KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES CHAPTER OUTLINE 2/1 Introduction 2/2. Rectilinear Motion 2/3. Plane Curvilinear Motion 2/4 Rectangular Coordinates (x-y) 2/5 Normal and Tangential Coordinates (o-f) 2/6 Polat Coordinates (r-6) 2/7 Space Curvilinear Motion 2/8 Relative Motion (Translating Axes) 2/9. Constrained Motion of Connected Particles 2/10 Chapter Review 2/1__Intropuction Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which describes the motion of bodies without reference to the forces which either cause the motion or are generated as a result of the motion. Kinematics is often described as the “geometry of motion.” Some engineering applications of kinematies include the design of cams, gears, linkages, and other machine elements to control or produce certain desired motions, and the calculation of flight trajectories for aireraft, rockets, and spaceeraft. A thorough work- ing knowledge of kinematics is a prerequisite to kinetics, which is the study of the relationships between motion and the corresponding forces ‘which eause or accompany the motion. Particle Motion We bouin our study of kinematies by first discussing in this chapter ‘the motions of points or particles. A particle is a body whose physical di- ‘mensions are so small compared with the radius of curvature of its path ‘that we may treat the motion of the particle as that of a point. For ex- ample, the wingspan of a jet transport flying between Los Angeles and ‘New York is of no consequence compared with the radius of eurvature of 2122 Chapter? its fight path, and thus the treatment of the airplane as a particle or point is an acceptable approximation. We can describe the motion of a particle in a number of ways, and the choice of the most convenient or appropriate way depends a great deal on experience and on how the data are given, Let us obtain an ‘ovorview of the coveral methods developed in thie chaptor by referring to Fig. 2/1, which shows a particle P moving along some general path in space. If the particle is confined ta a specified path, as with a bead sliding along a fixed wire, its motion is said to be constrained. If there are no physical guides, the motion is said to be unconstrained. A small rock tied to the end of a string and whirled in a circle undergoes con- strained motion until the string breaks, after which instant 1ts motion is ‘unconstrained, Choice of Coordinates ‘The position of particle P at any time t can be described by specify- ing its rectangular coordinates* x,y,z, its cylindrical coordinates r, 0, 2, or its spherical coordinates R, 0, The motion of P can also be de- seribed by measurements along the tangent ¢ and normal n to the curve. ‘The direction of n lice in the local plane of the curve.’ These last two ‘measurements are called path variables. ‘The motion of particles (or rigid bodies) can be described by using co- ordinates measured from fixed reference axes (absolute-motion analysis) or by using coordinates measured from moving reference axes (relative- ‘motion analysis). Both descriptions will be developed and applied in the articles which follow, With this conceptual picture of the description of particle motion in mind, we restrict our attention in the first part of this chapter to the cease of plane motion where all movement occurs in or can be repre- sented as occurring in a single plane. A large proportion of the motions of machines and structures in engineering ean be represented as plane ‘motion, Later, in Chapter 7, an introduction to three-dimensional mo- tion is presented. We begin our discussion of plane motion with reeti- linear motion, which is motion along a straight line, and follow it with a deseription of motion along a plane eurve. 2/2 _Rectiinear Motion Consider a particle P moving along a straight line, Fig. 2/2. The po- sition of P at any instant of time ¢ can be specified by its distance » mea- sured from some convenient reference point Q fixed on the line. At time t+ Af tho particle has moved to P’ and its coordinate hecomes + + As. ‘The change in the position coordinate during the interval Ar is called ‘the displacement As of the pasticle. ‘The displacement would be negative ifthe particle moved in the negative s-direction, Often ealed Cartesian coordinate, named sfler René Descartes (1596-1650), » Prench satin Ginn stalyruleessllio Eves of eet nematy, "This plane calla the osulaing plan, which cones from the Latin word oseulari mean ing “o isa” The plane which cantainsP and the two point A and Bone on elther side of becomes the oculting plane asthe distances between the prints approach ZeroArticle 2/2 Rectilinear Motion 23 Velocity and Acceleration ‘The average velocity of the particle during the interval 4/ is the dis- Placcwent divided ly the time interval or vy — Sa/S. Ae