An Introduction To Fluid Mechanics: Notes For The First Year Lecture Course

[As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work.
You must
Notes For the First Year Lecture Course: attend them. Should you fail to attend either one you will be asked to complete
An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics some extra work. This will involve a detailed report and further questions. The
simplest strategy is to do the lab.]
School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds.
x Homework:
CIVE1400 FLUID MECHANICS Example sheets: These will be given for each section of the course. Doing these will
Dr Andrew Sleigh greatly improve your exam mark. They are course work but do not have credits
toward the module.
January 2006 Lecture notes: Theses should be studied but explain only the basic outline of the
necessary concepts and ideas.
0. Contents of the Course Books: It is very important do some extra reading in this subject. To do the examples
you will definitely need a textbook. Any one of those identified below is adequate and
0.1 Objectives: will also be useful for the fluids (and other) modules in higher years - and in work.
x The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in civil x Example classes:
engineering. There will be example classes each week. You may bring any problems/questions
you have about the course and example sheets to these classes.
x Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
x Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Fluids Lecture and Test Schedule
0.2 Consists of:
Week Date Subject Lecture Test
x Lectures:
Month day
20 Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application.
0 January 17 Tue Fluid properties 1
Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. You
18 Wed 2
will be asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
1 24 Tue Statics 3
x Assessment: 25 Wed 4
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 80% of the module credits. 2 31 Tue 5 MCQ
This consists of 6 questions of which you choose 4. February 1 Wed 6
2 Multiple choice question (MCQ) papers, worth 10% of the module credits. 3 7 Tue 7
These will be for 30mins and set during the lectures. The timetable for these MCQs 8 Wed Dynamics 8
and lectures is shown in the table at the end of this section. 4 14 Tue 9
15 Wed 10
1 Marked problem sheet, worth 10% of the module credits. 5 21 Tue 11
x Laboratories: 2 x 3 hours 22 Wed 12 Problem Sheet
These two laboratory sessions examine how well the theoretical analysis of fluid 6 28 Tue Surveying
dynamics describes what we observe in practice. March 1 Wed Surveying
During the laboratory you will take measurements and draw various graphs according 7 7 Tue Surveying
to the details on the laboratory sheets. These graphs can be compared with those 8 Wed Surveying
obtained from theoretical analysis. 8 14 Tue Real fluids 13
You will be expected to draw conclusions as to the validity of the theory based on the 15 Wed 14
results you have obtained and the experimental procedure. 9 21 Tue 15
After you have completed the two laboratories you should have obtained a greater 22 Wed 16
understanding as to how the theory relates to practice, what parameters are important Easter Vacation
in analysis of fluid and where theoretical predictions and experimental measurements 10 April 19 Tue Dimensional analysis 17
may differ. 20 Wed 18
The two laboratories sessions are: 11 26 Tue 19 MQC
1. Impact of jets on various shaped surfaces - a jet of water is fired at a target 27 Wed Revision Lectures 20
and is deflected in various directions. This is an example of the application of 12 May 3 Tue 21
the momentum equation. 4 Wed 22
2. The rectangular weir - the weir is used as a flow measuring device. Its
accuracy is investigated. This is an example of how the Bernoulli (energy)
equation is applied to analyses fluid flow.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Introduction 1 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Introduction 2
These notes give more information than is found in the lectures. They do not replace textbooks.
You must also read at least one of the recommended fluid mechanics books. The notes
0.3 Specific Elements: may be read online or printed off for personal use.
x Introduction
x Fluid Properties
x Fluids vs. Solids
x Viscosity
x Newtonian Fluids
x Properties of Fluids
x Statics
x Hydrostatic pressure
x Manometry / pressure measurement
x Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
x Dynamics
x The continuity equation.
x The Bernoulli Equation.
x Applications of the Bernoulli equation.
x The momentum equation.
x Application of the momentum equation.
x Real Fluids
x Boundary layer.
x Laminar flow in pipes.
x Introduction to dimensional analysis
x Dimensions
x Similarity
0.4 Books:
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module.
(You will probably not need any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the Civil Engineering
course)
Mechanics of Fluids, Massey B S., Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Fluid Mechanics, Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A, Longman.
Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Featherstone R E and Nalluri C, Blackwell Science.
Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chadwick A, and Morfett J., E & FN Spon -
Chapman & Hall.
0.5 Other Teaching Resources.

There are some extra teaching/learning resources available for you to use that are computer
based.
Online Lecture Notes
A more detailed set of lecture notes can be found on the WWW at he following address:
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/cive
You get to this using Netscape from any of the computers in the university.
If you forget this address you can also get to the web pages via Dr Sleigh's web pages linked
from the department's main page.
0.6 Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics 0.7 System of units
Why are we studying fluid mechanics on a Civil Engineering course? The provision of adequate As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become
water services such as the supply of potable water, drainage, sewerage are essential for the confused as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field
development of industrial society. It is these services which civil engineers provide. of fluid mechanics. Over the years many different ways have been used to express the various
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either directly or indirectly. quantities involved. Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different
Some examples of direct involvement are those where we are concerned with manipulating the units for the same thing - they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American
fluid: pint is 4/5 of a British pint!
To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric) system - which you will
x Sea and river (flood) defences;
already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in the same system or
x Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks; the wrong solutions will results.
x Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works; Despite this warning you will still find that this is the most common mistake when you attempt
x Dams; example questions.
x Irrigation;
0.8 The SI System of units
x Pumps and Turbines;
The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
x Water retaining structures. convenience secondary units are used in general practise which are made from combinations
And some examples where the primary object is construction - yet analysis of the fluid of these primary units.
mechanics is essential:
Primary Units
x Flow of air in / around buildings;
x Bridge piers in rivers; The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
x Ground-water flow.
Quantity SI Unit Dimension
Notice how nearly all of these involve water. The following course, although introducing general
length metre, m L
fluid flow ideas and principles, will demonstrate many of these principles through examples
where the fluid is water. mass kilogram, kg M
time second, s T
temperature Kelvin, K T
current ampere, A I
luminosity candela Cd
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have
dimension of L.
(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions - we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)
Derived Units
0.9 Example: Units
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those
most used are shown in the table below: 1.
Quantity SI Unit Dimension
A water company wants to check that it will have sufficient water if there is a prolonged drought
velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1 in the area. The region it covers is 500 square miles and various different offices have sent in
acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2 the following consumption figures. There is sufficient information to calculate the amount of
force N water available, but unfortunately it is in several different units.
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
Of the total area 100 000 acres are rural land and the rest urban. The density of the urban
energy (or work) Joule J
population is 50 per square kilometre. The average toilet cistern is sized 200mm by 15in by
N m,
0.3m and on average each person uses this 3 time per day. The density of the rural population
kg m2/s2 kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
is 5 per square mile. Baths are taken twice a week by each person with the average volume of
power Watt W water in the bath being 6 gallons. Local industry uses 1000 m3 per week. Other uses are
N m/s Nms-1 estimated as 5 gallons per person per day. A US air base in the region has given water use
kg m2/s3 kg m2s-3 ML2T-3 figures of 50 US gallons per person per day.
pressure ( or stress) Pascal
P, Nm-2 The average rain fall in 1in per month (28 days). In the urban area all of this goes to the river
N/m2, kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2 while in the rural area 10% goes to the river 85% is lost (to the aquifer) and the rest goes to the
kg/m/s2 one reservoir which supplies the region. This reservoir has an average surface area of 500
density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3 acres and is at a depth of 10 fathoms. 10% of this volume can be used in a month.
specific weight N/m3 a) What is the total consumption of water per day?
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2 b) If the reservoir was empty and no water could be taken from the river, would there be
relative density a ratio 1 enough water if available if rain fall was only 10% of average?
no units no dimension
viscosity N s/m2 N sm-2
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
surface tension N/m Nm-1
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
find out, else your guess will probably be wrong.
One very useful tip is to write down the units of any equation you are using. If at the end the
units do not match you know you have made a mistake. For example is you have at the end of a
calculation,
30 kg/m s = 30 m
you have certainly made a mistake - checking the units can often help find the mistake.
More on this subject will be seen later in the section on dimensional analysis and similarity.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties
What make fluid mechanics different

LECTURE CONTENTS to solid mechanics?
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties xThe nature of a fluid is different to that of a solid
Fluids vs. Solids xIn fluids we deal with continuous
Viscosity streams of fluid.
Newtonian Fluids In solids we only consider individual elements.
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure In this section we will consider how we
Manometry/Pressure measurement
can classify the differences in nature
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces of fluids and solids.
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation. What do we mean by nature of a fluid?
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation. Fluids are clearly different to solids.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
But we must be specific.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Boundary layer. We need some definable basic
Laminar flow in pipes. physical difference.
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties 1 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties 2
We know that fluids flow under the

action of a force, and the solids don’t - What use can we make of these ideas?
but solids do deform.
So we can say that In the analysis of fluids

we often take small volumes (elements)
and examine the forces on these.
xfluids lack the ability of solids to
resist deformation.
Take the rectangular element below.
xfluids change shape as long as a
force acts. What forces cause it to deform?
(These definitions include both A B
gasses and liquids as fluids.)
C D
A’ B’ F Fluids in motion
Consider a fluid flowing near a wall.

- in a pipe for example -
F
C D
Fluid next to the wall will have zero velocity.
Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F,
are know as shearing forces. The fluid “sticks” to the wall.
From this we arrive at the definition: Moving away from the wall velocity increases
to a maximum.
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

or flows, when subjected to shearing forces.
This has the following implications

for fluids at rest: v
Plotting the velocity across the section gives

If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting “velocity profile”
on it, and
any force must be acting perpendicular to the fluid
Change in velocity with distance is
du
“velocity gradient” =
dy
As fluids are usually near surfaces

there is usually a velocity gradient. What use is this observation?
Under normal conditions one fluid
particle has a velocity different to its
neighbour.
It would be useful if we could quantify
Particles next to each other with different this shearing force.
velocities exert forces on each other
(due to intermolecular action ) …… This may give us an understanding of
what parameters govern the forces
i.e. shear forces exist in a fluid moving different fluid exert on flow.
close to a wall.
What if not near a wall? We will examine the force required to

deform an element.
Consider this 3-d rectangular element,

under the action of the force F.
v
No velocity gradient, no shear forces.
δx
A 2-d view may be clearer…
a b F
δz A’ B B’
F E x
B φ E’
A
y
δy
F
C D
F
The shearing force acts on the area
C D
A Gz u Gx
under the action of the force F
Shear stress, W is the force per unit area:
F
W
a a’ b b’ A
F
A A’ B B’ The deformation which shear stress causes is
E measured by the angle I, and is know as
shear strain.
F
Using these definitions we can amend our
C D definition of a fluid:
In a fluid I increases for as long as W is applied -

the fluid flows
In a solid shear strain, I, is constant for a fixed
shear stress W.
It has been shown experimentally that the u

rate of shear strain is directly W Constant u
y
proportional to shear stress u/y is the rate of change of velocity with distance,
I du
Wv in differential form this is = velocity gradient.
time dy
I The constant of proportionality is known as
W Constant u
t the dynamic viscosity, P
We can express this in terms of the cuboid. giving
If a particle at point E moves to point E’ in

time t then: du
W P
for small deformations dy
x which is know as Newton’s law of viscosity
shear strain I
y
rate of shear strain
A fluid which obeys this rule is know as a
Newtonian Fluid
(sometimes also called real fluids)
Newtonian fluids have constant values of P

x
(note that u is the velocity of the particle at E)
t Non-Newtonian Fluids
So
Some fluids do not have constant P. This graph shows how P changes for different fluids.
They do not obey Newton’s Law of viscosity.
Bingham plastic Pseudo plastic
plastic
They do obey a similar relationship and can Newtonian
be placed into several clear categories
Shear stress, τ
The general relationship is:
n
§ Gu ·
W A B¨ ¸ Dilatant
© Gy ¹
where A, B and n are constants. Ideal, (τ=0)
For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = P and n = 1 Rate of shear, δu/δy

x Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before
flow commences.
x Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear
stress must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An
example is sewage sludge.
x Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the
viscosity decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidial
substances like clay, milk and cement.
x Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear
e.g. quicksand.
x Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of
time shear force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
x Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of
time shear force is applied
xViscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a

sudden large change in shear they behave like plastic.
Liquids vs. Gasses Properties of Fluids:

