and
d d
Solution
. P Pa a
.Length of x – component 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = 1wx 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . PP
.=a a
w w w w w w w
da
0 √3
𝑙 = 1m , θ= 30 ;
w w 0
Length of y – component 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1 x 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30 = = 0.5

𝑦
ww 30 𝑥
0 1
2
23. A particle has its position moved from 𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 = 𝟑𝒊̂ + 𝟒𝒋̂ to
Pa
N Neett N eett
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂Calculate the displacement vector (∆𝒓)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
N ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and draw
l a
l i
a .i. the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝒓𝟐 and ∆𝒓
𝒓𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
l a
lai .i.
⃗⃗ vector in a two dimensional Cartesian
l a
l i
a .
assaa coordinate system.
a d
ada a ssaa
aad daasaa
s
w.
∆𝑟⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 ; ; = ( 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ ) − (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ ) ; = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂

𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = −𝟐𝒊̂.−P
. P . P
. P
∆𝒓
ww ww ̂
𝟐𝒋
w w ww
w w w w
ww
24. Calculate the average velocity of the particle whose position vector changes
from ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝟏 = 𝟑𝒊̂ + 𝟔𝒋̂ to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ + 𝟑𝒋̂ in a time 5 second.
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝒊
N Neett Solution
N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. The average velocity 𝑣⃗ = =i.i. ; =
l a
la
𝑎𝑣𝑔
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗2 −𝑟⃗1
l a
l i
a . ̂+𝟑𝒋̂)−(𝟑𝒊̂+𝟔𝒋̂ )
(𝟐𝒊
assaa a; a𝑣⃗ = − (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂) aa

∆𝑡 𝑡 5
= ; = aa
2𝑖̂+3𝑗̂ −5𝒊̂− 𝟔𝒋̂
dd s s −3𝑗̂ −3𝒋̂
d a
3
d s
a s
.P5
P a a 5
.𝒓̂ = 𝟑𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂ into a unit vector.
𝑎𝑣𝑔
. P
. Paa 5
w ww w w
w
25.
www
Convert the vector
Solution www
The magnitude of the vector 𝒓̂ = 𝟑𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂
⃗⃗
𝒓 3𝑖 ̂+2𝑗 ̂
|𝑟̂ | = √32 + 22 = √9 + 4 = √13 ; 𝒓̂ = |𝒓⃗⃗| =
N Neett N Nee tt √13
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNeett
lalai .i.26. What are the resultants of the vectorlalproduct

a i .i. of two given vectors given by l a
l i
a .
assaa ⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝒊̂ − 𝟐𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝐀
a
⃗⃗ = 𝟓𝒊̂ +s
̂ and ⃗𝐁
ad da a saa
𝟐𝒋̂ ̂
− 𝟒𝒌
a ad a
d s
a aa
s
Solution
w
w . P
P
𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ w w . P
. P
⃗A⃗ xw w
wwBw= |45 − 32 − 41 |
⃗⃗⃗⃗
www
= (8 – 3) 𝑖̂ + (5+16) 𝑗̂ + (12 + 10) 𝑘̂ ;
NN eett B= 5𝑖̂ + 21𝑗̂ +22 𝑘̂

⃗A⃗ x⃗⃗⃗⃗
NNe tt
e
lalai.i.27. An object at an angle such that thelhorizontal
al i
a .i. range is 4 times of the l a
l i
a.
et
assaa maximum height. What is thes
Solution aa dd aa saaof projection of the object?
angle
aaddaassaa
. P
.P . PP
. ;
.N
w w w ; maximum height h w=w
u2 sin2θ
w u2 sin2 θ
www
Horizontal Range R =
u 2 sin2θ
g
www
u2 sin2 θ
max
2g
R = 4h max= 4x ;
lai
g 2g
u2 2 sinθ cosθ u2 sin2 θ sinθ
N Neett g
= 4x
N2g
Neet t ; cosθ = sinθ
= 1 tanθ = 1 ;
cosθ
;
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
−𝟏 𝟎
𝛉 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟏) = 𝟒𝟓
If Earth completes a dda a ss d daass

28.
. PP a
one revolution in 24 hours, what is the angular
. by Earth in one hour. Express your answer . PP aa
. radian
ww
displacement made
w w w w
in both
www www
da
and degree.
Solution
Angular displacement for one complete revolution (i.e.)
for 24 hours = 3600
Pa
N Neett N Neett 3600
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la . .
Hence, angular displacement for one hour, θ =
i i ; = 15 or
l a
l i
a . 24
0
assaa x 15 ; = rad a a = π rad] aa

π 𝜋
θ=
1800
d da as0
s [180
12
0
ddaass
a a aa
w.
29.
w w .
A object is thrownPP
. is the height and range reachedwby wthew.
with initial speed 5 ms with an angle .
of P
P -1
projectionw
www
particle?
30 . What
0
www
ww
Solution
u2 sin2 θ
i) maximum height of the projectile, hmax =
NNeett N N e ett 2g
l a
l i
a .i. h =
52 sin300 sin 300
;= l
;= a
l i.i.; = ; h = 0.3188m
1
25 x [ ]
a 2
1
x[ ]
2 25
l
25
a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
max max
2 x 9.8
d a
d s
a s 2 x 9.8 8 x 9.8
d a
d s
a s 78.4
.P
ii) Horizontal Range
. P
R a
= a ; =
u2 sin2θ
; = . P
. Paa
u2 2 sinθ cosθ 52 x 2 sin300 cos 300
ww ww g
wwww g 9.8
=
w w1 √3
25 x 2 [2] x [ 2 ]
;=
25 x 1.732
= R = 2.21m
w
w 43.300 ;
9.8 2 x 9.8 19.6
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Neett
lalai .i.30. A foot-ball player hits the ball with speed

l a
l i
a .i20. ms with angle 30 with respect lalai.
-1 0
assaa a
out whether ball reachesa da
thea s
to horizontal direction. The goal
d sapost
a is at distance of 40 m from him. Findaassaa
goal post? aadd
Solution
w w . P P
. ball is considering as a projectile. Itswrange
ww. P
. P
www w
Here the reaches
www
u2 sin2θ u2 2 sinθ cosθ 202 x 2 sin300 cos 300
Horizontal Range R = ;= ;=
g g 9.8
N Nett
e 1 √3
400 x 2 [ ] x [ ]
N Ne e tt
lalai.i. =
9.8
2
;=
2
2 x 9.8
=
l a
l a .i.
400 x 1.732
i
19.6
; R = 35.35m
692.800
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
Thus the range of the reaches ball is 35.35 m. But the goal post is at a
ddaass
distance of 40 m from him. So ball will not reach the goal post.
dd aass
. PP aa .
. horizontally with an initial speed 10 mws wfrom PP aa
. the top
.N
If an object isw
w w
31.
w w w
of a building
thrown
wof height 100 m. what is the horizontalwdistance
w w -1
covered by the particle?
lai
Solution
N Neett N N ett
Horizontal range of the object projected horizontally,
e
l a
l i
a .i. R = 𝑢√ ; = 10√
2h
l
= 10√
l i
a .i;.= √ ; = √ ;
2 x 100
a 200
a i
200 x 100
l l a . 20000
sa
assaa 32. An object ssaa ssaa
g 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8
= 45.18m ≅ 45m a a aa
PP
is executinga ad d
uniform circular motion with an angular
P Paadd
w
𝝅
w . . per second. At t = 0 the object startsw
at w
anw
. .
ww wwwafter 4 s ?
da
speed of radian
anglew
𝛉w
𝟏𝟐
= 0. What is the angular displacement of the particle
Solution
θ 𝝅 𝝅
ω= or θ = ωt ; θ = x 4 ;= rad ; = 600
Pa
NN eett t
NNeett
𝟏𝟐 𝟑
l a
l i
a .i.33. The Moon is orbiting the Earth approximately
l a
lai .i. once in 27 days, what is the lalai.
assaa angle transverse by the Moon
a ad daas saaday?
per
a ad daasaa
s
w.
Solution
w w. PP
. by the Moon for one complete rotationwww.
Angle traversed . P
P
ww w
w(i.e.) for 27days = 360 =2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 0
www
ww
Angle traversed by the Moon for one day,

𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 𝟔.𝟐𝟖
θ= ;= ;=
NN eett 𝟐𝟕 𝟐𝟕
NN ee
𝛉 =0.2362 rad = 13.330 [ 1 rad = 57.270]tt 𝟐𝟕
l a
l i
a .i.34. An object of mass m has angular acceleration
l a
lai.i. 𝜶 = 𝟎.𝟐 rads . What is the l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa -1
dda
angular displacement covered as s
by the object after 3 second? (Assume thata
d d ass
P Pa
the object started with
. . a
angle zero with zero angular velocity).
. P
. Paa
Solution
w w w w w
w
wwequation for uniform circular motion, 𝜃 = 𝜔w𝑡+w𝛼𝑡w [ 𝜔 = 0]
wFrom 1 1
0
1
2
2
0
θ = 0+ x 0.2 x 32 ; θ = x 0.2 x 9 ; = 0.1 x 9

2 2
N Neett 𝛉 = 𝟎. 𝟗 rad ≅ 510 [ 1 rad = 57.270]

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN eett
lalai .i. UNIT – III (LAWS l a

l i
a
OF
.i.MOTION) l a
l i
a .
assaa A book of mass m is a d
ata da assaa
a ad daassaa
35.
the book? (2)w
w . PP rest
. are the forces exerted by the book? w
What (3) w w
Draw.P
on the table. (1) What are the forces acting
P on
.the free
w w wwfor the book.
body diagram ww w
Solution
(1) There are two forces acting on the book.
(i) Gravitational force (mg) acting downwards on the book
N Nett
e (ii) eett
Normal contact force (N) exerted by the surface of the table on the book.
N N
lalai.i. l a i
a .i.
It acts upwards as shown in the figure.
l l a
l i
a.
et
assaa (2)
a
by the book.
add s
a aa
s
ad
a d s
a aa
s
According to Newton’s third law, there are two reaction forces exerted
a a
(i) . P
.P . P
. P
The book exerts an equal and opposite force (mg) on the
.N
w w
w www
(ii) www
Earth which acts upwards.
www
The book exerts a force which is equal and opposite to
normal force on the surface of the table (N) acting
lai
downwards.
N Ne tIft two objects of masses 2.5 kg and 100NNkgeetexperience

e t
l a
l i
a .
i .36.
l a
l i
a .
i . the
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
same force 5 N, what is the acceleration experienced by each of them?
Solution
d da a ss ddaass
. PP
For the object of massaa
. 100 kg, the acceleration is a = = ww
2.5 kg, the acceleration is a = = ; =
.
2ms P
. P
𝐹
aa 5
-2
w ww w 𝑚 2.5
www www
da
𝐹 5
For the object of mass ; = 0.05ms -2
𝑚 100
37. The position vector of a particle is given by 𝒓 ⃗⃗. Find the

⃗⃗ = 𝟑𝒕𝒊⃗ + 𝟓𝒕𝟐 𝒋⃗ + 𝟕𝒌
Pa
N Neett direction in which the particle experiences net force?