At bocoraes ‘smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average velocity approaches the intantoaos ely ofthe nti whch se ~ fn Stor en ‘Thus, the velocity is the time rate of change of the position coordinate s. ‘The velocity is positive or negative depending on whether the eorre- sponding displacement is positive or negative, ‘The average acceleration of the particle during the interval At is the ‘change in its velocity divided by the time interval or ayy = AviAt. As At becomes smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average accelera- tion approaches the instantaneous acceleration of the particle, whieh is a= lim, cer) ‘The acceleration is positive or negative depending on whethor the ve- locity is inereasing or decreasing, Note that the acceleration would be positive if the particle had a negative volocity which was becoming eso negative, If the particle is slowing down, the particle is said to be decelerating. Velocity and acceleration are actually veetor quantities, as we will see for curvilinear motion beginning with Art, 2/3. For rectilinear mo- tion in the present article, where the direction of the mation is that of the given straight-line path, the sense ofthe vector along the path is de- scribed by a plus or minus sign. In our treatment of curvilinear motion, ‘we will account forthe changes in direction of the velocity and accelera- tion wootors as wall a thoir changoe in magnitudo By eliminating the time d between Bq. 2/1 and the frst of Eqs. 22, ‘we obtain a differential equation relating displacement, velocity, and ac- coloration.* This equation is (2a) Equations 2/1, 2/2, and 2/8 are the differential equations for the rec- tilinear motion of a particle. Problems in rectilinear motion involving fi- nite changes in the motion variables are solved by integration of these basic differential relations. The position coordinate s, the velocity, and the acceleration a are algebraic quantities, so that their signs, positive or negative, must be carefully observed. Note that the positive direc tions for v and. are the same as the positive direction for s. *Ditferential quantities can be mltipled and dived in exactly the same way we other algebraic quantiis This apciater will undergo rectilinear acceleration until he reaches his ter- ‘minal speed. dn Cnn Coty oe@ © @ Interpretation of the differential equations governing rectilinear ‘motion is considerably clarified by representing the relationships among 0,4, and ¢ graphically. Figure 2/Ja is a schematic plot of the variation of s with ¢ from time f, to time ¢, for some given rectilinear motion. By constructing the tangent to the curve at any time t, we obtain the slope, ‘which is the volocity v = dsid. Thus, the velocity can be determined at all points on the curve and plotted against the corresponding time as shown in Fig. 2/36. Similarly, the slope dujat of the v-t curve at any in- stant gives the acceleration at that instant, and the a- curve can there- fore be plotted as in Fig. 2/8. We now see from Fig. 2/3b that the area under the v-f eurve during time dt is v dt, which from Eq, 2/1 is the displacement ds. Consequently, the not displacement of the particle during the interval from f, to ts is ‘the corresponding area under the curve, which is [laafrow om (area under v- curve) Similarly, from Fig. 2/3e we soe that the area under the o-t curve during time di is a dé, which, from the first of Eqs. 2/2, is dv. Thus, the net change in velocity between fy and ¢, is the corresponding area under the ceurve, which is or ty ~ by = (aren under a-t eurve) Note two additional graphical relations. When the acceleration @ is plotted as a function of the position coordinate s, Fig. 2/4a, the area under the curve during a displacement ds is.a ds, whieh, from Eq. 2/3, is v dv ~ dv*/2), Thus, the net area under the curve between position co- ordinates 5, and s, is foe area under a-s curve) [rade oe Beto Fig. 2/46, the slope of the curve at any point A is du/ds. By constructing ee eee Satin tbe asin Tructen dene OS coblan oo those Se ee eee ee oc cen eee es SS ‘The graphical representations described are useful not only in visu- ane eee chang eprint res by rah! inkertin ov Arete ee eee cal relationship prevents its expression as an explicit mathematical Sci nner te nopedl Paneciual tpcmenaen Se eee ace eeo apeArticle 2/2_Rectiline Motion 25, ‘Analytical Integration Lf the position coordinate s is known for all values of the time ¢, then successive mathematical or graphical differentiation with respect to t gives the velocity v and acceleration a. In many problems, however, ‘the functional relationship between position eoordinate and time is un- ‘known, and we must determine it by successive integration from the ‘acceleration. Acceleration is dotermined by the forces