Density
Liquids and gasses behave in much the same way There are three ways of expressing density:
Some specific differences are
1. A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as
being incompressible. 1. Mass density:
A gas is easily to compress and usually treated as
such - it changes volume with pressure.
U mass per unit volume
2. A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and
will form a free surface mass of fluid
A gas has no fixed volume, it changes volume to U
expand to fill the containing vessel. No free surface is
volume of fluid
formed.
Units: kg/m3
Causes of Viscosity in Fluids

Dimensions: ML3
Viscosity in Gasses
xMainly due to molecular exchange between layers Typical values:
Mathematical considerations of this momentum
3 3
exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity. Water = 1000 kg m , Mercury = 13546 kg m
xIf temperature increases the momentum exchange 3 3
Air = 1.23 kg m , Paraffin Oil = 800 kg m .
between layers will increase thus increasing viscosity.
Viscosity in Liquids
xThere is some molecular interchange between layers
in liquids - but the cohesive forces are also important.
xIncreasing temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive
forces and increases the molecular interchange.
Resulting in a complex relationship between
temperature and viscosity.
2. Specific Weight: Viscosity

(sometimes known as specific gravity)
There are two ways of expressing viscosity
Z weight per unit volume

Z Ug 1. Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity
Units: Newton’s per cubic metre, N / m3 (or kg/m2/s2)
2 2 P = the shear stress, W, required to drag one layer of
Dimensions: ML T . fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance
Typical values: away.
N m 3 , Mercury = 132943 N m 3 , du
Water =9814 P W
dy
Air =12.07 N m 3 , Paraffin Oil =7851 N m 3
Force Velocity
3. Relative Density: Area Distance
V ratio of mass density to Force u Time
=
a standard mass density Area
U subs tan ce Mass
V Length u Time
U $
H 2O ( at 4 c ) Units: N s/m2 or kg/m s (kg m-1 s-1)
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the (Note that P is often expressed in Poise, P,
maximum mass density for water (which occurs at 4$ c) where 10 P = 1 N s/m2.)
at atmospheric pressure.
Units: none, as it is a ratio Dimensions: ML-1T-1
Dimensions: 1. Typical values:
Water =1.14 u 10-3 Ns/m2, Air =1.78 u 10-5 Ns/m2,
Typical values:
Mercury =1.552 Ns/m2, Paraffin Oil =1.9 Ns/m2.
Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics
LECTURE CONTENTS
2. Kinematic Viscosity
Q = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density. Section 1: Fluid Properties
P Fluids vs. Solids
Q Viscosity
U
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Units: m2s-1
Section 2: Statics
Dimension: L2T-1
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Typical values: Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Water =1.14 u 10-6 m2/s, , Air =1.46 u 10-5 m2/s m s , 2 1 Section 3: Dynamics
Mercury =1.145 u 10-4 m2/s, Paraffin Oil =2.375 u 10-3 The continuity equation.
m2/s. The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes.
Similarity
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 1: Fluid Properties 19 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics 20
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics
STATICS
What do we know about the forces
4 Lectures involved with static fluids?
Objectives
From earlier we know that:
xIntroduce idea of pressure.
1. A static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it.
xProve unique value at any particular elevation.
2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must
xShow hydrostatic relationship. be acting at right angles to the boundary.
xExpress pressure in terms of head of fluid. F1
F2
R1
xPressure measurement using manometers.
F
Fn R2
x Determine the magnitude and

direction of forces on submerged surfaces R
Rn
Pressure force normal to the boundary
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics 21 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics 22
This is also true for: Pressure
x curved surfaces Convenient to work in terms of pressure, p,

which is the force per unit area.
x any imaginary plane
Force
pressure
Area over which the force is applied
An element of fluid at rest is in equilibrium:
F
p
3. The sum of forces in any A
direction is zero.
Units: Newton’s per square metre,
4. The sum of the moments of forces
N/m2, kg/m s2 (kg m-1s-2).
about any point is zero.
(Also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the
bar, where 1bar = 105 N/m2)
Uniform Pressure:
If the force on each unit area

of a surface is equal then
uniform pressure
Pascal’s Law Summing forces in the x-direction:
Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions. Force in the x-direction due to px,
Fx x p x u Area ABFE p x Gx Gy
ps
B Force in the x-direction due to ps,
δz
A δs
Fx s ps u Area ABCD u sin T
Gy
px
δy F
psGs Gz
C
Gs
θ
D
psGy Gz
E
δx
( sin T
Gy
py
Gs )
Force in x-direction due to py,

Fx y 0
Remember:
No shearing forces To be at rest (in equilibrium)
All forces at right angles to the surfaces Fx x Fx s Fx y 0

p xGxGy psGyGz 0
px ps
Summing forces in the y-direction. To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Force due to py, Fy Fy Fy weight 0

y s x
Fy p y u Area ABCD p y GxGz
y § 1 ·
p yGxGy psGxGz ¨ Ug GxGyGz¸ 0
© 2 ¹
Component of force due to ps,
Fy ps u Area ABCD u cosT The element is small i.e. Gx, Gx, and Gz, are small,
s
so Gx u Gy u Gz, is very small
Gx
psGsGz and considered negligible, hence
Gs py ps
psGxGz
( cos T Gx
Gs ) We showed above
px ps
Component of force due to px, thus
Fy x 0
px py ps
Force due to gravity,
weight = - specific weight u volume of element Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
1
= Ug u GxGyGz This is Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at rest.
2
The forces involved are:

Vertical Variation Of Pressure
In A Fluid Under Gravity Force due to p1 on A (upward) = p1A
Force due to p2 on A (downward) = p2A

p2, A
Area A
Force due to weight of element (downward)
= mg
= mass density u volume u g
Fluid density ρ z2
= U g A(z2 - z1)
Taking upward as positive, we have
p1, A z1
p1 A p2 A UgA z2 z1 = 0
p2 p1 UgA z2 z1
Vertical cylindrical element of fluid

Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure
cross sectional area = A decreases linearly with increase in height
mass density = U
p2 p1 UgA z2 z1
This is the hydrostatic pressure change.
Equality Of Pressure At
The Same Level In A Static Fluid
P Q
Fluid density ρ
Area A
z z
pl, A pr, A
Face L Face R L R
weight, mg
Horizontal cylindrical element

We have shown
cross sectional area = A
mass density = U pl = pr
left end pressure = pl For a vertical pressure change we have
right end pressure = pr pl p p Ugz
and
For equilibrium the sum of the pr pq Ugz
forces in the x direction is zero.
so
pl A = pr A p p Ugz pq Ugz
pp pq
pl = pr
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant. Pressure at the two equal levels are the same.
This true for any continuous fluid.
General Equation For Horizontal

Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid
If T 90$ then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e.
horizontal),so
Area A (p + δp)A
§ dp · dp dp
Fluid density ρ ¨ ¸ 0
δs © ds ¹ T 90$ dx dy
θ
Confirming that pressure change
on any horizontal plane is zero.
z + δz
mg
z
pA Vertical
If T 0$ then s is in the z direction (vertical) so
A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary § dp · dp

orientation. ¨ ¸ Ug
© ds ¹ T 0$ dz
From considering incremental forces (see detailed

notes on WWW or other texts) we get
Confirming the hydrostatic result
dp p2 p1
Ug cos T Ug
ds z2 z1
p2 p1 Ug z2 z1
Pressure And Head
We have the vertical pressure relationship It is convenient to take atmospheric

dp pressure as the datum
Ug ,
dz
integrating gives Pressure quoted in this way is known as
p = -Ugz + constant gauge pressure i.e.
Gauge pressure is
measuring z from the free surface so that z = -h pgauge = U g h
z h
The lower limit of any pressure is
y
the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
x
Pressure measured above

p Ugh constant a perfect vacuum (zero)
is known as absolute pressure
surface pressure is atmospheric, patmospheric .
Absolute pressure is
patmospheric constant pabsolute = U g h + patmospheric
so
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric
p Ugh patmospheric
A gauge pressure can be given Pressure Measurement By Manometer

using height of any fluid.
p Ugh Manometers use the relationship between pressure
and head to measure pressure
This vertical height is the head.
The Piezometer Tube Manometer

If pressure is quoted in head,
the density of the fluid must also be given. The simplest manometer is an open tube.
Example: This is attached to the top of a container with liquid
What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2 in at pressure. containing liquid at a pressure.
head of water of density, U = 1000 kgm-3
Use p = Ugh,
p 500 u 103 h1 h2
h 50.95m of water
Ug 1000 u 9.81
A
In head of Mercury density U = 13.6u103 kgm-3.
3
500 u 10 B
h 3.75m of Mercury
3
13.6 u 10 u 9.81
In head of a fluid with relative density J = 8.7.
remember U = J u Uwater) The tube is open to the atmosphere,
3 The pressure measured is relative to
500 u 10
h . m of fluid J = 8.7
586 atmospheric so it measures gauge pressure.
8.7 u 1000 u 9.81
An Example of a Piezometer.
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1 What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that
can be measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m?
And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what
pA = U g h 1 would the maximum measurable gauge pressure?
Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid h2
pB = U g h 2
Problems with the Piezometer:
1. Can only be used for liquids
2. Pressure must above atmospheric
3. Liquid height must be convenient

i.e. not be too small or too large.
The “U”-Tube Manometer We know:
“U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids Pressure in a continuous static fluid
and gases to be measured is the same at any horizontal level.
“U” is connected as shown and filled with
manometric fluid. pressure at B = pressure at C
pB = pC
Important points:
1. The manometric fluid density should be For the left hand arm
greater than of the fluid measured. pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure of height of
Uman > U liquid being measured
2. The two fluids should not be able to mix pB = pA + Ugh1

they must be immiscible.
For the right hand arm
Fluid density ρ pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure of height of
D
manometric liquid
pC = patmospheric + Uman gh2
h2
A
h1 We are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract
B C patmospheric giving
pB = pC
Manometric fluid density ρ
man
pA = Uman gh2 - Ugh1
An example of the U-Tube manometer.