Solution
N Ne e tt
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i .i.(3𝑡)𝑖⃗ + (𝟓𝒕 )𝑗⃗ + (7)𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑 𝑑
l a
l
𝑑 i
a .
assaa aa aa
𝟐
Velocity of the particle, 𝑣⃗ = =
d a
d a s s 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
d daass 𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑖⃗ + 10𝑡𝑗⃗ a = 10𝑗⃗aa
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗
;a
w.
𝑑𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
Acceleration of the particle 𝑎⃗ =
Here, w
𝑑𝑡
w
the . PP
. has acceleration only along positive
particle
=
w w . P
. P
𝑑𝑡
y direction.
𝑑𝑡 2
w w
According w wNewton’s second law, net force must alsoww
to w
act w
along positive y
ww
direction. In addition, the particle has constant velocity in positive x direction

and no velocity in z direction. Hence, there are no net force along x or z
NN eett direction.
NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i.38. A particle of mass 2 kg experiences l a
lai.i. forces, 𝐅⃗ = 𝟓𝒊⃗ + 𝟖𝐣⃗ + 𝟕𝐤⃗ and , lalai.
two
assaa s saa of the particle? saa
s
𝟏
𝟐
a a da
⃗ . What is the
𝐅⃗ = 𝟑𝒊⃗ − 𝟒𝐣⃗ + 𝟑𝐤
d a acceleration
aadd aa
Solution
⃗⃗ w ⃗w
⃗w
. P
. P ww . P
. P
F =w
net F +F⃗⃗ . Acceleration is a⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗net
F
wF⃗⃗w = (5 + 3)𝑖⃗ + (8 − 4)⃗j + (7 + 3)k⃗⃗ ; F⃗⃗ = 8𝑖w

1 2 m w
ww ⃗⃗
net ⃗ + 4j⃗ + 10k
net
8 4 10
⃗⃗ ; 𝐚⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝒊⃗ + 𝟐𝐣⃗ + 𝟓𝐤
a⃗⃗ = ( ) 𝑖⃗ + ( ) ⃗j + ( ) k ⃗
N Neett 2 2 2
N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne tt
e
lalai .i.39. An object of mass 10 kg moving with l a
l ai.speed
a i . of 15 m s hits the wall and lalai. −1
assaa a
average force acting on a a
d
the as saab) 10 second .Calculate the impulse andaassaa
comes to rest within a) 0.03 second
d object in both the cases. aa dd
Solution
ww. PP
. of the object P = 10x15 = 150 kgmswww. .PP
www
wfinal
Initial momentum
momentum of the object P = 0 ; Δ𝑝 = 150 – 0w
w kgms
w= 150 I -1
-1
f
(a) Impulse J = Δ𝑝 = 150 Ns ; (b) Impulse J = Δ𝑝 = 150 Ns
Δ𝑝 150
N Nett
e (a) Average force Favg =
Δ𝑡
N
=
N eett
0.03
; = 5000N ;
lalai.i. (b) Average force F = = avg

l
Δ𝑝
a
l a;.
i =i.15N
150
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aacases, but the average force is different. aassaa
Δ𝑡 10
dd a ss
impulse is the same in both
a d d
40. If a stone of mass . PP aa
. of radius 3 m, what is the magnitudew
0.25 kg tied to a string executes uniform . P
circular Paa
. force
motion
.N
w ww w w
wthewstone?
with a speed of 2 ms
www of tensional
-1
actingw on
1
𝑚𝑣 2 x (2)2
lai
Solution : Fcp = ; 4
= 0.333N
NN e tConsider
e t a circular leveled road of radiusN10Nemethaving
𝑟 3
t coefficient of static
l a
l i
a .i. friction 0.81. Three cars (A, B andlalC)ai.iare. travelling with speed 7 m s , lalai.
41.
sa
assaa aaWhich car will skid when it moves in theaassaa -1
d a
8 m s and 10 ms respectively.
-1 -1
d as s d d
circular level road? (gaa a a
Solution w w . P
. P=10 ms ) -2
w w. P
. P
w w
wthe safe turn condition, the speed of the vehicle w
da
w w
From ww (v) must be less
than or equal √μ rg ; 𝑣 ≤ √μ rg ; √μ rg = √0.81 x 10 x 10 = 9 ms -1
s s s
For car C, √μs rg is less than 𝑣
Pa
N Neett N Neett
The speed of car A, B and C are 7 ms-1, 8 ms-1 and 10 ms-1 respectively. The
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
cars A and B will have safe turns. But the car C has speed 10 ms-1 while it
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
turns which exceeds the safe turning speed. Hence, the car C will skid.
dda ass d d aass
Consider a circular a a aa
w.
42.
15 degrees. w w .
With
P Proad of radius 20 meter banked at an angle
.what speed a car has to move on the turn ww
so . PP of
. it will
that
w w
have safew w
turn? ww ww
ww
Solution
𝑣 = √(rg tanθ) = √20 x 9.8 x tan 150
N Neett = √20 x 9.8 x 0.26 = 7.1 ms-1

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
The safe speed for the car on this road is
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
7.1 ms-1
ddaass d a
d s
a s
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
w w
w w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. EXERCISE l a

l i
a .i.
PROBLEM l a
l i
a .
assaa A force of 50N act ona ad da ass aa
object of mass 20 kg. shown in the figure. aaddaassaa
43.
Calculate theww . P P the
. of the object in x and y directions.www.
acceleration .PP
www
Solution w www
From Newton’s second law; 𝐹=𝑚 𝑎
𝐹 50
Hence the acceleration ; a = = ; = 2.5 ms-2
N Nett
e
𝑚
N
20
Nee tt √3
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i.
The acceleration in x-axis; ax = acos θ; = 2.5 x cos300 ; = 2.5 x
2
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
= 1.25 x 1.732; ax = 1.165 ms-2
ddaa ss 1
The acceleration in y-axis; ay = asin θ; = 2.5 x sin300 ; = 2.5 x ;
d daass
. P
.
ay= 1.25 ms-2P a a . P
.
2
Paa
.N
w ww w w w
44. wwofw
A spider ww
mass 50 g is hanging on a string of a cob web.
w
What is the tension
in the string?
lai
Solution
N Neett Here two forces acting on the spider.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l l i
a .i.
(1) Downward gravitational force (mg) (2) Upward tension (T)
a l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
Hence, 𝑻= 𝒎𝒈; = 50 x 10−3 x 9.8 =490 𝑋 10−3 ; T = 0.49 N
dd aass d daass
Calculate thew . PP aa
. of the bicycle of mass 25 kg aswshown. P P a a
in. Figures
45.
w
2. w
w
acceleration ww
www
da
1 andw
w
Solution
Apply Newton’s second law in figure (1)
Pa
500 − 400 = 𝑚 𝑎
N Neett F 500−400
N Neett
100
l a
l i
a .i. 𝑎=
m
;=
25
l a
lai .i.
25
; a = 4ms-2
=
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Apply Newton’s second law in figure (2)
ddaas
400 − 400 = 𝑚 𝑎s ddaass
aa aa
w.
𝑎=
ww.F
P
. P
;=
400−400 0
= ; a = 0ms-2
w
w . P
. P
w
www
m 25 25
w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Ne ett
lalai .i.46. Two bodies of masses 15 kg andlal10 a i .ikg. are l a

l i
a .
assaa a a
connected with light string kept
a add
surface. A horizontal force
ssaaon a smooth
F=500 N is applied to aaddaassaa
w w
a 15 kg as shown . PP
. string.
in the figure. Calculate the
w
w .P.P
www w
tension acting
Solution
in the w
www
Here motion is along horizontal direction only.
Consider the motion of mass m1 ; F − T = m1𝑎 (𝑜𝑟) 500 − T = 15 𝑎
N Nett
e N Nee
(or) T = 500 – 15 a − − − − (1)tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
Consider the motion of mass m2 ; T = m2 a = 10 a − − − − (2)
et
assaa dd s
a aa
s
From equation (1) and (2)
a
500 − 15 𝑎 = 10 𝑎 ;
aa ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P 500
. P
. P
.N
w w
25 𝑎 = 500 ; 𝒂 =
w ; = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎s−𝟐
www
www www
25
Put this in equation (2), we get T = 𝟏𝟎 a = 𝟏𝟎 x 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎N
lai
47. A car takes a turn with velocity 50 ms-1 on the circular road of radius of
curvature 10 m. calculate the centrifugal force experienced by a person of
N Neettmass 60kg inside the car?
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. Solution
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa F =15000P Na a d da as
Centrifugal force is given saaF = ; =
by, cf
𝑚𝑣2
𝑟
; = 6 x 2500 aa
60 x 50 x 50
10
aadd ssaa
cf
ww . . P ww . P
. P
w
ww – IV (WORK, ENERGY AND POWER) w
www
da
wUNIT
48. A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a displacement of 15 m. If the
Pa
N Neett N N ett
angle between the force and displacement is 300, find the work done by the
e
l a
l i
a .i. force.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Solution
dda ass
Force, F = 25 N; Displacement, dr = 15 m;
ddaass
aa aa
w.
Angle between F and dr,θ = 300

w w. P
. P w
w .
Work done, W = Fdr cos θ ; W = 25 x 15 x cos300 P
. P
w
w=w25wx 15 x ; W = 324.76 J
√3 w
www
ww
49. A variable force F = k 𝐱2 acts on a particle which is initially at rest. Calculate
N Neett N Neett
the work done by the force during the displacement of the particle from
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
𝒙 = 0 m to 𝒙 = 4 m. (Assume the constant k =1 N m-2)
a l a
l i
a .
assaa a a a a
Solution
Work done, W = ∫ddaas s
xf 4 2 64
d a
d s
a s
. P. Paa F(x)dx = k ∫ x dx ; Nm
xi 0
. P
.3
Paa
w w w w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNe ett

