Mizan -Tepi University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Chapter one
Material-Removal Processes and Machines:
Topics Covered
1.Turning
2.Drilling
3.Milling
4.Shaper
5.Slotter
6.Planer
7. Broaching
8. Grinding

2
 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
In an industry, metal components are made into different shapes and
dimensions by using various metal working processes.
Metal working processes are classified into two major groups. They
are:
Non-Material Removal or chips less or metal forming process -
forging, rolling, pressing, etc.
Material Removal or metal cutting or chip forming process - turning,
drilling, milling, etc.

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Lathe and lathe operation
Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It
is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a
lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is
securely and rigidly held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe machine and
then turn it against a single point cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in
the form of chips.

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 Types of lathe
• Engine lathes (also called centre lathe)
• Bench lathe:
• Tool room lathes: High precision
• Turret Lathe
• Automatic Lathe
• CNC Lathe
1. Centre Lathe
• Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from
the surface of a rotating cylindrical work piece; the tool is fed linearly in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation
• Turning is traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a lathe, which provides
power to turn the part at a given rotational speed and to feed the tool at a specified
rate and depth of cut
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Components of Centre Lathe

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 Main Parts of Lathe :
Bed: supports all major components. It is massive and rigid single piece casting made
to support other active parts of lathe

Headstock: Houses the gear box, spindle, controls, Holds the chuck for the work
piece, supplies power to the spindle at various drive speeds

• The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a

lathe

• The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work
can be attached

7
 Cont.
Tailstock: supports the other end of the work-piece, used to hold drill for making
holes
• Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect
to the spindle center and carries a center called dead center for supporting one end
of the work

Tail stock of central lathe

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 Cont.
Carriage: Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move
in a direction parallel to the spindle axis
• It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound rest,
and tool post
• The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage, which generally travels at right
angles to the spindle axis

Tool post of centre lathe

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 Cont.
• Feed Rod and Lead Screw: Feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the
headstock. Lead screw when its half nuts engaged, can be used for thread cutting
Specification of Lathe
A. Bed length, which may include head stock length
B. Maximum length of the job that can be held between head stock and tail stock center
C. Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways
D. Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through spindle or collect chuck of capstan lathe

Specifications of a lathe
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Work holding Devices and Accessories

Work holding methods: a) mounting the work between centers using a dog. b) three
jaw chuck. c) collet. d) faceplate
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Work holding Devices and Accessories
There are four common methods used to hold work parts.
1. Mounting work between centers: use of two centers, one in headstock and the
other in tailstock. This method is appropriate for large length to dimeter ratio. At the
headstock center, a device called lathe dog is attached to the outside of the work and used
to drive the rotation from the spindle

2. Chuck: three or four jaws to grasp the cylindrical work part

3. Collet: consists of a tubular bushing with longitudinal slits running over half its length
and equally spaced around its circumference.

4. Face plate: fastens to the lathe spindle and is used to grasp parts with irregular shapes

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Lathe operation

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 Cont.
a) Facing: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat
surface on the end
b) Taper Turning: Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the
work, the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a conical geometry
c) Contour Turning: Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the
axis of rotation as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than
straight, thus creating a contoured form in the turned part
d) Form Turning: In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a
shape that is imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work
e) Chamfering: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner
of the cylinder, forming what is called a “chamfer”
f) Cut-off: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its
length to cut off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as
parting
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 Cont.
g) Threading: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating
work part in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed
rate, thus, creating threads in the cylinder
h) Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the
inside diameter of an existing hole in the part. Similarly internal grooves can be
produced
i) Drilling: Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating
work along its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way
j) Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of
material. Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross
hatched pattern in the work surface for gripping purposes

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Tapers and Taper Turning
• A taper is defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece
of work measured along its length. In a lathe machine, taper turning
means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from
a cylindrical job. Taper in the British System is expressed in taper per foot
or taper per inch. Taper per inch = (D – d) /l
Where,
D = is the diameter of the large end of cylindrical job,
d = is the diameter of the small end of cylindrical job, and
l = is the length of the taper of cylindrical job, all expressed in inches,
• A taper is generally turned in a lathe by feeding the tool at an angle to the
axis rotation of the work piece.