What if the fluid is a gas? Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge
pressure of fluid density U = 700 kg/m3, and the
manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density
Nothing changes. of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
The manometer work exactly the same. b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?
BUT:
As the manometric fluid is liquid

(usually mercury , oil or water)
And Liquid density is much

greater than gas,
Uman >> U
Ugh1 can be neglected,
and the gauge pressure given by
pA = Uman gh2
Pressure difference measurement pressure at C = pressure at D

Using a “U”-Tube Manometer.
pC = pD
The “U”-tube manometer can be connected
at both ends to measure pressure difference between pC = pA + U g ha
these two points
pD = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
B
pA + U g ha = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
Fluid density ρ
Giving the pressure difference
hb
E
pA - pB = U g (hb - ha) + (Uman - U)g h

h
ha Again if the fluid is a gas Uman >> U, then the terms

C D involving U can be neglected,
pA - pB = Uman g h
Manometric fluid density ρman
An example using the u-tube for pressure Advances to the “U” tube manometer
difference measuring
In the figure below two pipes containing the same
fluid of density U = 990 kg/m3 are connected using a Problem: Two reading are required.
u-tube manometer. Solution: Increase cross-sectional area
What is the pressure between the two pipes if the of one side.
manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Fluid density ρ Result: One level moves
much more than the other.
Fluid density ρ
A
p1 p2
B
ha = 1.5m
E
hb = 0.75m
diameter D
h = 0.5m
diameter d
z2
Datum line
C D z1
Manometric fluid density ρman = 13.6 ρ
If the manometer is measuring the pressure

difference of a gas of (p1 - p2) as shown,
we know
p1 - p2 = Uman g h
volume of liquid moved from

the left side to the right
= z2 u ( Sd2 / 4) Problem: Small pressure difference,
movement cannot be read.
The fall in level of the left side is

Volume moved
z1 Solution 1: Reduce density of manometric
Area of left side fluid.
z 2 Sd 2 / 4
SD 2 / 4 Result: Greater height change -
2
§d· easier to read.
z2 ¨ ¸
© D¹
Putting this in the equation,
2
ª §d· º
p1 p2 Ug « z 2 z 2 ¨ ¸ » Solution 2: Tilt one arm of the manometer.
¬ © D¹ ¼
ª § d ·2º
Ugz 2 «1 ¨ ¸ » Result: Same height change - but larger
¬ © D¹ ¼ movement along the
If D >> d then (d/D)2 is very small so manometer arm - easier to read.
p1 p2 Ugz2
Inclined manometer
Example of an inclined manometer.
p1
p2 An inclined manometer is required to measure an air
diameter d
pressure of 3mm of water to an accuracy of +/- 3%.
The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the larger
diameter D
e r
x arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid
ad
le
Re
z2
has density Uman = 740 kg/m3 and the scale may be
ca
S
Datum line
read to +/- 0.5mm.
z1 What is the angle required to ensure the desired
accuracy may be achieved?
θ
The pressure difference is still given by the

height change of the manometric fluid.
p1 p2 Ugz2
but,
z2 x sin T
p1 p2 Ugx sin T
The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased

further by a greater inclination.
Choice Of Manometer Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids
Take care when fixing the manometer to vessel We have seen these features of static fluids
Burrs cause local pressure variations.
x Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution
Disadvantages: x Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous
x Slow response - only really useful for very slowly fluid are equal
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures; x Pressure at a point acts equally in all
directions (Pascal’s law).
x For the “U” tube manometer two measurements
must be taken simultaneously to get the h value. xForces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right
x It is often difficult to measure small variations in angles to that boundary.
pressure.
x It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
Fluid pressure on a surface
x For very accurate work the temperature and
relationship between temperature and U must be Pressure is force per unit area.
known; Pressure p acting on a small area GA exerted
force will be
Advantages of manometers:
x They are very simple.
F = puGA
x No calibration is required - the pressure can be
calculated from first principles.
Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at
right-angles to the surface.
General submerged plane Horizontal submerged plane

F =p δA1
1 1
F =p δA
2 2 2
The pressure, p, will be equal at all points of
F =p δA
n n n the surface.
The resultant force will be given by
R pressure u area of plane
The total or resultant force, R, on the R = pA
plane is the sum of the forces on the
small elements i.e. Curved submerged surface
R p1GA1 p 2 GA2 p n GAn ¦ pGA
and Each elemental force is a different
This resultant force will act through the magnitude and in a different direction (but
centre of pressure. still normal to the surface.).
It is, in general, not easy to calculate the

For a plane surface all forces acting
resultant force for a curved surface by
can be represented by one single combining all elemental forces.
resultant force,
acting at right-angles to the plane The sum of all the forces on each element
through the centre of pressure. will always be less than the sum of the
individual forces, ¦ pGA .
Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a

general plane surface in a liquid.
¦ zGA is known as
O
the 1st Moment of Area of the
O
θ
Fluid Q elemental
density ρ z
area δA
Resultant
z
s plane PQ about the free surface.
Force R D
G
area δA G
x
C Sc area A d
And it is known that
P
x ¦ zGA Az
Take pressure as zero at the surface.
A is the area of the plane
Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on z is the distance to the centre of gravity
an element GA, depth z,
(centroid)
p = Ugz
In terms of distance from point O
So force on element ¦ zGA Ax sin T
F = UgzGA = 1st moment of area u sinT

about a line through O
Resultant force on plane
(as z x sin T )
R Ug ¦ zGA
The resultant force on a plane
(assuming U and g as constant). R UgAz
UgAx sin T
This resultant force acts at right angles Sum of moments Ug sin T ¦ s 2 GA

through the centre of pressure, C, at a depth D.
Moment of R about O = R u S c = UgAx sin T S c

How do we find this position?
Take moments of the forces. Equating

UgAx sin T S c Ug sin T ¦ s 2 GA
As the plane is in equilibrium:
The moment of R will be equal to the sum of the
The position of the centre of pressure along the
moments of the forces on all the elements GA plane measure from the point O is:
about the same point.
Sc
¦ s GA
2
It is convenient to take moment about O Ax
The force on each elemental area: How do we work out

Force on GA UgzGA the summation term?
Ug s sin T GA
This term is known as the
the moment of this force is:
2nd Moment of Area , Io,
Moment of Force on GA about O Ug s sin T GA u s of the plane
Ug sin T GAs 2 (about the axis through O)
U , g and T are the same for each element, giving the
total moment as
2nd moment of area about O Io ¦ s 2GA

How do you calculate the 2nd moment of
area?
It can be easily calculated
for many common shapes.
2nd moment of area is a geometric property.
It can be found from tables -

The position of the centre of pressure
BUT only for moments about
along the plane measure from the point O is:
an axis through its centroid = IGG.
2 nd Moment of area about a line through O

Sc
st Usually we want the 2nd moment of area
1 Moment of area about a line through O
about a different axis.
and
Through O in the above examples.
Depth to the centre of pressure is We can use the

parallel axis theorem
D S c sin T to give us what we want.
The 2nd moment of area about a line

The parallel axis theorem can be written through the centroid of some common
Io I GG Ax 2
shapes.
Shape Area A 2nd moment of area, I GG ,

about
We then get the following an axis through the centroid
equation for the Rectangle
b
position of the centre of pressure bd bd 3
h 12
G G
I GG
Sc x
Ax
Triangle
§I ·
D sin T ¨ GG x ¸ bd bd 3
h
© Ax ¹ G
h/3
G
b
2 36
Circle
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem
G
R
G SR 2 SR 4
and the I GG will be given)
4
Semicircle
SR 2
R4
R
G
(4R)/(3π)
2 01102
.
An example:
Find the moment required to keep this triangular Submerged vertical surface -
gate closed on a tank which holds water. Pressure diagrams
1.2m
For vertical walls of constant width
D
2.0m
it is possible to find the resultant force and
centre of pressure graphically using a
G 1.5m pressure diagram.
C
We know the relationship between

pressure and depth:
p = Ugz
So we can draw the diagram below:
z ρgz
H 2H
3
R
p
ρgH
This is know as a pressure diagram.
Pressure increases from zero at the

surface linearly by p = Ugz, to a
maximum at the base of p = UgH. For a triangle the centroid is at 2/3 its height
i.e. the resultant force acts
2
The area of this triangle represents the horizontally through the point z H.
3
resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall, For a vertical plane the
depth to the centre of pressure is given by
Units of this are Newtons per metre.
1 2
Area u AB u BC D H
2 3
1
HUgH
2
1
UgH 2
2
Resultant force per unit width
1
R UgH 2 ( N / m)
2
The force acts through the centroid of

the pressure diagram.
Check this against The same technique can be used with combinations
the moment method: of liquids are held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
For example:
The resultant force is given by: oil ρo 0.8m

D
R UgAz UgAx sinT
1.2m
H water ρ R
Ug H u 1 sinT
2
1
UgH 2 ρg0.8 ρg1.2
2 Find the position and magnitude of the resultant

and the depth to the centre of pressure by: force on this vertical wall of a tank which has oil
§I · floating on water as shown.
D sin T ¨ o ¸
© Ax ¹
and by the parallel axis theorem (with width of 1)
Io I GG Ax 2
2
1u H3 H H3
1 u H §¨ ·¸
12 © 2¹ 3
Depth to the centre of pressure
§ H 3 / 3· 2
D ¨ 2 ¸ H
© H / 2¹ 3
Submerged Curved Surface

In the diagram below liquid is resting on
If the surface is curved the resultant force top of a curved base.
must be found by combining the elemental
forces using some vectorial method. E D
Calculate the C
B
horizontal and vertical G
FAC O RH
components.
A
Combine these to obtain the resultant Rv R
force and direction.