lalai .i.50. Two objects of masses 2 kg and 4 kglala i

are.imoving
. with the same momentum lalai.
assaa of 20 kg m s . -1
a
(a) Will they have same a dd aa s
kinetic
saa
energy? aaddaassaa
(b) Will they have.P
. P .P.P
Solution w w w w same speed?
w www
w w
(a) The kinetic energy of the mass is given by KE =
ww P2
2m
(20)2 400
For the object of mass 2kg, kinetic energy is KE1 = = = 100J
NN eetFor
t the object of mass 4kg, kinetic energy N N eet=t = = 50J 2x2
(20)2
4
lalai.i. the kinetic energy of both masses islalnotai.ithe. same. The kinetic energy of the lalai.
is KE 2
2x4
400
8
et
assaa dda as s
heavier object has lesser kinetic
a a
aenergy
a than smaller mass.
a ad daassaa
. P
(b) As the momentum,
. P p = mv, the two objects will not have same
. P P
speed.
.
.N
w
in a w
ww w ww
51. Waterw wwwcircle of radius
wbucket tied with rope is whirled around in a vertical
0.5 m. Calculate the minimum velocity at the lowest point so that the water
lai
does not spill from it in the course of motion. (g = 10 ms-2)
Solution
N Neett Radius of circle r = 0.5m
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
The required speed at the highest point v2 = √gr = √10 x 0.5 = √5 ms-1 l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa d a a
The speed at the lowest point
aa d s
vs
a=a√5gr = √5 x √gr = √5 x √5 = 5ms aassaa
1
a add -1
52. Calculate thew

w . P P
. consumed in electrical units when a w
energy . PP
W fan. is used
75 w
w
w
for 8 hoursw w
da
ww
Solution
daily for one month (30 days).
ww
Power, P = 75 W
Time of usage, t = 8 hour × 30 days = 240 hours
Pa
N Neett N Neett
Electrical energy consumed is the product of power and time of usage.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
Electrical energy = power × time of usage = P × t
l a
l i
a .
assaa =75 watt x 240 hour
=18000 watt hour
a add aa s saa
a ad daasaa
s
w.
w w . P
. P
=18 kilowatt hour = 18kWh
w w . P
. P
www w www w
1 electrical unit = 1kWh ; Electrical energy =18 unit
ww
53. Show that the ratio of velocities of equal masses in an inelastic collision
𝒗 𝟏−𝒆
when one of the masses is stationary is 𝟏 =
N Neett Solution
𝒗𝟐 𝟏+𝒆
N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
la i.;i.=
Velocity of seperation (after collision) (V2 −V1 )
l
(V2 −V1 )
a
l i
a . (V2 −V1 )
assaa ssaa aa
e= = = ;v
a a
Velocity of approach (before collision)
– v = eu -------1dd
(u1 −u2 )
d aass
(u1 − 0)
d
u1
2
.
From the law P
. P
1
of a a
conservation of linear momentum, mu = mv. P
.
+ Pa
mva; u
+wvw ww 1 1 2 1
= vw w
wwthe equation 2 for u in 1, we get v – v = e(v
wusing
1 ----------2
2
1 ww+vw)
2 1 1 2
𝒗𝟏 𝟏−𝒆
on simplification, we get =
N Neett 𝒗𝟐
N Nee tt𝟏+𝒆
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNeett
lalai .i. UNIT – V (MOTION OF SYSTEM l a

l i
a .i.OF PARTICLES AND l a
l i
a .
assaa aa dda a
RIGID
s saa
BODIES) a add aassaa
ww . PP
. of two point masses 10 kg and 5 kg arewww..P P
ww
(−𝟑𝒊⃗ +
w
54. The position w⃗ )m and (𝟑𝒊⃗ + 𝟔𝐣⃗ + 𝟓𝐤⃗)m respectively. Locate
vectors
𝟐𝐣⃗ + 𝟒𝐤 wwwthe position of
centre of mass.
Solution
N Nett
e N Nee tt
⃗⃗)m ; r⃗2 = (3𝑖⃗ + 6j⃗ + 5k
m1= 10kg, m2 = 5kg ; r⃗1 =(−3𝑖⃗ + 2j⃗ + 4k ⃗⃗)m
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
⃗⃗ )+5(3𝑖⃗+6𝑗⃗+5𝑘
⃗⃗ )
; r⃗ = ss ss
m1 ⃗r⃗1 +m2⃗r⃗2 10(−3𝑖⃗+2𝑗⃗+4𝑘
;
r⃗ =
m1 +m2
aa d daa 10+5
aa ddaa
. P
.P . PP
⃗j +. ⃗⃗
.N
=
w www ⃗⃗ +15𝒊⃗+30𝑗⃗+25𝑘
30𝒊⃗+2𝑗⃗+40𝑘
;=
⃗⃗
; = (−𝑖⃗ +w
w ww
⃗⃗
−15𝒊⃗+50𝑗⃗+65𝑘
k)m
10 13
wThe
wcentre of mass is located at position r⃗ ww
10+5 15 3 3
l a
l i
a N
55.
Neet t
.i. Solution
(𝟕𝒊
⃗ + 𝟒𝐣⃗ − 𝟐𝐤
lai
A force of (𝟒𝒊⃗ − 𝟑𝐣⃗ + 𝟓𝐤
i N
.i. N
⃗ )m. find the torque of force about
l al a
eet t origin.
⃗ )N is applied at a point whose position vector is
the
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗x𝐹⃗ = |P
𝑖̂
aadd
𝑗̂ aa
𝑘
aa
̂ss
aadd aassaa
w w . 7P
.4 − 3 5
4 −2 |
w
w . P
. P
w
w=w(20w−6) 𝑖̂ − (35 +8) 𝑗̂ + (−21−16) 𝑘̂ ; www w
da
= (14𝑖̂ − 43𝑗̂ − 37 𝑘̂ ) Nm
Pa
NN eett NN e ett
l a
l i
a .i.56. A cyclist while negotiating a circularlalapath
i .i. with speed 20 m s is found to lalai.
-1
assaa (given, g = 10 ms )
a
-2
a d d as
bend an angle by 30o with vertical.
a a
s a What is the radius of the circular path? sa
aad daa s a
w.
Solution
w w . PP
. cyclist, v = 20 ms ; ww . P
. P
w
wwof bending with vertical, θ = 30
Speed
wAngle of the -1
www
0
w
ww
v2
Equation for angle of bending, tan θ =
rg
N Neett N Neett
Rewriting the above equation for radius r =
v2
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. tan θg
l a
l i
a .
assaa r=
(20)2
; = dd
a a aassaa ; =
20 x 20 400
; = (√3) x 40 ;
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
ww P
tan 300
. . P x 10 (tan 300 ) x 10 1
.
( )x 10
√3
ww P
. P
w w x 40 ; r = 69.28m
w=w1.732 wwww
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.57. Find the rotational kinetic energy lofalaai.ring

i . of mass 9 kg and radius 3 m lalai.
assaa rotating with 240 rpm about
aad d
perpendicular to its plane.
aa ssaana axis passing through its centre andaassaa
aadd
(rpm is a unit of speed of rotation which means
ww . P
. P
revolutions per minute)
w w. P
.P
Solution w w w w
wThe
wrotational kinetic energy is , KE = Iω .
1ww 2
2
The moment of Inertia of the ring is, I = MR2
N Nett
e I = 9 x 32 ; = 9 x 9; = 81 kgm2
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l ai .
i .
The angular speed of the ring is, ω = 240 rpm ; =
240 x 2𝜋
rads -1
l a
l i
a.
et
60
assaa )s .s;a
=a x 81 x (8π) ; KE = x 81 x 64 (π) ; ssaa
1 240 x 2𝜋 2 1 1
KE = x 81 x (
= 2592 x (π) a
2
;ad da a 2
≈ 25920J KE = 25.920 kJ [ (𝛑) ≈ 10] a

60 2 2
ad d aa 2
. P
.P KE
2
. P
. P 𝟐
.N
w w w
w has velocity of its centre of mass as 5ww w
ms w
w w
58. w w
A rolling wheel . If its radius is
-1
1.5 m and angular velocity is 3 rads , then check whether it is in pure rolling
-1
lai
or not.
N Neett Solution
N Neett
Translational velocity (vTRANS) or velocity of centre of mass,
l a
l i
a .i. vCM = 5 m s-1
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
Rotational velocity, vROT = Rω
aaddaassaa
The radius is, R = 1.5 m and the angular velocity is, ω = 3 rads-1
ww. P
. P
vROT = 1.5×3; vROT = 4.5 ms-1
w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
As vCM > Rω (or) vTRANS > Rω, It is not in pure rolling, but sliding.
59. Four round objects namely a ring, a disc, a hollow sphere and a solid sphere
with same radius R start to roll down an incline at the same time. Find out
Pa
N Neett which object will reach the bottom first.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. Solution
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
For all the four objects namely the ring, disc, hollow sphere and solid
d daas s ddaass
aa aa
w.
1 2 2
the radius ofw w . P

sphere, the radii of gyration
P
. K are 1R, 0.707R, 0.816R, 0.632Rwrespectively.
2 3 5
w
w . P
K are R, √ R, √ R, √ R With numerical values
P
. The
wwww
expression
gyration
wwwK.
for time taken for rolling has the radius of gyration
ww
K2
2h(1+ 2 )
t=√
R
.
NNeet t g sin2 θ
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. shortestThetime l a
lai
one with least value of radius.
i . of gyration K will take the
l a
l i
a .
assaa d d
objects reaching the bottom
a a as a
s
to reach the bottom
a a of the inclined plane. The order of
aadd
is first, solid sphere; second, disc; third,aasa
s a
.P
hollow sphere and
ww . P
last, ring.
w w . P
. P
wwww wwww
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett

l i
a .i.
PROBLEM l a
l i
a .
assaa Find the moment of a add a as saa
aadd aassaa
60.
w w . P P inertia
.of mass and perpendicular to the inter-atomic
ww .P P
of a hydrogen molecule about an axis passing
. Given:
massw ofw
w w
through its centre
hydrogen atom 1.7×10 kg and inter atomicw
-27
w
ww is equal to
distance
axis.
4×10-10m
Solution
N Nett
e N Neett
The moment of inertia of a hydrogen molecule about an axis passing
lalai.i. l a i
a .i. l a i
a.
through its centre of mass and perpendicular to the inter-atomic axis,
l l
et
assaa as
a aa
s
ICM= 2mH d2 + mH d2 =2mH d2
aadd
ICM =2 x 1.7 x 10−27 x 2 x 1010 x 2 x 1010 ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w
w
ICM =13.6 x 10−47
w www
www
ICM = 1.36 x 10-46 kgm www
lai
UNIT – VI (GRAVITATION)
NN eet t N N eett
l a
l i
a .i.61. An unknown planet orbits the Sunlwith
EXERCISE
a
l a .idistance
. twice the semi major axis lalai.
PROBLEM
i
sa
assaa dd a
distance of the Earth’s orbit.
aa as
If saaEarth’s time period is T , what is the timeaassaa
the
a add 1
. P
. P
period of this unknown
ww
planet?
w w . P
. P
w
waw=w w w
da
Solution
2 2a . From Kepler’s third law T ∝ a ; T ∝w
1
2
1 aw 3
1
2
2
3
2
𝑇12 𝑎13 𝑇12 𝑎3 𝑎3 1
= 3 ; = (2𝑎1 )3 ; = (8𝑎1 )3 ; = ; T22 = 8T12
𝑇22 𝑎2 𝑇22 8
Pa
1 1
NN eett T2 = √8T1 ; = 2√2 T1