which act on moving bodies and is computed from the equations of kinetics dis- ‘cussed in subsequent chapters. Depending on the nature of the forces, the acceleration may be specified as a function of time, velocity, or posi- tion coordinate, or as a combined function of these quantities. The pro- cedure for integrating the differential equation in each ease is indicated as follows. (0) Constant Acceleration. When « is constant, the first of Eqs. 22 and 2/3 ean be integrated directly. For simplicity with s = sy, v = vy, and 1 = O designated at the beginning of the interval, thon for a time inter- vval the integrated equations become vg tat or Fug? + als ~ 5) of the integrated expression for v into Eq. 2/1 and integra- tion with respect to / give "aes ” ts +at)dt or ro + vot + dat? Sel } ‘These relations are necessarily restricted to the special ease where the acceleration is constant, The integration limits depend on the initial and final conditions, which for a given problem may be different from those ‘used here. It may he more convenient, for instance, to hegin the integra- tion at some specified time rather than at time! 0. (b) Acceleration Given as a Function of Time, a = f(t). Substitu- tion of the function into the first of Eus. 2°2 gives f(t) = du(d. Multiply- ing by di separates the variables and permits integration. Thus, aa[isre 2 wens [soe Ne, go CONCe, Ls26 Chapter 2 Kinematics of ticles ‘From this integrated expression for v as a function of f, the position co- ordinate s is obtained by integrating Eq, 2/1, which, in form, would be [fae [fre If the indefinite integral is employed, the end conditions are used to es- tablish the constants of integration. The results are identical with those ‘obtained by using the definite integral If desired, the displacement s can be obtained by a direct solution of tthe second-order differential equation i = f(t) obtained by substitution ‘of f(@) into the second of Bas. 2/2 (6) Acceleration Given as a Function of Velocity, a = f(v). Substi- tution of the function into the first of Eqs. 2/2 gives flv) = duid, which permits separating the variables and integrating. Thus, fe La vae ‘This result gives ¢ as a function of v. Then it would be necessary to solve for v as.a function oft so that, Eq. 2/1 ean be integrated to abtain the po- sition coordinate s as a function off. Anothor approach is to substitute the function « = flv) into the first of Eqs. 2/3, giving v dv = flv) ds. The variables ean now be separated sand (he equation integrated i Ue fru vdo sw) i Note that this equation gives s in terms of v without explicit reference to (d) Acceleration Given as a Function of Displacement, a ~ f(s). Substituting the fumetion mto iq. 2/3 and integrating give the form fislds or wef soe Next we solve for v to give v = g(s), a function of s. Now we can substi- ‘tute dsid¢ for v, separate variables, and intograte in the form "def! * ds ala or taf eats) So =o 85) which gives ¢ as a function of s, Finally, we can rearrange to obtain s as ‘a function of In each of the foregoing cases when the acceleration varies according to some funetional relationship, the possibility of solving the oquaticne by direct mathematical integration will depond on the form of the function. In cases where the integration is excessively awkward or difficult, integra- tion by graphical, numerical, or computer methods ean be utilized.Motion 27 Sample jem 2/' ‘The position coordinate of « particle which is confined to move along a straight line is given hy » = 2° — 2it ~ 6, where» is measuted in meters from a convenient origin and ¢ is in seconds. Determine (a) the time required for the particle to reach a velocity of 72 mis from its initial condition at ¢ = 0, 6 the ac- cdleration of the particle when v = 90 mis, and (c) the not displacement of the particle during the interval from? = stot = 48 Solution. The velocity and acceleration are obtained by successive differentia- tion of «with respect to the time. Thus, wal > 6 — 24 mis lena) a= emit (@) Substituting » = 72 mis into the expression for v gives us 72 = 6 ~ 24, fom ‘which # ~ =, The negative sot doaemibes a mathomatioal soktion for# before © the initiation of motion, co this root is of no physical interest. Thus, the desired result is fads Ans, (®) Substituting v = 30 mis into the expression for v gives 30 = 6? ~ 24, from. ‘which the positive oat is ¢= 3, and the corresponding acceleration is a= 123) = 36m? Ans, (0) The net displacement during the specified interval is. Ae=q- oF as = [aed ~ 244 + 6] 1210) = 2400) + 61 =s4m Ans. © which reprosents the net advancement of the particle along the sax from the position it oreupied at = 1s to its position att = 4s ‘To help visualize the motion, the values of, x, anda are plotted against the time #a8 shown, Bocuse the area under