The fluid is at rest – in equilibrium.
So any element of fluid

(Although this can be done for all three such as ABC is also in equilibrium.
dimensions we will only look at one vertical
plane)
Consider the Horizontal forces

The resultant horizontal force of a fluid
above a curved surface is:
The sum of the horizontal forces is zero.
C
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
B
curved surface onto a vertical plane.
FAC RH
We know
A 1. The force on a vertical plane must act
horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane).
No horizontal force on CB as there are 2. That RH must act through the same point.
no shear forces in a static fluid
So:
Horizontal forces act only on the faces RH acts horizontally through the centre of
AC and AB as shown. pressure of the projection of
the curved surface onto an vertical plane.
FAC, must be equal and opposite to RH.
We have seen earlier how to calculate
AC is the projection of the curved surface resultant forces and point of action.
AB onto a vertical plane.
Hence we can calculate the resultant
horizontal force on a curved surface.
Consider the Vertical forces Resultant force

The sum of the vertical forces is zero.
E D
The overall resultant force is found by
combining the vertical and horizontal
C
B
components vectorialy,
G
Resultant force
2
A
R RH RV2
Rv
There are no shear force on the vertical edges, And acts through O at an angle of T.
so the vertical component can only be due to
the weight of the fluid. The angle the resultant force makes to the
horizontal is
So we can say §R ·
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a T tan 1 ¨ V ¸
© RH ¹
curved surface is:
RV = Weight of fluid directly above the curved

surface. The position of O is the point of interaction of
the horizontal line of action of R H and the
It will act vertically down through the centre of vertical line of action of RV .
gravity of the mass of fluid.
A typical example application of this is the
determination of the forces on dam walls or curved
What are the forces if the fluid is below the
sluice gates.
curved surface?
Find the magnitude and direction of the This situation may occur or a curved sluice gate.
resultant force of water on a quadrant gate as
shown below. C
Gate width 3.0m B
G
1.0m
FAC O RH
Water ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Rv R
The force calculation is very similar to

when the fluid is above.
Horizontal force Vertical force

C
B
G
B
FAC O RH
A A’ Rv
What vertical force would

The two horizontal on the element are:
The horizontal reaction force RH keep this in equilibrium?
The force on the vertical plane A’B.
If the region above the curve were all
The resultant horizontal force, RH acts as shown in water there would be equilibrium.
the diagram. Thus we can say:
Hence: the force exerted by this amount of fluid

must equal he resultant force.
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid below a
curved surface is:
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
curved surface onto a vertical plane. The resultant vertical force of a fluid below a
curved surface is:
Rv =Weight of the imaginary volume of fluid
vertically above the curved surface.
The resultant force and direction of application An example of a curved sluice gate which
are calculated in the same way as for fluids experiences force from fluid below.
above the surface: A 1.5m long cylinder lies as shown in the figure,
holding back oil of relative density 0.8. If the cylinder
has a mass of 2250 kg find
a) the reaction at A b) the reaction at B
Resultant force E
C
2
R RH RV2
A
D
And acts through O at an angle of T.

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal
is
§R ·
T tan 1 ¨ V ¸
© RH ¹
LECTURE CONTENTS Fluid Dynamics
Objectives
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
1.Identify differences between:
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids xsteady/unsteady
Properties of Fluids xuniform/non-uniform
Section 2: Statics xcompressible/incompressible flow
Manometry/Pressure measurement 2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
submerged surfaces 3.Introduce the Continuity principle
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation. 4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
Application of Bernoulli equation. 5.Use the continuity equations to predict
The momentum equation. pressure and velocity in flowing fluids
Section 4: Real Fluids 6.Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes. 7.Demonstrate use of the momentum equation
to predict forces induced by flowing fluids
Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 3: Fluid dynamics 83 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 3: Fluid dynamics 84
Fluid dynamics: Flow Classification
The analysis of fluid in motion Fluid flow may be

classified under the following headings
Fluid motion can be predicted in the
same way as the motion of solids uniform:
Flow conditions (velocity, pressure, cross-
By use of the fundamental laws of physics and section or depth) are the same at every point in
the physical properties of the fluid the fluid.
non-uniform:
Some fluid flow is very complex: Flow conditions are not the same at every point.
e.g. steady:
xSpray behind a car Flow conditions may differ from point to point
xwaves on beaches; but DO NOT change with time.
xhurricanes and tornadoes
unsteady:
xany other atmospheric phenomenon
Flow conditions change with time at any point.
All can be analysed

Fluid flowing under normal circumstances
with varying degrees of success - a river for example -
(in some cases hardly at all!). conditions vary from point to point
we have non-uniform flow.
There are many common situations
which analysis gives very accurate predictions If the conditions at one point vary as time
passes then we have unsteady flow.
Combining these four gives. Compressible or Incompressible Flow?
Steady uniform flow. All fluids are compressible - even water.

Conditions do not change with position
in the stream or with time. Density will change as pressure changes.
E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity. Under steady conditions
- provided that changes in pressure are small -
Steady non-uniform flow. we usually say the fluid is incompressible
Conditions change from point to point in the stream - it has constant density.
but do not change with time.
E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at
the inlet. Three-dimensional flow
In general fluid flow is three-dimensional.
Unsteady uniform flow.
At a given instant in time the conditions at every Pressures and velocities change in all
point are the same, but will change with time. directions.
E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a
pump pumping at a constant rate which is then
switched off. In many cases the greatest changes only occur
in two directions or even only in one.
Unsteady non-uniform flow.
Every condition of the flow may change from point to Changes in the other direction can be effectively
point and with time at every point.
E.g. Waves in a channel.
ignored making analysis much more simple.
This course is restricted to Steady uniform flow

- the most simple of the four.
One dimensional flow: Two-dimensional flow
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in
not across the cross-section. one direction at right angles to this.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be
varying in time but not across the cross-section. shown by curved lines on a plane.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
Below shows flow pattern over a weir.
But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall
- yet non-zero in the centre -
there is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
Pipe Ideal flow Real flow
In this course we will be considering:

Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow?
xsteady
Possibly - but it is only necessary if very high
accuracy is required. xincompressible
xone and two-dimensional flow
Streamlines Some points about streamlines:
It is useful to visualise the flow pattern. x Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are
Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity parallel to that boundary
contours - can be drawn.
x The direction of the streamline is the direction
of the fluid velocity
These lines are know as streamlines.
x Fluid can not cross a streamline
Here are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section
of an aircraft wing shaped body:
x Streamlines can not cross each other
x Any particles starting on one streamline will

stay on that same streamline
x In unsteady flow streamlines can change

position with time
Fluid flowing past a solid boundary does not
flow into or out of the solid surface. x In steady flow, the position of streamlines
does not change.
Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction

must be along the boundary.
Streamtubes Some points about streamtubes
A circle of points in a flowing fluid each xThe “walls” of a streamtube are streamlines.
has a streamline passing through it.
xFluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
These streamlines make a tube-like shape cannot cross a streamtube “wall”.
known as a streamtube
xA streamtube is not like a pipe.
Its “walls” move with the fluid.

x In unsteady flow streamtubes can change
position with time
x In steady flow, the position of streamtubes

does not change.
In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat

(in the plane of the paper):
Flow rate Volume flow rate - Discharge.
Mass flow rate More commonly we use volume flow rate

Also know as discharge.
dm mass The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.

m
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
volume of fluid
discharge, Q
A simple example: time
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then: A simple example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 litres in 25 seconds,
mass of fluid in bucket what is the discharge?
mass flow rate =
m
time taken to collect the fluid
8.0 2.0 2.0 u 10 3 m3
Q
7 25 sec
0.857kg / s
0.0008 m3 / s
0.8 l / s
Discharge and mean velocity A simple example:
If A = 1.2u10-3m2
If we know the discharge and the diameter of a And discharge, Q is 24 l/s,
pipe, we can deduce the mean velocity mean velocity is
Q
um t
um
A
2.4 u 10 3
x area A
. u 10 3
12
Pipe Cylinder of fluid 2.0 m / s
Cross sectional area of pipe is A Note how we have called this the mean velocity.
Mean velocity is um.
This is because the velocity in the pipe is not
In time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point X with constant across the cross section.
a volume Au um u t.
x
The discharge will thus be
volume A u um u t u
Q= = um umax
time t
Q Aum
This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the
area gives the discharge, applies to all
situations - not just pipe flow.
Continuity Applying to a streamtube:
This principle of conservation of mass says matter
cannot be created or destroyed Mass enters and leaves only through the two
ends (it cannot cross the streamtube wall).
This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as ρ2
u2
control volumes (or surfaces) A2
Mass flow in
Control ρ1
volume
u1
A1
Mass flow out
For any control volume the principle of conservation Mass entering = Mass leaving
of mass says per unit time per unit time
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase
per unit time per unit time of mass in U1GA1u1 U2GA2u2
control vol
per unit time
Or for steady flow,
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass

dm
within the control volume, so U1GA1u1 U2GA2 u2 Constant m
dt
For steady flow
Mass entering = Mass leaving
This is the continuity equation.
per unit time per unit time
In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the Some example applications of Continuity
mean velocity and write
U1 A1um1 U2 A2 um2 Constant m
Section 1 Section 2
For incompressible, fluid U1 = U2 = U A liquid is flowing from left to right.

(dropping the m subscript) By the continuity
A1u1U1 A2 u2 U2
As we are considering a liquid,

A1u1 A2 u2 Q
U1 = U 2 = U
Q1 Q2
This is the continuity equation most often used.
A1u1 A2u2
An example:
This equation is a very powerful tool. If the area A1=10u10-3 m2 and A2=3u10-3 m2
It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of And the upstream mean velocity u1=2.1 m/s.
this course. The downstream mean velocity is
A1
u2 u1
A2
7.0 m / s
Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands Velocities in pipes coming from a junction.
or diverges as in the figure below,
2
Section 1 Section 2 3
If d1=30mm and d2=40mm and the velocity u2=3.0m/s. mass flow into the junction = mass flow out

The velocity entering the diffuser is given by,
U 1 Q1 = U 2 Q 2 + U 3 Q3
A2 S d 22 /4 d 22
u1 u2 u2 u
2 2
A1 S d12 /4 d1 When incompressible
2
§ d2 ·
¨ ¸ u2 Q1 = Q 2 + Q3
© d1 ¹
2
§ 40·
¨ ¸ 3.0 5.3 m / s
© 30¹
$ 1 u1 = $ 2 u2 + $ 3 u3
If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 The Bernoulli equation
diameter 40mm takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3
diameter 60mm.
What are the values of discharge and mean velocity in each The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the
pipe? principle of conservation of energy along a
Discharge in: streamline
§ Sd12 ·
Q1 A1u1 ¨ ¸ u1
© 4 ¹ It can be written:
p1 u12
0.00392 m3 / s z H = Constant
Ug 2 g 1
Discharges out:
Q2 0.3Q1 0.001178m3 / s
These terms represent:
Q1 Q2 Q3
Q3 Q1 0.3Q1 0.7Q1 Pressure Kinetic Potential Total
0.00275 m3 / s energy per energy per energy per energy per
Velocities out: unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight
Q2 A2 u2
These term all have units of length,
u2 0.936 m / s they are often referred to as the following:
Q3 A3u3 p u2
pressure head = velocity head =
u3 0.972 m / s Ug 2g
potential head = z total head = H
Restrictions in application The derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation:
of Bernoulli’s equation: B
Cross sectional area a
B’
A
xFlow is steady z A’
mg
xDensity is constant (incompressible) An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has
potential energy due to its height z above a datum and
xFriction losses are negligible kinetic energy due to its velocity u. If the element has
weight mg then
potential energy = mgz
xIt relates the states at two points along a single
potential energy per unit weight = z
streamline, (not conditions on two different
streamlines) 1 2
kinetic energy = mu
2
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at u2
kinetic energy per unit weight =
any instant in time! 2g
At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the
Fortunately, for many real situations where the fluid will flow, moving the cross-section, so work will be
conditions are approximately satisfied, the done. If the pressure at cross section AB is p and the area
of the cross-section is a then
equation gives very good results.
force on AB = pa
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section
AB will have moved to A’B’
mg m
volume passing AB =
Ug U
therefore
m The Bernoulli equation is applied along
distance AA’ =
Ua streamlines
work done = force u distance AA’
like that joining points 1 and 2 below.
2
m pm
= pa u
Ua U
p
work done per unit weight =
Ug 1
This term is know as the pressure energy of the flowing