NNeett
l a
l i
a .i.62. Assume that you are in another solarl a
lai .i. and provided with the set of lalai.
assaa aathe planets’ semi major axes and timeaassaa
system
d d
data given below consistingaas s
of
d d
a a aa
w.
periods. Can you P P

ww . . P
infer the
ww .
relation connecting semi major axis and
. Ptime
period?
w w w w
w Time period(T) (in year) Semi majorwwaxisw(a) (in AU)
Planet
ww
(imaginary)
Kurinji 2 8
N Neett Mullai 3
N Neett 18
l a
l i
a .i. Marutham
l a
lai.i.
4
l
32
a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
Neithal 5 50
Paalai
ddaass 6
d a
d s
a s 72
Solution
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
w w
w w w
w
1) For Kurunji ; T = 2 years , a = 8AU = 2 x 4 = 2 (2)2 = 2T2
www www
2) For Mullai ; = 3 years, a = 18AU = 2 x 9 = 2 (3)2 = 2 T2
3) For Marutham ; 4 years, a = 32AU = 2 x 16 = 2 (4)2 = 2 T2
4) For Neithal ; 5 years, a = 50AU = 2 x 25 = 2 (5)2 = 2 T2
5) For Paalai ; 6 years, a = 72AU = 2 x 36 = 2 (6)2 = 2 T2
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NNeett N N e ett
lalai .i. Hence the relation connecting semilmajor a

l ai .i.axis and time period; a= 2T l a
l i
a .
assaa 63. If the masses and mutual aa aa 2
d da as s ddaass
. PP a a distance between the two objects are doubled,
what is the change. in the gravitational force between them? . P
.Paa
Solution w w ww w w w w
wBywNewton’s law of gravitation, F =
w w 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑟2
If m1 → 2m1, m2 → 2m2 and r = 2r
N Net=t
e G2m1 2m2
;=
4𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
; =
N eet tis no change in the force.
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
; = F ; There
N
lalai.i. (2r)2 4𝑟 2
l a
l ai .i. 𝑟2
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 64. Ifis thetheangular momentum of
aad da aass
aa is given by ⃗𝑳⃗=𝟓 𝒕 𝒊̂− 𝟔 𝒕 𝒋̂̂+ 𝟑 𝒌̂ . Whataassaa
planet
by the planet? Will the torque be in the a d
a d 𝟐
. PP
torque experienced
of. the angular momentum? . P
. P same
.N
ww
direction as that
w w w w
www
Solution
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 𝑑
www
Torque is given by, 𝜏⃗= = (5 𝑡2𝑖̂− 6𝑡𝑗̂+ 3𝑘̂) ; 𝜏⃗= 𝟏𝟎𝒕 𝒊̂ − 𝟔𝒋̂̂
lai
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here the torque produced will be in the direction of angular momentum.
N Neett NN ee tt
l a
l i
a .i. UNIT – VII (PROPERTIES
l al ai .i. OF MATTER) l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 65. A wire 10 m long hasaaacross-sectional
d daas aa area 1.25×10 m . It is subjected toaassaa
s
a ad d –4 2
w w P
. P
a load of 5 kg. If.Young’s modulus of the material is 4×10 Nm
ww.
, P
. P
calculate 10 –2
wwww www w
da
the elongation produced in the wire. Take g = 10 ms . –2
Solution
F ΔL F L 150 10
=Yx ; ΔL = ( ) ( ) ; ( ) (4 x 1010 ) ; =10-4 m
A L A Y 1.25 x 10−4
Pa
N66.e
N etAt metallic cube of side 100 cm is subjectedNNtoe tuniform
ae t force acting normal
l a
l i
a .i. to the whole surface of the cube. The l alai .i. is 10 pascal. If the volume lalai.
pressure 6
assaa aa dda s
changes by 1.5×10 m , calculate
a
–5
saathe bulk modulus of the material. aassaa
3
aadd
w.
Solution
K =w wwF
. P P
. ;K= ww . P
. P
www
A
=
ΔV
V
P
V
ΔV
; =
106 x 1
6.67 x 10
1.5 x 10−5
Nm w
www 10 -2
ww
67. A metal cube of side 0.20 m is subjected to a shearing force
N Neett N N ett
of 4000 N. The top surface is displaced through 0.50 cm
e
l a
l i
a .i. metal. l a
lai.i.
with respect to the bottom. Calculate the shear modulus of elasticity of the
l a
l i
a .
assaa Solution
a addaas saa
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
Here, L = 0.20m, F=4000N, 𝑥=0.50cm ; =0.005m and Area A = L2 = 0.04 m2
ww .P P
.= ( )x ( ) ; = ( )x ( ) ; = 4 x w
F L
10 ww.
4000P
. P 0.20
wwww
Therefore,η R A 𝑥
www
Nm-
0.04 0.005
6 2
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNeett
lalai .i.68. A wire of length 2 m with the area oflcross-section

al i
a .i. 10 m is used to suspend lalai. –6 2
assaa iii) the energy stored. aad da

Given: as
a load of 980 N. Calculate i) thesaa developed in the wire ii) the strain andaassaa
stress
Y=12 × 10 N m 10
a
−2
a dd
Solution
w w. P
. P w w . P
. P
ww = = ; = 98 x 10 Nm
wi)wStress F
A 10−6
980
www
7 w -2
Stress 98 x 107
ii) Strain = ; ; =8.17 x 10-3
Y 12 x 1010
iii) Volume = 2 x 10-6 m3
N Nett
e Energy = ½ (Stress x Strain) x Volume
N Ne e tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
= ½ (98x107) x8.17x10-3) x2x 10-6 = 8J
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa 69. A solid sphere has a radius a a d daa
of
s saacm and a mass of 0.038 kg. Calculate theaassaa
1.5
a ad d
specific gravity or.PP . P P
.
relative density of the sphere.
.
.N
w w w w w w
wwof the sphere R = 1.5 cm; mass m = 0.038ww w
Solution
wRadius 4 4
kg
Volume of the sphere V= πR3 ; = (3.14) x (1.5 x 10−2 )3 ; 1.413 x 10-5m3
lai
3 3
m 0.038 kg
N Neet t Density ρ = =
V
; = 2690 kgm
1.413 x 10−5 m3
N Neet t = 2.69 -3
l a
l i
a .i. Hence, the specific gravity of the
l a
l ai .i.
sphere =
2690
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 70. A metal plate of areaa2.5×10 aais placed on a 0.25×10 m thick layer ofaassaa
1000
d da assm dd
.
castor oil. If a forceP P
of a
2.5 N is needed
–4
to
2
.the coefficient of viscosity of castor oil. www.

move the plate with a . P
velocityP aa
3×10–
–3
w w w
w m , dx = 0.25×10 m, F=2.5 N andw w
da
2 m s , calculate
–1
Given:ww
A=2.5×10 –4 2 –3 dvw= 3×10 ms –2 -1
Solution
dv F dx (2.5 N) (0.25 x 10−3 𝑚)
F = −ηA ;η= ;= ;
Pa
N Neet t dx A dv
N Neet t (2.5 x 10−4 m2 )(3 x 10−2 ms−1)
l a
l i
a .
i . = 0.083 x 103 N m-2s
l a
lai .
i . l a
l i
a .
assaa 71. Let −4
from 50 cm2 to 100a ad da

2.4×10 J of work is done
as s
toaincrease
a the area of a fi lm of soap bubbleaassaa
. Calculate the value of surface tension ofaadd
w.
cm soap
solution.
ww. P
. P 2
w
w . P
. P
Solution w w
wAwsoapwbubble has two free surfaces, therefore increase
wwwin surface area
ww
ΔA =A2−A1 = 2(100–50) × 10–4m2 = 100 × 10–4m2.

2.4 x 10−4 J
N Neett N Neet
Since, work done W = T x ΔA ; T =
tΔA
;=
;
W
100 x 10−4 m2
l a
l i
a .i. = 2.4 x 10-2 Nm-1
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNe ett

lalai .i.72. If excess pressure is balanced by alacolumn

l i
a .i. of oil (with specific gravity 0.8) lalai.
assaa d
4 mm high, where R = 2.0
aa daas
cm, saathe surface tension of the soap bubble. aassaa
find
a add
Solution
ww . P
. P w w .P.P
wTheww of pressure inside the soap bubble is w
wexcess Δp
w
w=wP − P = 2 1
4T
R
4T
Δp = P2 − P1 = ρgh [ ρgh = ]
NNett
e N N eett R
lalai.i. Surface tension, T = ; = lalai.i.