the v- eurve represents displacement, © ~wesee that the net displacement from ¢= 1s to t= 4 sisthe positive area Ass Jes the nogative area As». Helpful Hints D Be alert to the proper choice of sign when taking a square root. When ‘the situation calls for only one an- swer, the positive root is not always the one you may need @ Note carefully the distinction be- ‘ween italies forthe postion coordi- ‘nate and the vertial fr seconds, @ Note from the graphs that the val- ues for v are the slopes (3) of the ot curve and that the values for @ ate the slopes (¢) of the v-t curve. Sug- gestion: Integrate v dt for each of the ‘wo intervals and check the answer or Ae, Show that the total distance traveled during the interval ¢ = 1's tot = Asis Tm.es of Chapter 2_Kinem: Sample jem 2/2 A particle moves along the x-axis with an initial velocity, ~ 50 fee atthe origin when ¢ = 0. For the first 4 seconds it has no acceleration, and thereafter it is acted on by a retarding force which gives it a constant aeceleration a, = ~10 ft/sec! Calculate the velocity and the s-coordinate of the particle for the condi- © tions of f = @ sec and ¢ = 12 see and find the maximum postive xcoordinate reached by the particle, Helpful Hints © Learn to be flexible with aymbola ‘The position coordinate x ia just as val a. Solution. The vlecty ofthe particle aftr t = 4 sec ia computed from o[fa-faa] f° and is plotted as shown. At the specified times, the velocities are nol j= sriee t= Sac, 90 ~ 11N8) = 10 Race t= 12 see, 90 ~ 10(12) = ~30 fisee Ans, ‘The x-enordinate of the particle at any time greater than 4 seconds is the dis- tance traveled during the frst 4 seconds plus the distance traveled after the dis- continuity in acceleration occurred. Thus, —5e + 908 — 80 [far fear] x=sae0 + fo — 2094 For the two specified times, fisee, x = 016) + 9018) ~ 80 = 220 FE f= 12sec, x= —5(12 + 90012) ~ 80 = 280 Ans: ‘The xcnordinate for t = 12 ac is leas than that fort = 8 sce since the motion in the neyative -direction after t= 9 sec. The maximum positive -coordinate is, then, the value of for¢= 9 see which is = =519%) + 9019) ~ 80 = 325% Ans, © These displacements are seen to be the net positive areas under the v-t graph up to the values of n question, ® Note that we integrate to a general time # and then substitute specific @® Show that the total distance traveled by the particle in the 12 secis 70 8.Article 2/2_Rectiline: Motion 29 Sample jem 2/3 ‘The spring:mounted slider moves in the horleontal guide with negligible fiction and has a velocity vy in the slirction as it erosses the mié-position ‘where s = 0 and ¢ = 0. The two springs together exert a retarding force to the ‘motion ofthe slider, which gives it an acceleration proportional to the displace- rent hut oppositely direeted and equal to a = ~H, where & is constant. (The constant is arbitrarily squared for later convenience in the form of the expres sions.) Determine the expressions for the displacement » and velocity as fune- tons of the time t Solution Since the acceleration is specified in terms of the displacement, the differential relation v do = a ds may be integrated. Thus, vt ae Bes, © —fedomf-wudss acmmant, or 8-H When s = 0,2 = uy 0 that C, = 0,82, and the velocity boeomos —e ‘The plus eign of the radieal is taken when v is postive (in the plus direction). Ths cen ar rte nie = de Ta @ faite Leet cancman, oe Lanes With the requirement of f= 0 when » = 0, the constant of integration becomes C= 0, and we may solve the equation for sso that = ein ke Ans. ‘The velocity isu = é, which gives v= vy cosht Ans, Solution i Sinco.a = &, the given relation may be written at once as d+ke=0 "This ie an ordinary linea diferential equation of second order for which the so- ution is wll known and is = Asin t+ eos Kt where A, B, and K are constants. Substitution ofthis expression into the dffer- ‘ential equation shows that it satisfles the equation, provided that K'= &. The ve- locity is v = §, which becomes b= Akeos he ~ Bh sin be ‘The initial condition » = up when f = O requires that A = ny, and the condition = Owhen = 0 gives B = 0, Thus, the solution is ® een eaeer er ie rigs Helpful Hints © We have used an indefinite integrat There and evaluated the constant of integration. For practice, obtain the same results by using the definite Integral withthe appropriate limits, @® Again try the definite integral here @ This motion is called simple’ har ‘monie motion and is characteristic of all oscillations where the restoring orce, and Kence the’ acceleration, ix proportional to the displacement but “opposite in sign,es of 30 Chapter? _Kinem: Sample jem 2/! A freighter is moving at a speed of § knots when its engines are suddenly stopped. If it takes 10 minutes fr the freighter to reduce its speed to 4 knots, de- termine and plot the