stream.
total head at 1 = total head at 2
Summing all of these energy terms gives or
Pressure Kinetic Potential Total p1 u12 p2 u22

z z
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
energy per energy per energy per energy per
unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight
or
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction)
2
p u or energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It
z H can be expanded to include these simply, by adding the
Ug 2 g appropriate energy terms:
Total Total Loss Work done Energy
By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy energy per energy per unit per unit per unit supplied
in the system does not change, thus the total head does unit weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight per unit weight
not change. So the Bernoulli equation can be written
p u2 p1 u12 p2 u22
z H Constant z z h wq
Ug 2 g Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline
joining section 1 with section 2.
The Bernoulli equation is often combined with p1 u12 p2 u22

z1 z2
the continuity equation to find velocities and Ug 2 g Ug 2 g
pressures at points in the flow connected by a
U
streamline. p2 p1 (u12 u22 )
2
An example:
Finding pressures and velocities within a Use the continuity equation to find u2
contracting and expanding pipe. A1u1 A2u2
2
A1u1 § d1 ·
u2 ¨ ¸ u1
u1 u2 A2 © d2 ¹
p1 p2
7.8125 m / s
So pressure at section 2
section 1
3
section 2
p2 200000 17296.87
A fluid, density U = 960 kg/m is flowing steadily
through the above tube. 182703 N / m2
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2 182.7 kN / m2
The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2) Note how
the velocity has increased
What is the gauge pressure at section 2? the pressure has decreased
We have used both the Bernoulli equation and Pitot Tube
the Continuity principle together to solve the The Pitot tube is a simple velocity measuring device.
problem.
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has
Use of this combination is very common. We will streamlines similar to this:
be seeing this again frequently throughout the
rest of the course.
1 2
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

Some move to the left and some to the right.
The centre one hits the blunt body and stops.
The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many
situations not just the pipe flow.
At this point (2) velocity is zero
The fluid does not move at this one point.
Here we will see its application to flow
This point is known as the stagnation point.
measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as
in open channels.
Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the
pressure at this point.
Along the central streamline at 1: velocity u1 , pressure p1
at the stagnation point of: u2 = 0. (Also z1 = z2)
p1 u12 p2

U 2 U
1
p2 p1 Uu12
2
How can we use this? Pitot Static Tube
The necessity of two piezometers makes this
The blunt body does not have to be a solid. arrangement awkward.
I could be a static column of fluid.
The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot they can then be easily connected to a
tube within the pipe can be used as shown below to manometer.
measure velocity of flow.
h1 h2
1
2 1
2
1
X
A B
We have the equation for p2 ,
1
p2 p1 Uu12
2 [Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its
diameter is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are
1 considered to be at the same level]
Ugh2 Ugh1 Uu12
2
u 2 g (h2 h1 )
The holes on the side connect to one side of a
manometer, while the central hole connects to the
We now have an expression for velocity from two other side of the manometer
pressure measurements and the application of the
Bernoulli equation.
Using the theory of the manometer, Venturi Meter
pA p1 Ug X h Uman gh
pB p2 UgX The Venturi meter is a device for measuring
discharge in a pipe.
pA pB
p2 UgX p1 Ug X h Uman gh It is a rapidly converging section which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure.
1
We know that p2 p1 Uu12 , giving
2
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe
Uu12 by a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section.
p1 hg Uman U p1
2
about 6°
2 gh( Um U )
u1
U about 20°
The Pitot/Pitot-static is:

2
xSimple to use (and analyse) 1
xGives velocities (not discharge)

z2
xMay block easily as the holes are small.
z1
h
datum
Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2

p1 u12 p2 u22 The theoretical (ideal) discharge is uuA.
z z
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2 Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to
By continuity friction, we include a coefficient of discharge (Cd |0.9)
Q u1 A1 u2 A2 Qideal u1 A1
u1 A1 Qactual Cd Qideal Cd u1 A1
u2
A2 ª p p2 º
2g« 1 z1 z2 »
Substituting and rearranging gives Qactual Cd A1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼
2 2
A1 A2
2
p1 p2 u12 ª§ A1 · º
z1 z2 «¨ ¸ 1» In terms of the manometer readings
Ug 2 g «© A2 ¹ »¼ p1 Ugz1 p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h)
¬
u12 ª A12 A22 º p1 p2 §U ·
« » z1 z2 h¨ man 1¸
2 g ¬ A22 ¼ Ug © U ¹
Giving
§U ·
ª p p2 º 2 gh¨ man 1¸
2g« 1 z1 z2 » © U ¹
¬ Ug ¼ Qactual Cd A1 A2
u1 A2 2 2 A12 A22
A1 A2
This expression does not include any
elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
When used with a manometer

The Venturimeter can be used without knowing its angle.
Flow Through A Small Orifice
Venturimeter design:
Flow from a tank through a hole in the side.
xThe diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration
after the throat. So that pressure rises to something near
that before the meter.
1
Aactual
xThe angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8

h
degrees.
xWider and the flow might separate from the walls 2 Vena contractor
increasing energy loss.
xIf the angle is less the meter becomes very long and
pressure losses again become significant. The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional
losses by minimising the contact between the hole and the
liquid.
xThe efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back
to the original is rarely greater than 80%.
The streamlines at the orifice
xCare must be taken when connecting the manometer so contract reducing the area of flow.
that no burrs are present.
This contraction is called the vena contracta.
The amount of contraction must

be known to calculate the flow.
Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 The discharge through the orifice
on the surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice. is
jet area u jet velocity
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the
pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0).
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta
not the area of the orifice.
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so
again the pressure is atmospheric (p2 = 0).
We use a coefficient of contraction
If we take the datum line through the orifice to get the area of the jet
then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
u22 Aactual Cc Aorifice

h
2g
Giving discharge through the orifice:
u2 2 gh
Q Au
This theoretical value of velocity is an overestimate
as friction losses have not been taken into account. Qactual Aactual uactual
Cc Cv Aorifice utheoretical
A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the
theoretical velocity, Cd Aorifice utheoretical
uactual Cv utheoretical Cd Aorifice 2 gh
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they

usually lie in the range( 0.97 - 0.99) Cd is the coefficient of discharge,
C d = C c u Cv
Time for the tank to empty This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so
We have an expression for the discharge from the tank
Q Cd Ao 2 gh Gh
Cd Ao 2 gh A
Gt
We can use this to calculate how long
it will take for level in the to fall
A Gh
Gt
Cd Ao 2 g h
As the tank empties the level of water falls.
The discharge will also drop.
Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final
level, h2, gives the time it takes to fall this height
A h2 Gh
h1
h2
t ³
Cd Ao 2 g h1 h
§ 1 ·
The tank has a cross sectional area of A.
¨³
© h ³ h 1/2 2h1/ 2 2 h¸
¹
In a time dt the level falls by dh

A
The flow out of the tank is t >2 h @hh12
Cd Ao 2 g
Q Au 2A
Gh Cd Ao 2 g
> h2 h1 @
Q A
Gt
(-ve sign as dh is falling)
Submerged Orifice Time for Equalisation of Levels in Two Tanks
What if the tank is feeding into another?
Area A1 The time for the levels to equalise can be found by
Area A2 integrating this equation as before.
h1
h2
By the continuity equation
Gh1 Gh
Q A1 A2 2
Gt Gt
Orifice area Ao QGt A1Gh1 A2Gh2
Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the
deeper tank to point 2 at the centre of the orifice,
writing Gh Gh1 Gh2 so
p1 u12 p2 u22 A1Gh1 A2Gh1 A2Gh
z1 z2
Ug 2g Ug 2g
A2Gh
Gh1
Ugh2 u22 A1 A2
0 0 h1 0
Ug 2 g and
u2 2 g (h1 h2 ) QGt A1Gh1
And the discharge is given by A1 A2
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 ) Gt Gh
Q Cd Ao u A1 A2
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 ) but h h1 h2
A1 A2 Gh
Gt
So the discharge of the jet through the submerged orifice
depends on the difference in head across the orifice.
A1 A2 Cd Ao 2 g h
Integrating between the two levels Flow Over Notches and Weirs
A1 A2 h final Gh xA notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir.

t ³
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g hinitial h
xIt is a device for measuring discharge.
2 A1 A2 h final xA weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in

> h @hinitial rivers.
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g
xIt is used as both a discharge measuring device and a

2 A1 A2
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g > h final hinitial @ device to raise water levels.
xThere are many different designs of weir.

h is the difference in height between
xWe will look at sharp crested weirs.
the two levels (h2 - h1)
Weir Assumptions
The time for the levels to equal use
hinitial = (h1 - h2) and hfinal = 0 xvelocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we
can ignore kinetic energy.
xThe velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below
the free surface. u 2 gh
These assumptions are fine for tanks with notches or

reservoirs with weirs, in rivers with high velocity
approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must
be taken into account
A General Weir Equation Rectangular Weir
Consider a horizontal strip of The width does not change with depth so
width b, depth h below the free surface
b constant B
b h
H
δh B
velocity through the strip, u 2 gh

discharge through the strip, GQ Au bGh 2 gh Substituting this into the general weir equation gives
H
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir Qtheoretical B 2 g ³ h1/ 2 dh
crest, h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge 0
H 2
Qtheoretical 2 g ³ bh1/ 2 dh B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
0
To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient
of discharge, Cd, to account for
This is different for every differently losses at the edges of the weir
shaped weir or notch. and contractions in the area of flow,
2
We need an expression relating the width of flow
Qactual Cd B 2 gH 3 / 2
3
across the weir to the depth below the free surface.
‘V’ Notch Weir The Momentum Equation
The relationship between width and depth is And Its Applications
dependent on the angle of the “V”.
We have all seen moving
b h fluids exerting forces.
H
θ
x The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the air
moving over the wing.
The width, b, a depth h from the free surface is
§T · x A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on
b 2 H h tan¨ ¸ whatever it hits.
© 2¹
So the discharge is
H The analysis of motion is as in solid mechanics:
§T · by use of Newton’s laws of motion.
Qtheoretical 2 2 g tan¨ ¸ ³ H hh1/ 2 dh
© 2¹
0
H
§ T · ª 2 3/ 2 2 5/ 2 º
2 2 g tan¨ ¸ « Hh h » The Momentum equation
© 2¹ ¬ 3 5 ¼0
is a statement of Newton’s Second Law
8 §T ·
2 g tan¨ ¸ H 5/ 2
15 © 2¹
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a It relates the sum of the forces
coefficient of discharge
to the acceleration or
8 §T ·
Qactual Cd 2 g tan¨ ¸ H 5 / 2 rate of change of momentum.
15 © 2¹
From solid mechanics you will recognise In time Gt a volume of the fluid moves
F = ma from the inlet a distance u1Gt, so
What mass of moving fluid we should use? volume entering the stream tube = area u distance
= A 1u1 Gt
We use a different form of the equation.
Consider a streamtube: The mass entering,