ρghR (800)(9.8)(4 x 10−3 )(2 x 10−2)
;T=15.68x10 Nm
l a
l i
a. -2 -1
et
assaa 73. Mercury has an angleaofadcontact aa to 140 with soda lime glass. A narrowaassaa
4 4
da ass equal
d
0
d
PP
tube of radius 2.mm,
. made of this glass is dipped in a trough . P
. P a a
containing
.N
w w w w w w
wwBywwhat amount does the mercury dip down inww
mercury. thewtube relative to
the liquid surface outside? Surface tension of mercury T=0.456 Nm–1;
lai
Density of mercury ρ = 13.6×103 kgm–3
N NeetSolution
t N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aad d ass
Capillary descent, cos140
a a=acos(90+50) –sin50 = –0.7660
aaddaassaa
h= w = .
2T cosθ
w P
. P 0
2 x (0.456 Nm−1) (cos140 )
;= ww . P
. P 2 x 0.456 x (−0.7660)
w
w=ww ; = −2.62 x 10 m wwww
da
3 −2
rρg (2 x 10−3 m) (13.6 x 10 ) (9.8 ms ) 2 x 13.6 x 9.8
−0.6986
-3
266.56
Pa
N Neet t N Neett
where, negative sign indicates that there is fall of mercury (mercury is
l a
l i
a .i. depressed) in glass tube.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 74. In(radius a normal adult, the average
r = 0.8 cm) isa add aas saaspeed of the blood through the aortaaassaa
aad d
w.
w w . P P 0.33 –1
. 30 in number, each of radius 0.4 cm.www. . P
P
ms . From the aorta, the blood goes into major
ww ww
arteries, which are
w w w
ww
Calculate the speed of the blood through the arteries.

Solution
N Neett N Neet t( ) v r1 2
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
a1 v1 = 30a2 v2 ; πr12 v1 = 30 πr22 v2 ; V2 =
a l a
l i
1
a . 1
assaa aa aa 30 r2
1
)dda as s
0.8 x 10−2 m
2
d a
d s
a s
V = (
2
.P. Paa x (0.33 ms ) ; V =0.044 ms
30 0.4 x 10−2 m
-1
. P
. Paa 2 -1
w ww w w
w
www www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett

l i
a .i.
PROBLEM l a
l i
a .
assaa 75. A capillary of diameteraaddmm daa ss aa
a
is dipped in water such that the water risesad d
to
aassaa
ww. PP
. If the radius of the capillary is made 2/3 w w .P P
its .previous
value,w
w w
a height of 30mm.
then compute the height up to which water w
w w w in the new
wrise
will
of
capillary?
N NetSolution
et NNeett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. is, T = ; h = l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
ρrhg 2 Tcosθ
Surface tension by
ddaa s
capillary
s rise method
d a
d s
a s
2 cosθ ρrg
ℎ ∝ .1
P
.
(or) P
hraa
= constant . P
. Paa
.N
w w w 𝑟
w ww
wℎw𝑟 w =ℎ 𝑟 ;ℎ =
1 1 2 2 ;= 2
ℎ1 𝑟1
𝑟2
;= www
30 x 10−3 x r
2r
(3)
3 x 30 x 10−3 x r
2𝑟
lai
𝒉𝟐 = 45 x 10-3 m = 45mm
N Neett N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. UNIT – VIII (HEAT AND
l a
l ai .i.
THERMODYNAMICS)
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 76. Eiffel season (January) P aadd a a
tower is made up of iron ssaaits height is roughly 300 m. During winteraassaa
and
a ad d
w w.
average temperature
P
in France
. P
the temperature is 2 C and in hot summer
P
. 25 C. Calculate the change in heightwofwwEiffel. tower
0 its
w 0
w and winter. The linear thermal expansion wcoefficient for
da
w
betweenw summer
iron α = 10 ×10 per °C −6
ww
Solution
Pa
N Neet t ΔL
= a ΔT ; ΔL = a L ΔT ;
L L 0
N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. L0
ΔL = 10×10 ×300×23 = 0.069 im=69
−6
l a
la .i. mm l a
l i
a .
assaa 77. AWhile person does 30 kJ work
a ad da
onas
2 saaof water by stirring using a paddle wheel.aassaa
kg
a ad d
w.
container tow w . P P
.surface and surroundings by thermalwconduction
stirring, around 5 kcal of heat is released from water
ww . PP
. and
through its
w w
radiation.
w w is the change in internal energy of the system?
What
the
ww w
ww
Solution
Work done on the system (by the person while stirring),
N Neett W = −30 kJ = −30,000J

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
Using First law of thermodynamics, ΔU = Q−W l a
l i
a .
Heat flowing out of the system, Q = −5 kcal = −5×4184 J =−20920 J
assaa aasaa
s
ΔU = −20,920 J− (−30,000) J
aadd
ΔU = −20,920 J+30,000 J = 9080 J ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
Here, the heat lost is less than the work done on the system, so the
w
www w
www
change in internal energy is positive.
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNeett
lalai .i.78. Jogging every day is good for health.lalaAssume

i .i. that when you jog a work of lalai.
assaa energy of your body? aad da as aais given off. What is the change in internalaassaa
s
500 kJ is done and 230 kJ of heat
a add
Solution
ww . PP
. the system (body), W = +500 kJ www. . P P
w
wwreleased from the system (body),Q = –230 kJwww
wHeat
Work done by
The change in internal energy of a body = ΔU =–230 kJ–500 kJ = –730 kJ
NNet500
etwater,g ofcalculate
79. ee t t the slight expansion of
water is heated from 30 C to 60 C. Ignoring
0
NN
0
lalai.i. water 4184 J/kg.K) l l a.i. of the water? (specific heat of lalai.
the change in internal ienergy
a
et
assaa Solution
a ad a
d assaa
aa dd aassaa
.
When the waterP P 30 C to0 60 C, there
0 is
. P
only P
. volume. So we can treat this process aswisochoric.
is heated from
. In an
a slight
.N
changew w w w
w w process the work done by the system iswzero.
wisochoric
w
in its
w wThe given heat
supplied is used to increase only the internal energy. ΔU = Q = ms ΔT v
lai
The mass of water = 500 g =0.5 kg;
N Neett The change in temperature = 30K

N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
The heat Q = 0.5×4184×30 = 62.76 kJ
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 80. During reservoir, does worka a d
and
a a
a cyclic process, a heat
d ssaengine
a absorbs 500 J of heat from a hotaassaa
ejects an amount of heat 300 J intoa a d
thed
ww .
surroundings (coldP
. P
reservoir). Calculate the efficiency of the
ww
heat . P
. P
engine?
Solution w w w w
da
wThe
wefficiency of heat engine is given by η = 1 −
w w QL
;η=1− ;
300
QH 500
3
= 1 − ; η = 1 − 0.6 ; 0.4
Pa
N Neett 5
N N e ett
The heat engine has 40% efficiency, implying that this heat engine
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
converts only 40% of the input heat into work.
l a
l i
a .
assaa 81. There are two Carnot aengines ad daas
A
aaB operating in two different temperatureaassaa
s
and
a add
w.
w w. P P
.B the temperatures of the reservoirs are 350
regions. For Engine A, the temperatures of the two reservoirs are
w Cw
. P
.
150 PC and0
Whichw
0
w
wwhas lesser efficiency?
100 C. For engine
engine www w and 300 C.
0 0
ww
Solution
373
The efficiency for engine A =1 − ;
N Neett 623
= 0.11. Engine A has 11% efficiency
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa The efficiency for engine a
aadd aass a
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
B =1 − .P ;.=P . P
. P
573
0.08.
w w w w w
w
wwB has 8% efficiency www
623
wEngine
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.82. A refrigerator has COP of 3. Howlalmuchai .i. work must be supplied to the lalai.
assaa Solution COP = β = a ad a
;d
a saaJ of heat from its interion?
refrigerator in order to removes200
QL QL 200
aaddaassaa
w w . P
. P W=
W
;= ; = 66.67J
COP 3
ww.P.P
w
www EXERCISE PROBLEM www w
83. Calculate the number of moles of air is in the inflated balloon at room
N Nett
e N Neett
temperature The radius of the balloon is 10 cm, and pressure inside the
lalai.i. balloon is 180 kPa.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa= μRT or μ = ---------1 aa
Solution
dd a s
a
From ideal gas equation
s
PV d a
d s
a s PV
. P Pa a
. shaped balloon, V = πr www. . P
P aa RT
.N
Volumeww 4 3
of spherical
w
w=wxw3.14 x (10 x 10 ) ; 4 x 1.046 x 10 ; www
4 −2 3
3
-3
3
V = 4.184 x 10-3
lai
180 x 103 x 4.184 x 10−3
N Neett From equation 1,=

N N
;
eett
8.31 x (27+273)
l a
l i
a .i. =
180 x 4.184
;
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 84. In s a a s aa
8.31 x 300
=
180 x 4.184
d aa
; = 0.3021
d s
; 𝛍 ≅ 0.3 moles
ddaa s
. PP a
2493
a
. is 0.9 kPa. Calculate the numberwof w
the planet Mars, the average temperature is around
. PPa a
. of the
-53°C and
atmospheric w w w
ww w than that in
da
pressure moles
w w
molecules
earth?
in unit volume in the planet Mars? Is thisw w
greater
Solution
Pa
N Neett N Ne ett
Number of molecules per unit volume in Mars planet is μmars =
PV
l a
l i
a .i. =
0.9 x 1000 x 1
;= l a
la .
;i=i.
900
;= ;
90
l a
l
90 i
a . RT
assaa 𝛍 d da
= 0.4922 moles
aa as
8.31 x (−53 + 273)
saa 8.31 x 220 8.31 x 22
aaddaasaa
s182.82
w.
𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐬
w w P
. P
Number of.molecules per unit volume in Earth planet is
w
𝛍
w. P
.=P 𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡
𝐏𝐕
w=www 𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏

;= ;=
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎
;= w w
w; w 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑
𝐑𝐓
ww
𝟖.𝟑𝟏 𝐱 (𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑) 𝟖.𝟑𝟏 𝐱 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟖.𝟑𝟏 𝐱 𝟑 𝟐𝟒.𝟗𝟑

𝛍𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡 = 40.46 moles
N ee
85.
N tAchecked
t man starts e etbet 500 kPa.
bicycling in the morning at a temperature
N N
around 25 C, he 0
l a
l i
a .
i . the pressure of tire which
l is
a
la i.i.
equal to Afternoon he
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
found that the absolute pressure in the tyre is increased to 520 kPa. By
assuming the expansion ofa
d d a s
tyresis negligible, what is the temperature of tyrea
dd s
a s
at afternoon?
. P
. P aa . P
. Paa
Solution
w ww
wis considered as isochoric process, then Pw=w[ w] T w w w
wLetwthis μR
V
μR μR
In morning , P1 = [ ]T1 ---------------1 In afternoon , P2 = [ ]T2 ---------------2
V V
N Neett Divide equation (1) by (2)