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Taper turning
Taper turning by compound rest

𝐷1 − 𝐷2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
2𝐿

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 Cutting condition in turning operation
Spindle Speed – N (rpm)
Do = outer diameter
v
N 
π Do Df = final diameter

v = cutting speed Machining Time - Tm (min)

L
Do = outer diameter Tm 
fr
Feed Rate - fr (mm/min -or-in/min)
L = length of cut
fr  N f Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR
f = feed per rev(mm/rev -or- in/rev (mm3/min –o in3/min
d= Depth of Cut MRR  v f d
Do  D f
d 
2
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Advantages of Lathe:

• Variety of work materials.

• Variety of part shapes and geometric features.

• Dimensional accuracy.

• Good surface finishes.

Disadvantages of Lathe :

• Wasteful of material.

• Time consuming.
 Exercise: Numerical examples
1. A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter and 700 mm long is to be turned in an engine lathe.
Cutting speed = 2.30 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 1.80 mm. Determine (a)
cutting time, and (b) metal removal rate.
2. In a production turning operation, the foreman has decreed that a single pass must be
completed on the cylindrical workpiece in 5.0 min. The piece is 400 mm long and 150 mm in
diameter. Using a feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed must
be used to meet this machining time requirement?
3. A cylindrical work bar with 4.5in diameter and 52in length is chucked in an engine lathe and
supported at the opposite end using a live center. A 46in portion of the length is to be turned
to a diameter of 4.25 in one pass at a speed of 450 ft/min. The metal removal rate should be
6.75 in3/min. Determine (a) the depth of cut, (b) the required feed, and (c) the cutting time
4. Determine the angle at which the compound rest would be swiveled for cutting a taper on a
workpiece having a length of 150 mm and outside diameter 80 mm. The smallest diameter on
the tapered end should be 50 mm and the required length of the tapered portion is 80 mm.

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 2. Drilling machine
Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from
the job by cutting tool called drill or drill bit.
A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and usually one or more flutes for
the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid.
A drilling machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the most
important and versatile machine tools in a workshop. Holes are generally used either for assembly
with fasteners, such as bolts, screws and rivets (each requiring a hole), or to provide access to the
inside of a part.

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 Classifications of Drilling Machines

1. Portable Drilling Machine

2. Sensitive Drilling Machine

1
3. Upright Drilling machine

4. Radial Drilling Machine

5. Gang type drilling machine

6. Multi spindle drilling machine 2

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 Cont.

6
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 Twist Drill Geometry
Twist drill geometry and its nomenclature are shown in below . A twist drill has
three principal parts:
(i) Drill point or dead center
(ii) Body
(iii) Shank.

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 Common machining operations in Drilling
The most common operations which can be carried on a drilling machine are
Drilling: Operation of producing hole
by removing metal from solid mass using twist drill.

Boring (accuracy ± 0.00125 mm):

Used for enlargement of hole to bring it to required
size & have better finish. It involves use of single point
cutting tool having single cutting edge.
It is slower process than reaming.

Reaming: Operation of sizing and producing

smooth, round hole from previously drilled or bored hole.

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 Cont.
Tapping: Cutting internal threads
in hole with cutting tool called tap

Counter boring: Enlarging top of previously

drilled hole to given depth to provide square
shoulder for head of bolt or cap screw.

Countersinking: Operation of producing

tapered or cone-shaped enlargement to end of hole

Spot facing: Spot facing is similar to milling.

It is used to provide a flat machined surface on
the work part in a localized area

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 Cutting condition in drilling
• The rotational speed of drill, N
𝑣
𝑁= where: v − cutting speed(mm/min)
𝜋𝐷
𝐷 − 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Feed rate, 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑁
Drilled holes are either through hole or blind hole
The machining time, 𝑇𝑚 to drill a through hole is given by:

𝑡+𝐴
𝑇𝑚 = ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑡 − 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑟
A − approach allowance(mm): the distance of drill before reaching full diameter

𝜃
𝐴 = 0.5𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛 90 − ; 𝜃 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
2
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Cutting condition in drilling(contd.)
• In blind hole, hole depth is the distance between work surface and point of hole.
So, drill point angle allowance does not affect the time to drill the hole. Thus,
machining time for blind hole is give by

𝑑
𝑇𝑚 =
𝑓𝑟

The rate of material removal in drilling is determined by the product of the drill
cross sectional area and the feed rate,

𝜋𝐷2 𝑓𝑟
𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
4

This equation is valid after drill reaches full diameter

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Exercise: Numerical examples
1. A drilling operation is to be performed with a 12.5 mm diameter twist drill in a
steel work part. The hole is a blind hole at a depth of 60 mm and the point angle
is 118°. The cutting speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine
(a) the cutting time to complete the drilling operation, and (b) metal removal rate
during the operation, after the drill bit reaches full diameter.