And assume steady non-uniform flow mass entering stream tube = volume u density
= U1 A1 u1 Gt
A2
u2
A1
u1 ρ2 And momentum
momentum entering stream tube = mass u velocity
ρ1
u1 δt
= U1 A1 u1 Gt u1
Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:

momentum leaving stream tube = U2 A 2 u 2 Gt u 2
By Newton’s 2nd Law. An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
Force = rate of change of momentum mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2
( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 ) we can write

F= dm
Gt rate of change of mass m
dt
U1 A1u1 U2 A2u2
We know from continuity that
The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is
Q A1u1 A2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
1
And if we have a fluid of constant density, The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is
i.e. U1 U2 U , then U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
F QU (u2 u1 ) Thus the rate at which momentum changes

across the stream tube is
U2 A2 u2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
2 mu
1
So
Force = rate of change of momentum

F m ( u2 u1 )
So we have these two expressions, The previous analysis assumed the inlet and
either one is known as the momentum equation outlet velocities in the same direction
i.e. a one dimensional system.
F m ( u2 u1 ) What happens when this is not the case?

u2
θ2
F QU ( u2 u1 )
The Momentum equation.
θ1
This force acts on the fluid
u1
in the direction of the flow of the fluid.
We consider the forces by resolving in the

directions of the co-ordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction

Fx m u2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
m u2 x u1 x
or
Fx UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
UQu2 x u1 x
And the force in the y-direction In summary we can say:
Fy m u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
Total force rate of change of
m §¨© u2 y u1 y ·¸¹ on the fluid = momentum through
the control volume
or
Fy UQu2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
F m uout uin
UQ§¨© u2 y u1 y ·¸¹ or
F UQuout uin
The resultant force can be found by combining
these components
Fy
FResultant Remember that we are working with vectors so
F is in the direction of the velocity.
φ
Fx
Fresultant Fx2 Fy2
And the angle of this force

§ Fy ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© Fx ¹
This force is made up of three components: Application of the Momentum Equation
FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body
touching the control volume Force due the flow around a pipe bend
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)

A converging pipe bend
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure lying in the horizontal plane
outside the control volume turning through an angle of T.
ρ2
So we say that the total force, FT, y
u2
is given by the sum of these forces: A2
x
F T = FR + FB + F P ρ1
θ
u1
A1
The force exerted
by the fluid
on the solid body
touching the control volume is opposite to FR.
So the reaction force, R, is given by

R = -FR
Why do we want to know the forces here? Control Volume
As the fluid changes direction

a force will act on the bend.
y
This force can be very large

in the case of water supply pipes. x
The bend must be held in place

to prevent breakage at the joints.
2 Co-ordinate axis system

We need to know how much force a support
(thrust block) must withstand.
Any co-ordinate axis can be chosen.
Step in Analysis: Choose a convenient one, as above.
1.Draw a control volume 3 Calculate the total force

2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3.Calculate the total force In the x-direction:
4.Calculate the pressure force FT x UQu2 x u1 x
5.Calculate the body force u1 x u1
6.Calculate the resultant force u2 x u2 cosT
FT x UQu2 cosT u1
In the y-direction: Knowing the pressures at each end the pressure
force can be calculated,
FT y
UQ u2 y u1 y
u1 y u1 sin 0 0 FP pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
u2 y u2 sin T
FT y UQu2 sin T FP x p1 A1 cos 0 p2 A2 cosT p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
4 Calculate the pressure force FP y p1 A1 sin 0 p2 A2 sin T p2 A2 sin T

If we know pressure at the inlet we can relate
this to the pressure at the outlet. 5 Calculate the body force
Use Bernoulli. There are no body forces in the x or y directions.

p1 u12 p2 u22 FRx = FRy = 0
z1 z2 h f
Ug 2 g Ug 2 g
where hf is the friction loss The body force due to gravity is acting in the
(this can often be ignored, hf=0) z-direction so need not be considered.
As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2 6 Calculate the resultant force
And with continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2
FT x FR x FP x FB x
UQ 2 § 1 1· FT y FR y FP y FB y
p1 p2 ¨ ¸
2 © A22 A12 ¹
FR x FT x FP x 0 Impact of a Jet on a Plane
UQu2 cosT u1 p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
A jet hitting a flat plate (a plane)
at an angle of 90q
FR y FT y FP y 0
UQu2 sin T p2 A2 sin T We want to find the reaction force of the plate.
i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay
in the same position.
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
FRy
FResultant
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are

φ shown in the figure below.
FRx
y u2
FR FR2 x FR2 y x
u1
And the direction of application is

F
1 § R y ·
I tan ¨ ¸
© FR x ¹ u2
the force on the bend is the same magnitude but

in the opposite direction
R FR
3 Calculate the total force
In the x-direction FT x FR x FP x FB x
FR x FT x 0 0
FT x UQu2 x u1 x UQu1 x
UQu1 x Exerted on the fluid.
The system is symmetrical The force on the plane is the same magnitude
the forces in the y-direction cancel. but in the opposite direction
R FR x
FT y 0
If the plane were at an angle
4 Calculate the pressure force. the analysis is the same.
The pressures at both the inlet and the outlets But it is usually most convenient to choose the
axis system normal to the plate.
to the control volume are atmospheric. y
The pressure force is zero x u2
FP x FP y 0
u1
5 Calculate the body force
θ
As the control volume is small
we can ignore the body force due to gravity.
u3
FB x FB y 0
6 Calculate the resultant force
Force on a curved vane 3 Calculate the total force
in the x direction
This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the
analysis is simpler. FT x UQu2 u1 cosT
Pressures at ends are equal - atmospheric

Q
by continuity u1 u2 , so
A
Both the cross-section and velocities
(in the direction of flow) remain constant.
Q2
FT x U 1 cosT
A
u2
y
and in the y-direction
x FT y UQu2 sin T 0
Q2
u1
U
A
θ
4 Calculate the pressure force.

The pressure at both the inlet and the outlets to
the control volume is atmospheric.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure above. FP x FP y 0
5 Calculate the body force And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
No body forces in the x-direction, FB x = 0. FR FR2 x FR2 y
In the y-direction the body force acting is the

weight of the fluid. And the direction of application is
If V is the volume of the fluid on the vane then,
FB x UgV § FR y ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
F
© Rx ¹
(This is often small as the jet volume is small exerted on the fluid.
and sometimes ignored in analysis.)
6 Calculate the resultant force The force on the vane is the same magnitude
but in the opposite direction
FT x FR x FP x FB x
R FR
Q2
FR x FT x U 1 cosT
A
FT y FR y FP y FB y
Q2
FR y FT y U
A
LECTURE CONTENTS Real fluids
Section 0: Introduction x Introduction to Laminar and Turbulent flow

Section 1: Fluid Properties
x Head loss in pipes
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity x Hagen-Poiseuille equation
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids x Boundary layer theory
Section 2: Statics
x Boundary layer separation
Manometry/Pressure measurement x Losses at bends and junctions
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 4: Real Fluids 157 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 4: Real Fluids 158
Flowing real fluids exhibit Laminar and turbulent flow
viscous effects, they:
Injecting a dye into the middle of flow in a pipe,

x “stick” to solid surfaces
what would we expect to happen?
x have stresses within their body.
This
From earlier we saw this relationship between

shear stress and velocity gradient:
du
W v
dy
The shear stress, W, in a fluid

is proportional to the velocity gradient this
- the rate of change of velocity across the flow.
For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:

du
W P
dy
where P is coefficient of viscosity or this
(or simply viscosity).
Here we look at the influence of forces due to

momentum changes and viscosity
in a moving fluid.
All three would happen - The was first investigated in the 1880s
but for different flow rates. by Osbourne Reynolds
in a classic experiment in fluid mechanics.
Top: Slow flow
Middle: Medium flow A tank arranged as below:
Bottom: Fast flow
Top: Laminar flow

Middle: Transitional flow
Bottom: Turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
overall direction of flow is one way.
But what is fast or slow?

At what speed does the flow pattern change?
And why might we want to know this?
After many experiments he found this What are the units of Reynolds number?
expression
We can fill in the equation with SI units:
Uud
P U kg / m3 , u m / s, d m
P Ns / m2 kg / m s
U = density, u = mean velocity,
d = diameter P = viscosity Uud kg m m m s
Re 1
P m3 s 1 kg
This could be used to predict the change in It has no units!

flow type for any fluid.
A quantity with no units is known as a
This value is known as the non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity.
Reynolds number, Re:
(We will see more of these in the section on
Uud dimensional analysis.)
Re
P
The Reynolds number, Re,

Laminar flow: Re < 2000
is a non-dimensional number.
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
At what speed does the flow pattern change? What is the MINIMUM velocity when flow is
turbulent i.e. Re = 4000
We use the Reynolds number in an example:
Uud
Re 4000
A pipe and the fluid flowing P
have the following properties: u 0.0044 m / s
water density U = 1000 kg/m3 In a house central heating system,

pipe diameter d = 0.5m typical pipe diameter = 0.015m,
(dynamic) viscosity, P = 0.55x103 Ns/m2
limiting velocities would be,
0.0733 and 0.147m/s.
What is the MAXIMUM velocity when flow is
laminar i.e. Re = 2000 Both of these are very slow.
In practice laminar flow rarely occurs

Uud in a piped water system.
Re 2000
P
Laminar flow does occur in
2000P 2000 u 0.55 u 10 3 fluids of greater viscosity
u
Ud 1000 u 0.5 e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant.
u 0.0022 m / s
What does this abstract number mean? Laminar flow
xRe < 2000
We can give the Re number a physical meaning. x‘low’ velocity
xDye does not mix with water
This may help to understand some of the xFluid particles move in straight lines
reasons for the changes from laminar to xSimple mathematical analysis possible
turbulent flow. xRare in practice in water systems.
Uud Transitional flow

Re
P x2000 > Re < 4000
inertial forces x‘medium’ velocity
xDye stream wavers - mixes slightly.
viscous forces
Turbulent flow
When inertial forces dominate
(when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger) xRe > 4000
the flow is turbulent. x‘high’ velocity
xDye mixes rapidly and completely
When the viscous forces are dominant xParticle paths completely irregular
(slow flow, low Re) xAverage motion is in flow direction
they keep the fluid particles in line, xCannot be seen by the naked eye
the flow is laminar. xChanges/fluctuations are very difficult to
detect. Must use laser.
xMathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used
xMost common type of flow.
Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline Attaching a manometer gives
pressure (head) loss due to the energy lost by
Up to now we have considered ideal fluids: the fluid overcoming the shear stress.
no energy losses due to friction
L
Because fluids are viscous,

energy is lost by flowing fluids due to friction.
This must be taken into account.