N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N N eett
lalai .i. l a
l i.i.(25+273) ; = x 298
a l a
l i
a .
assaa
; T = T ; T =aa aa
P1 T1 P1 𝟓𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟐
P2
=
T2
2
d daa s
P2 s 1 2
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
d a
𝟓𝟎
d ass
. PPaa
= 1.04 x 298; = 309.92 k, T = 309.92 k or 36.92 c
2
.whose efficiency is 45% takes heatwfrom . PP aa 0
w w w w a. source
86.
w
A Carnot engine
wwwat a temperature of 327°C. To have an engine
maintained wwofwefficiency 60%
what must be the intake temperature for the same exhaust (sink)
NNettemperature?
et N Neett
lalai.i. Solution l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa Efficiency when , Td=a
aa d assaa273) = 600 K & η = 45% = 0.45
(327+ H
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P P
.; 0.45 = 1 − ; = 1 −0.45 ; = 0.55www. . P
P
.N
w
η=1− ww TL TL TL
wTw= w TH 600
0.55 x 600 = 330 K ; T = 330 K or 57 C

L L
www 600
0
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
η=1−
TL
lai
; 0.60 = 1 − ; i=
l a
l
330
a N N eett
Efficiency when , TH = (57+ 273) = 330 K & η = 60% = 0.60
.i.1 −0.60 ; = 0.40
330
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa s aa s aa
TH TH TH
330 3300
;=d da a s d a
d a s
T =
H
0.4
=
. P P4aa825 K ; T = 825 K or 552 C
H
. PP a
0
a
. keeps its content at 0°C while the roomwtemperature
. is
w ww ww
ww its coefficient of performance. www
da
87. An ideal refrigerator

27°C.wCalculate
Solution
Pa
N Neett NNe ett

Coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigerator, when
l a
l i
a .i. a
T = (27 + 273) = 300 K & T l=
l (0i.i+273)
a . = 273 K l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
H L
d daa
TLss 273 273
ddaass
aa aa
w.
COP = β = ;β = ;= ;
ww . P
. P TH − TL 300−273
w
w . P
.
27
P
wwww
β =10.11 w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett NN e ett
lalai .i. UNIT – IX (KINETIC l a

l i
a
THEORY
.i. OF GASES) l a
l i
a .
assaa aad daa ssaa
the speed of 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7 and 9 a
mad
sd
aassaa
88.
Calculate rmsw w . P
Ten particles are moving
.
speed,P at
average speed and most probable speed. ww .P.P . -1
ww
Solution w w ww w w
2+3+4+5+5+5+6+6+7+9
The average speed 𝑣̅ = ; = 5.2 ms-1
10
To find the rms speed, first calculate the mean square speed
N Nett
e ̅̅̅2 = 2 eett
2 +32 +42 +52 +52 +52 +62 +62 +72 +92
N N
lalai.i. 𝑣
l a
l i
a .i. ; = 30.6 m s
10
l a
l i
a. 2 -2
et
assaa ssaams ssaa
√ ̅̅̅
V = v = √30.6 ; = 5.53
2 -1
max
a d
The most probable
a daa ad
speed is 5 ms because three of the particles
a daa -1
PP
have that.speed.
. . P
. P
.N
w ww
w exponent 𝛄 for mixture of μ molesww ww ww
89. wwadiabatic
Find the of monoatomic gas 1
and μ2 moles of a diatomic gas at normal temperature (270C) .
lai
Solution
N Neett N eett 3
The specific heat of one mole of a monoatomic gas CV = R
N
l a
l i
a .i. For μ mole, C = μ R , C =la l ai .i. l a
l i
a . 2
sa
assaa aa aa
3 5
μ R
1
d da ass V
2 1 P
2 1
ddaass 5
For μ w . P aa
The specific heat of
P
one mole of a diatomic gas , C = R
.C = μ R , C = μ R . P
. Paa V
2
w w
mole,
5
w ww 7
ww heat of the mixture at constant volume Cw=wμwR + μ R

da
2 V 2 P 2
wspecific 2 2
V
3
2 1
5
2 2
The specific heat of the mixture at constant pressure
5 7
Pa
CP = μ1 R + μ2 R
N Neett 2 2
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. The adiabatic exponent 𝛄 =
l a
la i .i. CP
=
5μ1 + 7μ2
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
CV 3μ1 + 5μ2
An oxygen molecule isa dda a ss ddaass

a a a
w.
90. travelling in air at 300 K and 1 atm, and the diameter

w w . P
.
of oxygen molecule P
is 1.2×10 m. Calculate the
−10mean free
w
path
w. P
.
of P
oxygen
molecule.w w
www
Solution www
ww
1
λ= .
√2πnd2
N Neett N N ett
We have to find the number density n By using ideal gas law
e
l a
l i
a .i. n=
N
=
P
=
l a
lai .i.
101.3 x 103
l a
l i
a .
; = 2.499 x 1025 molecules / m3
assaa 1sa a aa
V kT 1.381 x 10−23 x 300
λ=
d a
xd
a s d a
d s
a s
P aa
√2 x π x 2.449
. . P 10 x (1.2 x 10 ) 25
. P
. Paa −10 2
w w w w w
w
w=ww ; 𝛌 = 0.63 x 10 m
1
15.65 x 105
www -6
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett

l i
a .i.
PROBLEM l a
l i
a .
assaa aad da as saa
aad daassaa
91.
rms speed ofw Nw. P
A fresh air is composed
P of
. O at 20°C.
and
2
w w. P
nitrogen N (78%) and oxygen O (21%). Find
. P the 2
www
Solution w 2 2
wwww
NA = Avogadro Number and R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1
1) Nitrogen molecule (N2)
Atomic mass of Nitrogen = 14,
N Nett
e N Neett
Then One Nitrogen molecule = 2×14=28
lalai.i. l a i
a .i.
Thus 28 g nitrogen gas contains NA number of nitrogen
l l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a dd s
a
mole of nitrogen
a
aa
s
molecules Hence, Molecular mass of one
a ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P
molecule, M = 28 g/mol = 0.028 kg/mol . P
. P
.N
wwww
RMS speed of nitrogen molecule, w
www
w(w
𝒗 )=√ ;= √
𝟑𝐑𝐓
w
w
3 x 8.314 x (20+273)
𝒓𝒎𝒔
lai
𝐌 0.028
N Neett =√
3 x 8.314 x 293
N Neett
; = 510.9 ms-1 ; (𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) = 511 ms-1
l a
l i
a .i. 0.028
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 2) Oxygen molecule (O )sa
a d da
Atomic mass of Oxygen
a a s a 2
= 16. Then One Oxygen molecule =2×16=32d
aa a
d s
a a
s a
Thus 32 . gP
. P
Oxygen contains NA number of oxygen . P
. P
w ww w ww
wwMolecular mass of one mole of oxygen molecule
www
da
molecules
wHence,
M = 32 g/mol = 0.032kg/mol
RMS speed of oxygen molecule, (𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 )
Pa
N Neett 𝟑𝐑𝐓
N e
3 x 8.314 x (20+273)
N ett
l a
l i
a .i. =√
𝐌
;= √
l a
lai .i.
0.032
l a
l i
a .
assaa =√
3 x 8.314 x 293
aad daas
; = 477.9saa ; (𝒗 ) = 478 ms
ms -1
𝒓𝒎𝒔
aaddaasaa
s
-1
w.
0.032
w w . P
. P
of methane gas in the Jupiter’s atmosphere ww. P
. P
92.
w
is 471.8w w w , show that the surface temperature w
If the rms speed
ms -1
w
of
ww
ww
Jupiter is sub-zero.
Solution
N Neett (𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) = √
3RT 2
or vrms
N Neett
3RT
or T =
v2rms M
l a
l i
a .i. M
l a
lai.i.=
M 3R
l a
l i
a .
assaa s aa ; s aa
2
T=
(471.8) 𝑥 0.016
d;
daa s 471.8 𝑥 471.8 𝑥 0.016
d a
d a s
P a
3 𝑥 8.314
a
T = 142.8 K ≈143
. P K
143 –.273 ; = – 130 C
or T = w
24.942
. P
. Paa
w w 0
w w
w
wwwtemperature of Jupiter planet is less than 𝟎℃
Thus surface www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N Nee tt
lalai .i.93. Calculate the temperature at whichlthe

al i
a .i. velocity of a gas triples its value lalai.
rms
assaa a as
at S.T.P. (standard temperature
Solution aad d sa
Ta= 273 K) 1
a ad daassaa
. P P
At standard .temperature and pressure (STP) ; 𝑣
w w .P P
= 𝑣 & T .= 273 K
ww 1
ww w w
At new temperature and pressure ; 𝑣 = 3𝑣 &
ww
T w
= w
? 𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
2
3RT1 3RT2
By definition, 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 = √ ------------1 ; 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = √ ------------2
M M
Divide equation 2 by 1
N Nett
e NN e ett
lalai.i. 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
√
=√ ;[
3RT2
M
l a =.i. ; T = T [
i
]la
T2 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 2
] ; 273 x [ ]
𝑇2
l a
l i
a. 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 2 3𝑣 2
et
assaa aa aa
= 2 1
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟏
d a
√
d as s
3RT1
M
T1 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟏
d a
d s
𝑇1
a s 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟏 𝒗
= 273 x 9 ; T =aa aa
. P
.P 2557 K 2
. P
. P
.N
w
is atw
w w w w w
94.
w temperature 80°C and pressure 5×10 wNwmw. What is the
A gasw
number of molecules per m3 if Boltzmann’s constant is 1.38×10 J K
−10 −2
−23 −1
lai
Solution
Ideal gas constant PV = nkT;
N Neett n = = PV
N e
5 x 10−10 x 1
N ett 5 x 1013
l a
l i
a .i. kT
l
;
a
l
=
ai .ix.10
1.38 x 10−23 x(80+273)
l
1.38 x 353
a
l i
a .
sa
assaa 95. A gas made of a mixture s saa ssaa
n = 1.026 x 10 x 10 ; n = 1.026
-2 13 11
a ad a
d a aad daa
w w . P P
. the energy of the gas in terms ofwRT.wwNeglect
of 2 moles of oxygen and 4 moles
.
of PP
. the
argon at
ww w
da
w w
temperature T. Calculate
vibrational modes.
ww
Solution
Pa
N Neett N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .
i .
Oxygen (O2) is a di atomic molecule. Its number of degrees of freedom
l a
l i
a .
assaa f=5
aad da assaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
w w . P
Argon (Ar) is a mono
. P w w . P
atomic molecule. Its number of degrees of freedom
. P
www w
f =3
www w
ww
For mono atomic molecule, total energy of μ mole of gas,