2. A drilling operation is to be performed with a 15 mm diameter twist drill in a

steel work part. The hole is a through hole in a plate of 30 mm and the point
angle is 118°. The cutting speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev.
Determine (a) the cutting time to complete the drilling operation, and (b) metal
removal rate during the operation, after the drill bit reaches full diameter.
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 3) Milling Machine
• Milling is one of the basic machining processes that allows large amounts of material to be
removed quickly. Milling is a very versatile process capable of producing simple two dimensional
flat shapes to complex three dimensional interlaced surface configurations.
• At all types of milling machines, the cutting tool performs a rotational motion .
• The rotation axis of the tool could be horizontal or vertical, depending on machine tool version.
The feeding motion is achieved either by part or tool, or both, usually on three perpendicular
directions.

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 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES
Milling machines are broadly classified as follows:
a) Plain or horizontal milling machine.
• Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
b) Vertical milling machine.
• Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled

a) Horizontal milling machine b) Vertical milling machine.

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 Major parts of milling machine
• Knee: The knee projects from the column and slides up and down on its face. It supports the
saddle and table and is partially supported by the elevating screw which adjusts its height.
• Saddle: The saddle supports & carries the table & is adjustable transversely on ways on top of the
knee.
• Table: The table rests on ways on the saddle & travels longitudinally in a horizontal plane. It
supports the work pieces, fixture & all other equipment.
• Overhanging arm: The over arm is mounted on & guided by the top of the column. It is adjusted
in & out by hand to the position of maximum support for the arbor and then clamped.
• Spindle: The spindle obtains its power from the motor through belts, gears and a clutch and
transmits it to an arbor or sub arbor. Cutters are mounted directly in the spindle nose.
• Arbor: The arbor is an accurately machined shaft for holding and driving the arbor type cutter. It
is tapered at one end to fit the spindle nose and has two slots to fit the nose keys for locating and
driving it.

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Working Methods of milling operation
Up milling
 Up Milling also called Conventional
Milling,
 Wheel rotation is in the opposite
direction to that of feed,
 The length of the chip is relatively longer,
 Tool life is relatively shorter,
 Need more clamping force to hold the
work part still.
Down milling
 Down Milling also called Climb Milling,
 Wheel rotation is in the same direction to
that of feed,
 The length of the chip is relatively short,
 Tool life is relatively longer,
 Need less clamping force to hold the work
part still.
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Peripheral milling and Face milling
• Peripheral Milling or slab milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth
located on the periphery of the cutter body.
• The axis of cutter rotation is in a plane parallel to the work piece surface to be
machined.
a) Slab/ Plain Mills:
For cutting of heavy, large and flat surfaces.

b) Form milling, which produces curved profiles,

uses cutters that have specially shaped teeth,
which are used for cutting gear teeth.

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 Cont.
c) Side and Face Cutters
Cutter, machines the side of the work piece.
These arbors mounted disc type cutters have
a large number of cutting teeth at equal spacing on the periphery.

d) Slotting (Slot milling)

• Cutter width is less than the work piece width, creating a slot.
• If the cutter is very thin, it can be used to cut a work part
e) Straddle milling
• Similar to side milling, but cutting takes on
both sides of the work part simultaneously.

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 Face milling
• In face milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery and face of the
cutter body
• The axis of cutter rotation is in a plane perpendicular to the work piece surface to
be machined
• Face milling: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end milling, (d) profile
milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.