Δp
The effect of the friction shows itself as a

pressure (or head) loss.
The pressure at 1 (upstream)

In a real flowing fluid shear stress is higher than the pressure at 2.
slows the flow.
How can we quantify this pressure loss
in terms of the forces acting on the fluid?
To give a velocity profile:
Consider a cylindrical element of As the flow is in equilibrium,
incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe,
τw driving force = retarding force
το
το Sd 2
'p W wSdL
τw area A 4
Ww is the mean shear stress on the boundary Ww 4 L
'p
Upstream pressure is p, d
Downstream pressure falls by 'p to (p-'p)
Giving pressure loss in a pipe in terms of:
The driving force due to pressure
xpipe diameter
driving force = Pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2 xshear stress at the wall
Sd 2
pA p 'p A 'p A 'p
4
The retarding force is due to the shear stress
shear stress u area over which it acts

= W w u area of pipe wall
= W wSdL
What is the variation of shear stress in the flow? Shear stress and hence pressure loss varies
with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
τw
R Many experiments have been done
r
with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers.
τw A graph of pressure loss and Re look like:

At the wall
R 'p
Ww
2 L
At a radius r
r 'p
W
2 L
r
W Ww
R
A linear variation in shear stress.
This graph shows that the relationship between

This is valid for:
pressure loss and Re can be expressed as
xsteady flow
xlaminar flow laminar 'p v u
xturbulent flow
turbulent 'p v u1.7 ( or 2 .0 )
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe The fluid is in equilibrium,
shearing forces equal the pressure forces.
In general the shear stress Ww. is almost W 2Sr L 'p A 'pSr 2
impossible to measure.
'p r
W
L 2
For laminar flow we can calculate
a theoretical value for
a given velocity, fluid and pipe dimension. du
Newtons law of viscosity saysW P ,
dy
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles
of fluid do not cross. We are measuring from the pipe centre, so
du
Flow is like a series of concentric cylinders
W P
dr
sliding over each other. Giving:
'p r du
And the stress on the fluid in laminar flow is P
L 2 dr
entirely due to viscose forces.
du 'p r
As before, consider a cylinder of fluid, length L,
radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe. dr L 2P
δr In an integral form this gives an

expression for velocity,
r r
'p 1
L 2P ³
R u r dr
The value of velocity at a What is the discharge in the pipe?
point distance r from the centre
'p r 2 The flow in an annulus of thickness Gr
ur C
L 4P GQ ur Aannulus
Aannulus S (r Gr )2 Sr 2 | 2SrGr
At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at
'p 1
r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;
2
GQ
L 4P

R 2 r 2 2SrGr
'p R
C
L 4P 'p S R 2
At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is
Q ³
L 2P 0

R r r 3 dr
laminar:
'p 1 'p SR 4 'p Sd 4
ur
L 4P
R2 r 2 L 8P L128P
This is a parabolic profile
(of the form y = ax2 + b )
so the velocity profile in the pipe looks similar to So the discharge can be written
'p Sd 4
Q
L 128P
This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation

v for laminar flow in a pipe
To get pressure loss (head loss) Boundary Layers
in terms of the velocity of the flow, write
Recommended reading: Fluid Mechanics
pressure in terms of head loss hf, i.e. p = Ughf by Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A.
Longman publishers. Pages 327-332.
Mean velocity:
u Q/ A Fluid flowing over a stationary surface,
e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe,
Ugh f d 2 is brought to rest by the shear stress to
u This gives a, now familiar, velocity profile:
32 PL
umax
Head loss in a pipe with laminar flow by the

Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
zero velocity τo
32 PLu
hf 2
Wall
Ugd
Zero at the wall
A maximum at the centre of the flow.
Pressure loss is directly proportional to the
velocity when flow is laminar.
The profile doesn’t just exit.
It is build up gradually.
It has been validated many time by experiment.
It justifies two assumptions: Starting when it first flows past the surface
1.fluid does not slip past a solid boundary e.g. when it enters a pipe.
2.Newtons hypothesis.
Considering a flat plate in a fluid. Understand this Boundary layer growth diagram.
Upstream the velocity profile is uniform,

This is known as free stream flow.
Downstream a velocity profile exists.

This is known as fully developed flow.
Free stream flow
Fully developed flow
Some question we might ask:
How do we get to the fully developed state?

Are there any changes in flow as we get there?
Are the changes significant / important?
Boundary layer thickness: First: viscous forces
(the forces which hold the fluid together)

G = distance from wall to where u = 0.99 umainstream When the boundary layer is thin:
velocity gradient du/dy, is large
by Newton’s law of viscosity

G increases as fluid moves along the plate.
shear stress, W = P (du/dy), is large.
It reaches a maximum in fully developed flow.
The force may be large enough to
The G increase corresponds to a drag the fluid close to the surface.
drag force increase on the fluid.
As the boundary layer thickens
As fluid is passes over a greater length: velocity gradient reduces and
shear stress decreases.
xmore fluid is slowed
xby friction between the fluid layers
Eventually it is too small
xthe thickness of the slow layer increases.
to drag the slow fluid along.
Fluid near the top of the boundary layer drags the

Up to this point the flow has been laminar.
fluid nearer to the solid surface along.
Newton’s law of viscosity has applied.

The mechanism for this dragging
may be one of two types:
This part of the boundary layer is the
laminar boundary layer
Second: momentum transfer Close to boundary velocity gradients are very large.
Viscous shear forces are large.
Possibly large enough to cause laminar flow.
If the viscous forces were the only action
the fluid would come to a rest. This region is known as the laminar sub-layer.
Viscous shear stresses have held the fluid This layer occurs within the turbulent zone
particles in a constant motion within layers. it is next to the wall.
It is very thin – a few hundredths of a mm.
Eventually they become too small to
hold the flow in layers;
Surface roughness effect
the fluid starts to rotate.
Despite its thinness, the laminar sub-layer has vital
role in the friction characteristics of the surface.
In turbulent flow:
Roughness higher than laminar sub-layer:
increases turbulence and energy losses.
In laminar flow:
Roughness has very little effect
The fluid motion rapidly becomes turbulent.

Boundary layers in pipes
Momentum transfer occurs between fast moving Initially of the laminar form.
main flow and slow moving near wall flow.
It changes depending on the ratio of inertial and
Thus the fluid by the wall is kept in motion. viscous forces;
The net effect is an increase in momentum in the i.e. whether we have laminar (viscous forces high) or
boundary layer. turbulent flow (inertial forces high).
This is the turbulent boundary layer.
Use Reynolds number to determine which state. Boundary layer separation
Uud
Re Divergent flows:
P
Positive pressure gradients.
Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Pressure increases in the direction of flow.
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
The fluid in the boundary layer has so little
momentum that it is brought to rest,
and possibly reversed in direction.
Reversal lifts the boundary layer.
u1 u2
p1
p2
p1 < p2 u1 > u2
Laminar flow: profile parabolic (proved in earlier lectures)

The first part of the boundary layer growth diagram.
Turbulent (or transitional),

Laminar and the turbulent (transitional) zones of the
boundary layer growth diagram.
Length of pipe for fully developed flow is
the entry length.
Laminar flow |120 u diameter This phenomenon is known as
Turbulent flow | 60 u diameter boundary layer separation.
Boundary layer separation: Examples of boundary layer separation
xincreases the turbulence
xincreases the energy losses in the flow. A divergent duct or diffuser
velocity drop
(according to continuity)
Separating / divergent flows are inherently pressure increase
unstable (according to the Bernoulli equation).
Convergent flows:
xNegative pressure gradients
xPressure decreases in the direction of flow.
xFluid accelerates and the boundary layer is thinner.
u1
u2 Increasing the angle increases the probability of
p2 boundary layer separation.
p1
Venturi meter
p1 > p 2 u1 < u 2 Diffuser angle of about 6q
A balance between:
xFlow remains stable xlength of meter
xdanger of boundary layer separation.
xTurbulence reduces.
xBoundary layer separation does not occur.
Tee-Junctions
Assuming equal sized pipes),

Velocities at 2 and 3 are smaller than at 1.
Pressure at 2 and 3 are higher than at 1.
Causing the two separations shown
Two separation zones occur in bends as shown
Y-Junctions above.
Tee junctions are special cases of the Y-junction.
Pb > Pa causing separation.
Pd > Pc causing separation
Localised effect
Downstream the boundary layer reattaches and
normal flow occurs.
Boundary layer separation is only local.
Nevertheless downstream of a
junction / bend /valve etc.
fluid will have lost energy.
Bends
Flow past a cylinder
Slow flow, Re < 0.5 no separation:
Moderate flow, Re < 70, separation

vortices form.
Fluid accelerates to get round the cylinder

Velocity maximum at Y.
Fast flow Re > 70
Pressure dropped.
vortices detach alternately.
Form a trail of down stream.
Adverse pressure between here and downstream.
Karman vortex trail or street.
Separation occurs
(Easily seen by looking over a bridge)
Causes whistling in power cables.

Caused Tacoma narrows bridge to collapse.
Frequency of detachment was equal to the bridge
natural frequency.
Aerofoil At too great an angle
Normal flow over a aerofoil or a wing cross-section. boundary layer separation occurs on the top
Pressure changes dramatically.
This phenomenon is known as stalling.
(boundary layers greatly exaggerated)

All, or most, of the ‘suction’ pressure is lost.
The plane will suddenly drop from the sky!
The velocity increases as air flows over the wing. The

pressure distribution is as below Solution:
so transverse lift force occurs. Prevent separation.
1 Engine intakes draws slow air from the boundary
layer at the rear of the wing though small holes
2 Move fast air from below to top via a slot.
3 Put a flap on the end of the wing and tilt it.
Examples: LECTURE CONTENTS
Exam questions involving boundary layer theory are
typically descriptive. They ask you to explain the
mechanisms of growth of the boundary layers including
how, why and where separation occurs. You should also be
able to suggest what might be done to prevent separation.

Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 4: Real Fluids 197 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 5: Dimensional Analysis 198
Dimensional Analysis Dimensions and units
Application of fluid mechanics in design makes use
of experiments results.
Results often difficult to interpret. Any physical situation
Dimensional analysis provides a strategy for can be described by familiar properties.
choosing relevant data.
Used to help analyse fluid flow e.g. length, velocity, area, volume, acceleration etc.
Especially when fluid flow is too complex for
mathematical analysis. These are all known as dimensions.
Specific uses: Dimensions are of no use without a magnitude.

x help design experiments i.e. a standardised unit
x Informs which measurements are important e.g metre, kilometre, Kilogram, a yard etc.
x Allows most to be obtained from experiment:
e.g. What runs to do. How to interpret. Dimensions can be measured.
Units used to quantify these dimensions.
It depends on the correct identification of variables
Relates these variables together In dimensional analysis we are concerned with the
nature of the dimension
Doesn’t give the complete answer
i.e. its quality not its quantity.
Experiments necessary to complete solution
Uses principle of dimensional homogeneity
Give qualitative results which only become

quantitative from experimental analysis.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 5: Dimensional Analysis 199 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 5: Dimensional Analysis 200
The following common abbreviations are used: This table lists dimensions of some common
physical quantities:
length =L Quantity SI Unit Dimension

mass =M velocity m/s ms -1
LT-1
time =T acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2

force N
force =F kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
temperature =4 energy (or work) Joule J

N m,
2 2
kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
kg m /s
Here we will use L, M, T and F (not 4). power Watt W
N m/s Nms-1
kg m2/s3 kg m2s-3 ML2T-3
We can represent all the physical properties we are pressure ( or stress) Pascal P,
interested in with three: N/m2, Nm-2
kg/m/s 2
kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3

L, T
specific weight N/m3
and one of M or F kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2
relative density a ratio 1
no units no dimension
As either mass (M) of force (F) can be used to viscosity N s/m 2
N sm -2
represent the other, i.e. kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
F = MLT-2 surface tension N/m Nm-1

2
kg /s kg s-2 MT-2
M = FT2L-1
We will always use LTM:
Dimensional Homogeneity What exactly do we get
from Dimensional Analysis?
Any equation is only true if both sides
have the same dimensions.
A single equation,
It must be dimensionally homogenous.
Which relates all the physical factors
of a problem to each other.
What are the dimensions of X?
2 An example:
B 2 gH 3/ 2 X
3 Problem: What is the force, F, on a propeller?
L (LT-2)1/2 L3/2 = X What might influence the force?
1/2 -1 3/2
L (L T ) L =X
3 -1
L T =X It would be reasonable to assume that the force, F,
depends on the following physical properties?
The powers of the individual dimensions must be
equal on both sides. diameter, d
(for L they are both 3, for T both -1). forward velocity of the propeller
(velocity of the plane), u
Dimensional homogeneity can be useful for: fluid density, U
1. Checking units of equations; revolutions per second, N
2. Converting between two sets of units; fluid viscosity, P
3. Defining dimensionless relationships
Common S groups
From this list we can write this equation:
Several groups will appear again and again.
F = I ( d, u, U, N, P ) These often have names.

or
0 = I ( F, d, u, U, N, P ) They can be related to physical forces.

Other common non-dimensional numbers
I and I1 are unknown functions.
or ( S groups):
Reynolds number:
Dimensional Analysis produces:
Uud
Re inertial, viscous force ratio
P
§ F Nd P ·
I¨ 2 2 , , ¸ 0 Euler number:
© Uu d u Uud ¹
p
En pressure, inertial force ratio
Uu 2
These groups are dimensionless.
Froude number:
I will be determined by experiment.
u2
Fn inertial, gravitational force ratio
gd
These dimensionless groups help
Weber number:
to decide what experimental measurements to take.
Uud
We inertial, surface tension force ratio
V
Mach number:
u
Mn Local velocity, local velocity of sound ratio
c
Similarity Kinematic similarity
The similarity of time as well as geometry.

Similarity is concerned with how to transfer
It exists if:
measurements from models to the full scale.
i. the paths of particles are geometrically similar
ii. the ratios of the velocities of are similar
Three types of similarity
which exist between a model and prototype:
Some useful ratios are:
Vm L m / Tm O L
Geometric similarity: Velocity Ou
Vp L p / Tp OT
The ratio of all corresponding dimensions
in the model and prototype are equal.
am Lm / Tm2 OL
Acceleration Oa
For lengths ap L p / Tp2 O2T
Lmodel Lm
OL
Lprototype Lp Qm L3m / Tm O3L
Discharge OQ
OL is the scale factor for length. Qp L3p / Tp OT
For areas A consequence is that streamline

Amodel L2m patterns are the same.
2
O2L
Aprototype Lp
All corresponding angles are the same.
Dynamic similarity Modelling and Scaling Laws
Measurements taken from a model needs a scaling
If geometrically and kinematically similar and
law applied to predict the values in the prototype.
the ratios of all forces are the same.
An example:
Force ratio
2
Fm M mam Um L3m O L 2 § OL ·
u OU O L ¨ ¸ O U O2L O2u For resistance R, of a body
Fp M pa p U p L3p O2T © OT ¹
moving through a fluid.
R, is dependent on the following:
This occurs when
the controlling S group U ML-3 u: LT-1 l:(length) L P: ML-1T-1
is the same for model and prototype.
So
I (R, U, u, l, P ) = 0
The controlling S group is usually Re.
So Re is the same for
model and prototype: Taking U, u, l as repeating variables gives:
R § Uul ·
I¨ ¸
Um um dm U p upd p Uu 2 l 2 © P ¹
Pm Pp § Uul ·
R Uu 2 l 2 I ¨ ¸
© P ¹
It is possible another group is dominant. This applies whatever the size of the body
In open channel i.e. river Froude number is i.e. it is applicable to prototype and
often taken as dominant. a geometrically similar model.
For the model Example 1
An underwater missile, diameter 2m and length 10m is tested in a
Rm §U u l · water tunnel to determine the forces acting on the real prototype.
I¨ m m m ¸
Um um2 lm2 © Pm ¹ A 1/20th scale model is to be used. If the maximum allowable speed
of the prototype missile is 10 m/s, what should be the speed of the
water in the tunnel to achieve dynamic similarity?
and for the prototype

Dynamic similarity so Reynolds numbers equal:
Rp §U u l ·
I¨ p p p ¸ Um um dm U p u p d p
U p u p2 l p2 © Pp ¹
Pm Pp
Dividing these two equations gives The model velocity should be

Rm / Um u l 2
m
2
m
I Um um lm / P m U d P
um u p p p m
Rp / U p u l 2
p
2
p IU puplp / P p Um d m P p
W can go no further without some assumptions. Both the model and prototype are in water then,
Assuming dynamic similarity, so Reynolds number Pm = Pp and Um = Up so
are the same for both the model and prototype:
Um um dm U p upd p dp 1
um up 10 200 m / s
Pm Pp dm 1 / 20
so
Rm Um um2 lm2 This is a very high velocity.
Rp U p u 2p l p2 This is one reason why model tests are not always
i.e. a scaling law for resistance force: done at exactly equal Reynolds numbers.
OR OU O2u O2L A wind tunnel could have been used so the values of
the U and P ratios would be used in the above.
Example 2 So the model velocity is found to be
A model aeroplane is built at 1/10 scale and is to be tested in a 1 1
wind tunnel operating at a pressure of 20 times atmospheric. The um up 0.5u p
aeroplane will fly at 500km/h. At what speed should the wind 20 1 / 10
tunnel operate to give dynamic similarity between the model and um 250 km / h
prototype? If the drag measure on the model is 337.5 N what will
be the drag on the plane?
Earlier we derived an equation for resistance on a And the ratio of forces is
body moving through air:
Rm Uu l
2 2
m
§ Uul · Rp Uu l
2 2
R 2 2
Uu l I ¨ ¸ Uu l I Re
2 2
p
© P ¹ 2 2
Rm 20 0.5 01
.
0.05
Rp 1 1 1
For dynamic similarity Rem = Rep, so
So the drag force on the prototype will be
U d P
um up p p m 1
Um d m P p Rp Rm 20 u 337.5 6750 N
0.05
The value of P does not change much with pressure

so Pm = Pp
For an ideal gas is p = URT so the density of the air in

the model can be obtained from
pm Um RT Um
pp U p RT Up
20 p p Um
pp Up
Um 20U p
Geometric distortion in river models
For practical reasons it is difficult to build a

geometrically similar model.
A model with suitable depth of flow will often be far

too big - take up too much floor space.
Keeping Geometric Similarity result in:

xdepths and become very difficult to measure;
xthe bed roughness becomes impracticably
small;
xlaminar flow may occur -
(turbulent flow is normal in rivers.)
Solution: Abandon geometric similarity.
Typical values are

1/100 in the vertical and 1/400 in the horizontal.
Resulting in:
xGood overall flow patterns and discharge
xlocal detail of flow is not well modelled.
The Froude number (Fn) is taken as dominant.

Fn can be the same even for distorted models.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 5: Dimensional Analysis 225

An Introduction To Fluid Mechanics: Notes For The First Year Lecture Course

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An Introduction To Fluid Mechanics: Notes For The First Year Lecture Course

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[As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work.

0.5 Other Teaching Resources.

What make fluid mechanics different

We know that fluids flow under the

So we can say that In the analysis of fluids

(These definitions include both A B

gasses and liquids as fluids.)

Consider a fluid flowing near a wall.

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

This has the following implications

Plotting the velocity across the section gives

As fluids are usually near surfaces

What if not near a wall? We will examine the force required to

Consider this 3-d rectangular element,

No velocity gradient, no shear forces.

In a fluid I increases for as long as W is applied -

It has been shown experimentally that the u

We can express this in terms of the cuboid. giving

If a particle at point E moves to point E’ in

(sometimes also called real fluids)

Newtonian fluids have constant values of P

For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = P and n = 1 Rate of shear, δu/δy

xViscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a

Liquids vs. Gasses Properties of Fluids:

Causes of Viscosity in Fluids

2. Specific Weight: Viscosity

xExpress pressure in terms of head of fluid. F1

x Determine the magnitude and

Pressure force normal to the boundary

This is also true for: Pressure

x curved surfaces Convenient to work in terms of pressure, p,

If the force on each unit area

Pascal’s Law Summing forces in the x-direction:

Force in x-direction due to py,

No shearing forces To be at rest (in equilibrium)

All forces at right angles to the surfaces Fx x  Fx s  Fx y 0

Summing forces in the y-direction. To be at rest (in equilibrium)

Force due to py, Fy  Fy  Fy  weight 0

The forces involved are:

Force due to p2 on A (downward) = p2A

Taking upward as positive, we have

Vertical cylindrical element of fluid

Horizontal cylindrical element

This true for any continuous fluid.

General Equation For Horizontal

A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary § dp · dp

From considering incremental forces (see detailed

Pressure And Head

We have the vertical pressure relationship It is convenient to take atmospheric

Pressure measured above

A gauge pressure can be given Pressure Measurement By Manometer

The Piezometer Tube Manometer

Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid h2

Problems with the Piezometer:

1. Can only be used for liquids

2. Pressure must above atmospheric

3. Liquid height must be convenient

The “U”-Tube Manometer We know:

2. The two fluids should not be able to mix pB = pA + Ugh1

An example of the U-Tube manometer.

As the manometric fluid is liquid

And Liquid density is much

Ugh1 can be neglected,

All forces at right angles to the surfaces Fx x Fx s Fx y 0

Force due to py, Fy Fy Fy weight 0

U1 A1um1 U2 A2 um2 Constant m