3 3
U1 = μ1 x NA kT; = μ1 x RT
N Neett 2
N Neett 2
l a
l i
a .i. l la i.i.
For di atomic molecule, total energy of μ mole of gas,
a l a
l i
a .
assaa U = μ x N kT; = μa
2 2
aad d a
5
2
xssaRTa
A 2
5
2
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
ww .P
Total energy. P
of gas mixture U = U + U
w
w. P
. P 1 2
w
wUw= μwx RT + μ x RT ; U = 4 x RT + 2 x RTwww
1
3
2
5 w 3 5
2 2 2 2
U = 6 RT + 5 RT; U = 11RT
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.96. Estimate the total number of air molecules

l a
l i
a .i. in a room of capacity 25m at a lalai. 3
assaa temperature of 27°C. da

aa d a ss aa
aaddaassaa
Solution
ww . P
. P w w .P.P
w
wwgas constant PV = NkT or N = ;
wIdeal www w 𝑃𝑉
𝑘𝑇
1.013 x 105 x 25
N Nett
e =
1.38 x 10−23 x (27 + 273)
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aa aa
1.013 x 105 x 25 1.013 x 25 x 1028
; = ss s s
=
aadd aa
1.38 x 10−23 x 300 414
ad
a a
d a
N = 6.116.xP
.P
10 x 10 ; -3 28
. P
. P
.N
w ww
w x 10 molecules www
wNw= 6.116 25
www
UNIT – X (OSCILLATIONS)
l a
l i
a NN e lai
97.etIft the length of the simple pendulum is increased
.i. length, calculate the percentage increase
l a
l i
a N N eet t by 44% from its original
.i.in time period of the pendulum. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa Solution
a ad da asaa
s
aadd aassaa
. P P
; T = .constant √𝑙
T ∝ √𝑙w
w ww . P
. P
www√ w www w
da
44
𝑇𝑓 1+ 𝑙
= 100
; √1.44 = 1.2 ;
𝑇𝑖 𝑙
Pa
N Neet t Therefore, T = 1.2 T = T + 20% T

f i
N Ne e
itt i
l a
l i
a .i. a
EXERCISE lPROBLEM
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa 98. Consider a simple pendulum a ad da as
of
saa 𝒍 = 0.9 m which is properly placed onaassaa
length
a ad d
w.
w w PP
a trolley rolling .down which is at θ = 45°
ww .
. that the inclined plane is frictionless, calculate
on a inclined plane P P
.the time
with the
www w
horizontal. Assuming
www w
period of oscillation of the simple pendulum.
ww
Solution
N Neett N N e tt
The effective value of acceleration due to gravity will be equal to the
e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
component of g normal to the inclined plane which is 𝑔′=𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
a l a
l i
a .
assaa aad d
Then the time perioda a
is
s saaby T = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√
given
ad
a a
d s
a
𝑙
aa
s 𝑙
ww .P. P w
w. P
. P 𝑔′ 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ww
wTw= 2𝜋√ 9.8 x
0.9
; = 2𝜋√
𝑐𝑜𝑠450 ww
; ; = 2 x 3.14√w
0.9
9.8 x
w 1
0.9
9.8 x 0.707
√2
0.9
N Neett T = 6.28√
6.9286
N N e tt
; = 6.28√0.1290 ; = 6.28 x 0.3604 ; T= 2.263s
e
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e e tt
lalai .i.99. A piece of wood of mass m is floating l a

l i
a .i. in a liquid whose density is ρ. If lalai.
erect
assaa a add a
it is slightly pressed down and
as sareleased,
a then executes simple harmonicaassaa
aad d
motion. Show that
ww . P
. P
its time period of oscillation is T = 𝟐𝝅 √
w w .P.P 𝒎
𝑨 𝒈𝝆
Solution w w
wLetwthe wood piece of mass ‘m’ and area ‘A’ floating w
wwinwliquid of density
‘ρ’ is pressed down by a distance ‘𝑥’ and released, so that it executes
N Nett
e SHM.
N N e ett
lalai.i. l al i.𝑘i.𝑥 (or) mg = kx (or) k = ;
a l a
l i
a.
et
assaa
The restoring force is givenaa aa 𝑚𝑔
d d aa s s by, 𝐹=
d a
d s
a s 𝑥
(ρv)g
;=. P
.P a a (𝛒𝐀𝐱)𝐠
. P
. Paa
.N
= ; = 𝛒𝐀𝐠
w w w w ww
www www
𝑥 𝒙
𝒎 𝒎
The time period of vertical oscillation is, T = 𝟐𝝅√ ; = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒌 𝑨 𝒈𝝆
l a
l i
a .
i N
. Neet t
laiUNIT – XI (WAVES)t t
100. The average range of frequencies lat al i
a .
iN.
which
Nee
human beings can hear sound l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa a a daa
waves varies from 20 Hz to 20
d
wave in these limits. (Assume
s saa Calculate the wavelength of the soundaassaa
kHz.
the speed of sound to be 340 ms . aadd –1
Solution
ww . P
. P w w . P
. P
w
w=w= the;audible ww
da
wλTherefore,
1 f1
v 340
= 17 m ; λ = =
20 2
v
ww
; = 0.017m
f2
340
20 x 103
wavelength region is from 0.017 m to 17 m when
the velocity of sound in that region is 340 ms–1.
Pa
NN ee tCalculate
t the speed of sound in aN N eet trod whose
l a
l i
a .i. Young’s modulus Y = 2 × 10 Nm laland
101.
i
a .iρ.= 7800 kg m
steel
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
11 –2 –3.
Solution
d d aas s ddaass
aa aa
w.
𝒗= √ =√
Y
ww. P
. P
2 x 1011
; √0.2564 x 10 ; 8
w
w . P
. P
= 0.506
ρ
w
wx 10wmslongitudinal
wTherefore,
7800
; = 5 x 10 ms
4 -1 3 -1
w w ww
ww
waves travel faster in a solid than

in a liquid or a gas. Now you may understand why a shepherd checks before
NN eett NN ett
crossing railway track by keeping his ears on the rails to safeguard his cattle.
e
l a
l i
a .i.102. An increase in pressure of 100 kPalalacauses
i.i. a certain volume of water to lalai.
assaa aa d
speed
ssaavolume. (a) Calculate the bulk modulus ofaassaa
decrease by 0.005% of its original
water? (b) Compute the d a a of sound (compressional waves) in water? d
aa d
Solution
ww. P
. P ww . P
. P
w
wBulkw modulus B = V | | =
w(a)where ΔP
ΔV
;= w w w w; = 2000Mpa,
100 x 103
0.005 x 10−2
100 x 103
5 x 10−5
Mpa is mega pascal
K 2000 x 106
(b) Speed of sound in water is 𝑣 = √ = √ = 1414 ms-1
N Neett N
ρ
Nee tt 1000
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NNe ett

lalai .i.103. Suppose a man stands at a distance l a

l i
a .i. a cliff and claps his hands. He lalai.
from
assaa receives an echo from the s
between the man anda ad
theda a saaafter 4 second. Calculate the distanceaassaa
cliff
cliff. Assume the speed of sound to be 343 a a
msdd. –1
Solution
ww . PP
. by the sound to come back as echo isw2tw w .P P
. t=2s
w
wwdistance is d = vt =(343 m s )(2 s) = 686 m.www
w∴The
The time taken
–1
= 4 ⇒
104. A mobile phone tower transmits a wave signal of frequency 900MHz.
N Nett
e N Neett
Calculate the length of the waves transmitted from the mobile phone tower.
lalai.i. Solution
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa d d as saa
Frequency, f = 900 MHz; = 900 x 106 Hz
a
The speed of wave is c = 3 × 108ms−1
aa ad
a daassaa
λ = =.P . P . P
. P
v 3 x 108
.N
w w w
fw ; = 0.33m
900 x 106
ww ww
105.
w w w
w
Two vibrating tuning forks produce waves whose equation is given by
lai
y1 = 5 sin(240πt) and y2 = 4 sin(244πt). Compute the number of beats per
N Neett second.
N Neett
Solution : Given y1 = 5 sin(240πt) and y2 = 4 sin(244πt)
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
Comparing with y = A sin(2πf1t), we get
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaas saa
2πf1 = 240π ⇒ f1 = 120Hz ; 2πf2 = 244π ⇒ f2 = 122Hz
aa
The number of beats produced is | f1 − f2| = |120 − 122| = |− 2|dd aassaa
w . P
. P
=2 beats per sec
w w w . P
. P
wwww w
wIfwthree identical
da
106. The sound level from a musical instrument playing is 50w

dB.
musical instruments are played together then compute the total intensity.
The intensity of the sound from each instrument is 10–12 W m–2
Pa
N Neett Solution
N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. I1
ΔL = 10log [ ] = 50 dB ; log
l a
la i[.i.] = 5 dB
I1
l a
l i
a .
assaa ax a10 Wm ; I = 10 Wm aa
10 I 10 I
I1
5
d
0
= 10 ; I = 10 I ; =a
d as
10
5 0 s 5 -12
0
-2 -7 -2
ddaass
1
a a 1
aa
w.
I0
Since three musical
ww . P
. P
instruments are played, therefore I = 3I . P
.
=3x10
ww
total PWm 1 -7 -2
107.
w w a note with 450Hz, what are the frequencies
wwsounds
If a flute
w
wwwof the second,
ww
third, and fourth harmonics of this pitch? If the clarinet sounds with a same
note as 450Hz, then what are the frequencies of the lowest three harmonics
N Neett produced.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. Solution
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
For a flute which is an open pipe, we have
ddaass
Second harmonics f2 = 2 f1 = 900 Hz
d a
d s
a s
P aa
Third harmonics f3 = 3 f1 = 1350 Hz
. . P . P
. Paa
w
w
Fourth harmonics f4 = 4 f1 = 1800 Hz
w w w
w
www www
For a clarinet which is a closed pipe, we have
Second harmonics f2 = 3 f1 = 1350 Hz
Third harmonics f3 = 5 f1 = 2250 Hz
Fourth harmonics f4 = 7 f1 = 3150 Hz
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N ee tt
lalai .i.108. If the third harmonics of a closed lorgan