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 Milling Equations
Rotational Speed (RPM’s)
v
N 
π D
N = Rotational Speed (rpm)
v = Cutting Speed (mm)
D = Cutter Diameter (mm)
Feed Rate: fr (mm/Min)
fr = N nt f
N = Rotational Speed (rpm)
nt = Number of Teeth on the Cutter
f = Feed (mm/Tooth)

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 Machining Time: Face Milling
Face Milling: When cutter diameter greater than width of work piece

Full face, when cutter diameter is greater than width of work piece
A = O = D/2
Machining time, Tm = (L + 2A)/fr

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Machining Time: Slab or Peripheral Milling
Material Removal Rate
MRR = w d fr
MRR = Material Removal Rate
(cu.mm./Min)
w = Width of Cut(mm)
d = Depth of Cut(mm)
fr = Feed Rate (Dist./Min)

Approach distance
A = Approach Distance
D = Cutter Diameter
Time to mill work piece, Tm = (L +A)/fr d = Depth of Cut

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 Numerical problem
1. A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart
which is 400 mm long by 60 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in diameter
and has five teeth, overhangs the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed = 70
m/min, chip load = 0.25 mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 5.0 mm. Determine (a) the actual
machining time to make one pass across the surface and (b) the maximum material
removal rate during the cut.

2. A face milling operation is performed to finish the top surface of a steel rectangular
workpiece 12 in. long by 2 in. wide. The milling cutter has 4 teeth (cemented carbide
inserts) and is 3 in. in diameter. Cutting conditions are 500 rpm, f = 0.01 in./tooth, and d
= 0.150 in. Determine the time to make one pass across the surface and the metal
removal rate during the cut.

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 4. RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS
• In lathes the work piece is rotated while the cutting tool is moved axially to
produce cylindrical surfaces. But in reciprocating machine tools the single point
cutting tool is reciprocates and produces flat surfaces. The flat surfaces produced
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle. These machine tools can also
be arranged for machining contoured surfaces, slots, grooves and other recesses.

• The major machine tools that fall in this type are: Shaper, Planer and Slotter. The
main characteristic of this type of machine tools is that they are simple in
construction and are thus economical in operation.

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 Shaping Machine
• The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended primarily to produce
flat surfaces on small pieces. These surfaces may be Horizontal /vertical/inclined
planes cutting tool. Single point tool mounted on reciprocating RAM. The major
components of a shaper are the ram, which has the tool post with cutting tool
mounted on its face, and a worktable, which holds the part and accomplishes the
feed motion.

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 Working Principle
• The work piece is rigidly held in device called vice/ directly clamped on machine table.

• Tool is held in tool post mounted on RAM of m/c.

• RAM reciprocates to & fro and in doing so, makes tool to cut the material in Forward / Cutting stroke.

• No cutting of material takes place during return stroke of RAM called Idle/ Back ward Stroke.

Working principal of shaping machine

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 Cont.

Operations Performed on Shaper

• Machining Horizontal Surfaces

• Machining Vertical Surfaces

• Machining Angular Surfaces

• Cutting Slots, Grooves & Key ways

• Machining irregular surfaces

Cutting action and functioning of clapper box
• Machining Splines / Cutting Gears

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Operating Conditions in a Shaping Machine
Cutting speed v = (NL (1+m))/1000 m/min

Where

N = the number of double strokes or cycles of the ram

per min (one double or full stroke

= one cutting and one return stroke)

L = Length of the ram stroke in mm

m = quick return ratio (time of return stroke/ time of

cutting stroke)

Length of Stroke L = Lj + 2 c c= approach and over run

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 Machining Time

Material removal rate (MRR)

Width cut in 1 stroke = f
MRR = f d L N (1+m) mm3/min
Total width = w
Where d is depth of cut in mm
No. of strokes to m/c total surface = w/f
f is feed in mm/stroke;
Strokes/mm = N
N is strokes/min
Time for machining surface is t = w/ (f N) = WL
L is length of stroke in mm
(1+m)/1000Vf min
m is ratio of return stroke time to
cutting stroke time

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 Numerical problems
1. Find the machining time required for machining the surface 600 × 800 mm, on a
shaping machine. Assume, cutting speed as 8 m/min. The return to cutting time
ratio is 1:4, and the feed is 2 mm/double stroke. The clearance at each end is 70
mm.

2. Estimate the time required to machine a cast iron surface 250 mm long and 150
mm wide on a shaper with cutting-to return ratio of 3/2. Use a cutting speed of 21
m/min, a feed of 2 mm/stroke and a clearance of 25 mm. The available ram strokes
on the shaper are: 28, 40, 60 and 90 strokes/min. Also, determine MRR assuming
depth of cut as 4 mm.