al ai .i.pipe is equal to the fundamental lalai.
assaa a a
if the length of the closed daas
frequency of an open organ pipe,
d sacompute
a the length of the open organ pipeaassaa
organ pipe is 30 cm. aa dd
. PP
wthe.length of the open organ pipe, with 𝑙 =30ww .P P
wthe .length of
bew cm w
Solution
Letw
𝑙w
wthewclosed organ pipe.
2
ww 1
It is given that the third harmonic of closed organ pipe is equal to the
fundamental frequency of open organ pipe.
N Nett
e N N eett
The third harmonic of a closed organ pipe 𝑓2 = =
𝑣 3𝑣
; = 3f1
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.organ pipe is 𝑓 = = ; 𝜆2
l a
l i
a. 4𝑙1
et
assaa aa aa 𝑣 𝑣
The fundamental frequency of open
=a d a
;d
s
a s d a
d s
a s 1 𝜆1 2𝑙2
Therefore
.
𝑣
P
.P
2𝑙2 a 3𝑣
𝑙 =
4𝑙1 2
2𝑙1
= 20 cm
3
. P
. Paa
.N
w ww w ww
109. wwwgenerator with fixed frequency of 343 Hzw
A frequency isw w to vibrate
allowed
above a 1.0 m high tube. A pump is switched on to fill the water slowly in the
lai
tube. In order to get resonance, what must be the minimum height of the
water? (speed of sound in air is 343 m s−1)
N Neett Solution
NN ee tt
l a
l i
a .i. The wavelength , λ = ; λ = la l i
a .i. ; = 1.0m
343 m𝑠 −1
l a
l i
a .
sa
C
assaa Let the length of the a

aa dd assaacolumns be L , L and L .
f
resonant
343 Hz
1
aaddaa
2
ssaa 3
w w . P
. P
The first resonance occurs at length L L = =
1.0.25
w
1=m
w .𝝀
P
. P 𝟏
w w resonance occurs at length L L w=w=w0.75 m w

da
𝟒 𝟒
wThe
wsecond 2.
𝟓𝝀
2=
𝟑𝝀
𝟒
𝟓
𝟑
𝟒
The third resonance occurs at length L3. L3 = = = 1.25 m and so on.
𝟒 𝟒
Since total length of the tube is 1.0 m the third and other higher
Pa
N Neett N Ne ett
resonances do not occur. Therefore, the minimum height of water H min
l a
l i
a .i. l lai .i.
for resonance is, Hmin = 1.0 m – 0.75 m = 0.25 m
a l a
l i
a .
assaa 110. Ausing ad
a daas saa to determine the speed of sound in airaassaa
student performed an experiment
aad d
w.
resonates in w w . P
.
the resonance Pcolumn method. The length of the air
w . P
column
w P
. length
that
w the fundamental
wthat the same tuning fork resonates withwthe
wwsuch
is varied www
mode with a tuning fork is 0.2 m. If the
first overtone at
ww
0.7 m. Calculate the end correction.

Solution
N Neett End correction e=

𝐿2 − 3𝐿1
N N
; =t 0.05
ee t m
;=
0.7−3 (0.2)
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
2 2
l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett N N eett
lalai .i.111. A sound of frequency 1500 Hz is emitted

l al ai .iby. a source which moves away from lalai.
assaa (a) a addaa
an observer and moves towards
Calculate the frequency
s saaacliff at a speed of 6 ms . –1
of the sound which is coming directly from aa d d

the
aassaa
source. .P P
. frequency of sound heard by the observer . PP
. off
w w w
w Assume the speed of sound in air is 330wms w w w
(b)
wthewcliff.
Compute the
ww. reflected
–1
Solution
(a) Source is moving away and observer is stationary, therefore, the
N Nett
e NN eett
frequency of sound heard directly from source is
lalai.i. ′
f =[
𝑣
]𝑓 = [ ] xa
l l i
a .i. = 1473 Hz
330
1500
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa ssaathe cliff and reaches observer, therefore,aassaa
𝑣+𝑣𝑠 330+6
(b)
a a da a
Sound is reflected
d from
aa dd
f = [PP P P
.
′
.
𝑣
] 𝑓 = [ ] x
330
1500 = 1528 Hz
. .
.N
w ww 𝑣−𝑣𝑠 330−6
w ww
112. wwwobserves two moving trains, one reaching w
An observer the
w and other
wstation
leaving the station with equal speeds of 8 m s−1. If each train sounds its
lai
whistles with frequency 240 Hz, then calculate the number of beats heard by
N Neett the observer.

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. Solution
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aa aa
Observer is stationary
(i)
ddaass ddaass
Source (train) is moving towards an observer:
. P Paa . P
Paa
The observed frequency due to train arriving station is
.[ ] 𝑓 = [ ] x 240 = 246 Hz www.
ww w
www www
da
𝑣 330
f = in 𝑣−𝑣𝑠 330−8
(ii) Source (train) is moving away from an observer:

The observed frequency due to train leaving station is
Pa
N Neett 𝑣
N e
330
N ett
] x 240 = 234 Hz
l a
l i
a .i. fout = [
𝑣+𝑣𝑠
]𝑓 = [
l a
lai .i.
330+8
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa aa
So the number of beats = |𝐟𝐢𝐧 − 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐭 | = (246 – 234) = 12
d da as s d daass
aa aa
w.
The speed ofwaw

. P
. P
EXERCISE PROBLEM
wave in a certain medium is 900 m/s. If 3000 ww . PP
. passes
113.
over w
aw
ww
certain point of the medium in 2 minutes, w w ww waves
then compute its
ww
wavelength?
Solution
N Neett N N ett
Since 3000 waves passes over in 2 minutes (120 s), the number of
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
waves passes per second is, 𝑓 =
3000
; = 25 per second.
l a
l i
a .
assaa aa; λ =36m aa
120
The wavelength λ = =ss s s
𝑣 900
aad a
d a 𝑓 25
ad
a a
d a
w w .P. P w
w. P
. P
wwww w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

NN eett NN e ett
lalai .i.114. A ship in a sea sends SONAR waveslstraight

al ai .i. down into the seawater from the lalai.
assaa bottom of the ship. The signalss
aa
returns to the ship afterdda a aa from the deep bottom bed rock andaassaa
reflects
3.5 s. After the ship moves to 100 km it sends a ad d
ww . P
another signal which P
. compute the difference in height between
returns back after 2s. Calculate the
w
depth
w
of. P
.P
the sea in
each casew w
www
Solution
and also
www two cases.
v x t1 1533 x 3.5 5365.5

Depth at first place, d1 = ;= ;= ; d1 =2682.75m
2 2 2
N Nett
e Depth at second place, d2 = 2 vxt
;=
N N eett;=
1533 x 2
; d1 =1533m
5365.5
lalai.i. l a
l
2
i
a .i. 2 2
The difference in height between two cases Δd = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
l a
l i
a.
et
assaa a d
a d assaa
= 2682.75 – 1533 ; 𝚫𝐝 = 1149.75m
a a addaassaa
115. . P
.
Consider two organPpipes of same length in which one organ .
pipe P
.
isPclosed
.N
w ww w ww
wwworgan pipe is open. If the fundamental frequency
and another wwwof closed pipe
is 250 Hz. Calculate the fundamental frequency of the open pipe.
lai
Solution
N Neet t The third harmonic of a closed organNN ee t𝑓t= -------------1
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. pipe 𝑐
𝑣
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaof open organ pipe is 𝑓 = -----------2 aassaa
4𝐿
d aas s
The fundamental frequency
d dd
𝑣
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa 0 2𝐿
w ww 𝑣
w w w
wwequation 2 by 1 = = 2 f = 2f = 2w x 250w
[2𝐿]
da
𝑓0
wDivide 𝑓𝑐 𝑣
[4𝐿] w = 500Hz
0 c
80.652
2.1798vt = −80.652 ; 𝑣0 = ; = 36.99 𝒗𝟎 = 37m/s
Pa
N Neett N N e e tt 2.1798
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l a i .i.
PREPARED BY
l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
www RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., www
ww
P. G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS,
N Neett N N tt
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
e e
l a
l i
a .i. l lai.i.
SRI RAMANA MAHARSHI MATRIC HR SEC SCHOOL,
a l a
l i
a .
assaa a a ddaass aa
KAVERIYAMPOONDI,
TIRUVANNAMALAI DISTRICT – 606 603. ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w w .P P
. mrrkphysics@gmail.com, w
w. P
. P
w
www www
murasabiphysics@gmail.com, physicsrasa@gmail.com
w
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a
ww.. w
w ..
wwww wwww

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www w
www
N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a.
et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P
.N
w w
w www
www www
l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a .
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Pa
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa ad
adaassaa
aaddaasaa
s
w.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a .
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
N Neett N Nee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
assaa as
a aa
s
questions P d a a

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XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 1

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 2

4. number trailing zero(s)

4. It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three physical

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 3

4. Define the terms i) Unification ii) Reductionism

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 4

lalai .i.12. What are systematic errors? lalai.i. l a

19. What is percentage error?

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 5

lalai .i.21. Define dimensional variable and dimensionless

NNeett the same and equal to [L2T−2].

1. Screw gauge: The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring

assaa aadd asaa

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 6

instrument is not calibrated properly at the time of

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 7

lalai .i. carelessness of the individualla

The error caused due to the shear carelessness of an observer

Consider the sum,

= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) (or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 8

lalai .i. The maximum error in difference ofltwo al ai .quantities

The error ΔZ in Z is given by Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)

lalai.i. As ΔA /A, ΔB / B are both small quantities,

5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 9

N Neett The product quantity 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ee tt

6. Define displacement and distance.

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 10

lalai .i.8. Define acceleration. l a

1) The whirling motion of a stone attached to a string

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 11

lalai .i.17. What is meant by motion in two dimensions?

lalai.i. dimensional motion

21. What is retardation?

velocity. It is denoted as ‘𝑝⃗’. Momentum is also a vector

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 12

lalai .i.26. Define Time of flight l a

NN eett NNe ett

1) Consider an object moving along a circle of

NNeett An arc distance Δs as shown in Figure.

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 13

lalai .i.34. Find the expressions tangential acceleration.

particle moves from position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 to ⃗⃗⃗⃗

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 14

lalai .i. FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH l al i

OA to ON. ABN is a right angled

which is the magnitude of the resultant of A and B

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 15

lalai .i.37. Discuss the properties of scalar andlavector

10) In the case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂ , 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 1.1

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 16

N Neett Velocity - time relation:

NNeett Displacement – time relation:

changes from u2 to v2, displacement changes from 0 to s,

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 17

lalai.i. Kinematic equations:

i) Consider an object thrown with initial

motion.uy changes with time under

N Neetiii)t reach be ground.

(acceleration due to gravity acts opposite to the motion).

XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 18