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 C) Planning machine
• It is similar to that of shaper, but larger work piece moving beneath the cutter.
Work table is moved back & front on the bed beneath the cutting head either by
mechanical / hydraulic. Planners are used for generating accurate flat surfaces &
cutting slots. Planning machines are more productive than shaping due to heavy
cuts (high feed and depth of cut) possible and simultaneous use of a number of
tools.

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 Working Principle
 Work is rigidly held on work table of machine.
 Tool is held vertically in tool head mounted on cross rail.
 Work table, together with job is made to reciprocate past the vertical held
tool.
 Indexed feed, after each cut is given to tool during idle stroke of table

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 Operations Performed on Shaper
• Planning flat horizontal surfaces.

• Planning vertical surfaces.

• Planning angular surfaces and machining dovetails.

• Planning slots and grooves.

Difference between shaping and planning machine

In shaping machine tools reciprocate and in planning machine job reciprocate

Shaping machine used for small job and planning machine used for heavy duty

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 SLOTTER
Slotter is a machine tool for shaping vertical surfaces with a cutting tool held in a
vertically reciprocating ram.

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 SLOTTER FEED MECHANISM
It is giver in three direction

-Longitudinal

-Cross

-Circular

Operation performed on slotter

The following applications can be performed on the slotter

• Cutting of internal grooves or key ways

• Cutting of internal gears

• Cutting of recesses
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 5. Grinding
• Grinding is a surface finishing operation where very thin layer of material is
removed in the form of dust particles.

• Thickness of material removed is in range of 0.25 to 0.50 mm.

• Tool used is an abrasive wheel.

Grinding Wheel

Consists of abrasive particles and bonding material

• Abrasive particles accomplish cutting

• Bonding material holds particles in place and establishes shape and structure of
wheel
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Cont.

Grinding Wheel Parameters a) Abrasive Material Properties

a) Abrasive material  High hardness
b) Bonding material  Wear resistance
c) Grain size  Toughness
d) Wheel grade  Friability - capacity to fracture when cutting edge
e) Wheel structure dulls, so a new sharp edge is exposed

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 Common Abrasive Materials
• Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

• Silicon carbide (SiC)

• Boron Nitride

• Diamond,

b)Bonding materials

Properties of bonding materials:

• Must withstand centrifugal forces and high temperatures.

• Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel.

• Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting

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c) Grinding Wheel Structure: The grinding wheel is usually disk shaped
and precisely balanced for high rotational speeds. It consists of
abrasive particles and bonding

Typical structure of a grinding wheel contains abrasive

grains, bond material and pores (air gaps) Volumetric
proportions can be expressed as: V g + V b + V p = 1 .0

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d) Grain size
• The grain size of the abrasive particle is an important parameter in determining surface finish and
material removal rate.
• Small grit sizes produce better finishes while larger grain sizes permit larger material removal rates.
Three Types of Grain Action
• Cutting - grit projects far enough into surface to form a chip - material is removed.
• Plowing - grit projects into work, but not far enough to cut - instead, surface is deformed and energy
is consumed, but no material is removed.
• Rubbing - grit contacts surface but only rubbing friction occurs, thus consuming energy, but no
material is removed.

Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting, (b) plowing, and (c) rubbing
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 Grinding wheel wear
Three mechanisms are recognized as the principal causes of wear in grinding wheels: grain fracture,
attrition wear, and bond fracture.

1. Grain fracture occurs when a portion of the grain breaks off but the rest of the grain remains
bonded in the wheel.

2. Attrition wear involves dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat spots and rounded edges.
Attrition wear is analogous to tool wear in a conventional cutting tool.

3. Bond fracture occurs when the individual grains are pulled out of the bonding material.

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Grinding Wheel Shapes and Sizes
The principle dimensions that designate the size of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter, width,
and hole diameter.

common types of grinding wheels; straight, cylinder, straight cup, flaring cup, mounted.

59
 Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as
a) Surface grinding machine

b) Cylindrical grinding machine

c) Internal grinding machine

d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

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 6. Broaching
 Broaching is a precise machining process for mass-production of complex geometry parts
(Complicated hole-shapes) with a special cutting tool called, Broach.

Broaching operation Cutting tools (Broaches)

61
 Cont.
 Depending on operation broaching machines are of two types- vertical broaching machine and
horizontal broaching machine.

Applications of broaching
Examples of internal shapes that can be done on broaching machine.

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