distance» in nautical miles moved by the ship and its epecd vin knots as functions ofthe time t during this interval. The deceleration of the ship ia proportional to the square ofits speed, 40 that a =~ Solution. Tho speeds and the time are given, so we may aubetitute the expres. sion for acesloration directly into the basic definition @ ~ dujdt and integrate. ‘Thus, aw a fia witty at a oo 38 = Ehourand get 8 ete 7 ire "4 re a "The speed is plotted against the time as shown, ‘The distance is obtained by substituting the expression for into the defic nition v= dae and integrating. Thus, fiSt-[ae efna son am =e Te ‘The distance si also plotted against the time as shown, and we se thatthe ship thas moved through a distances = § In (+ (0.924 mi (nautical) dur- ing the 10 minutes. Helpful Hints @ Recall that one knot is the speed of fone nautical mile (6076 ft per hour. Work directly in the units of nanti- cal miles and hours, @ We choose to integrate to a general value afv and its covzesponding time ‘+80 that we may obtain the variation fof v witht. sym (nautical) 19 rom min wwPROBLEMS Introductory Problems Problems 2/1 through 2/7 treat the motion of a particle which moves alone svaais shows ier the figure. +4.form Problems 2/1-2/7 2/1 "The velocity of particle is given by v = 252 — 804 — 200, where vis in feot per second and tis in second. Plot the velocity v and acceleration 2 versus time for ‘the frst 8 soconda of motion and evaluate the velocity when a is zero, 2/2 ‘The position ofa particle is given by # = 28 — 4a + 200% ~ 50, where # is in meters and 1 is in seconds Plot the position, velocity, and acceleration as func- tons of time for the first 1 seconds of motion, Deter mine the time at which the velocity is zero, 2/3 The velocity ofa particle which moves along the s-xis is given by v = 2 ~ 41 + 5, where ¢ i in seconds ‘and pis im meters per second. Evaluate the positions, velocity v, and seceleration a when f = 3, The pa cle is at the position sy = 8 m when t = 0. Ans. $= 22.2 m,0 = 15.88 mis, 2/4 "The displacement ofa particle which moves along the ‘axis ia given by # = (-2 + Se, where a is in me ters and tis in seconds, Plot the displacement, veloc: ity, and accoleration versus time for the frst 20 seconds of motion. Determine the time at which the acecleration is 2ero. 2/5 ‘Tho acceleration ofa particle is given by a = 21 ~ 10, where a ia in meters per second equated and ¢ i in second. Determine the velocity and displacement as functions of time, The intial displacement at ¢ = 0 is sq = 4m, and the inital velocity is vy = 3 mis ‘Ans, v=3~ 100+ # me) senate seed cm) 2/6 ‘The acceleration of a particle is given by a = —hs!, where a is in meters per second squared, Fis a eon stant, ands isin meters. Determine the velocity of the particle as a finction of its postion s, Evaluate your ‘expression for = Smif = 0.1 m-le-® and the initial conditiona at time = 0 are s) = 8m andy = 10 m/s. 2/1 The acceleration of a particle whichis moving along straight line is given by a= —vi, where a isin tetere per second squared, Ais w contant, and vie the velocity in meters per second. Determine the ve locity ana function ofboth time ¢ and poston « Bvaluate your expressions for ¢= 2 sand ats = 3m fk = 0.2 mie and the initial conditions at time ate y= Lmand oy ~ 7 mia “Ans. 0 = (oy! ~ Banu = og8® — Bate — ag 0 586 micatt~ 25,0 = 685 maats = 3m 2/8 Tho velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is decreasing at the rate of & ma per meter of displace- ‘ment at an instant when the velocity is 10 m/s. Deter- ‘mine the acceleration « ofthe particle at this instant. 2/9 Experimental data for the motion of a particle along a straight lin yield measured values of the velocity 0 for ‘various position evordinates s, A smooth curve Is drown through the points as shown in the graph. De- ‘termine tho accoleration of the partile whon s = 20 f. ‘Ans. a= 12 ffs!32 Chapter? _Kinem: cs of Particles 2/10 A ball is thrown vertically up with a velocity of 80 {cee at the edge of a 200 elif Caleulate the Insight h to which the ball rises and the total time t after release forthe ball to reach the bottom of the lift Neglect alr resistance and take the downward acceleration to be 32.2 fise? ny i 4y A ' 1 i i 1 Problem 2/10 2/11 A rocket is fired vertically up from vest. If it is de. signed to maintain a constant upward acceleration of 15g, caleulate the time ¢ roquired for it to reach fan altitude of 50 kam and its veloeity at that position Ans. = 6393, = 940 mis 2/12 Acar comes to a complete stop from an initial speed of 60 mir in a distance of 100 ft. With the eame constant acceleration, what would be the stopping 4istancees from an initial speed of 70 mie? 2/15 Caleulate the constant acceleration a in g's which the catapult of am aircraft enrrier must provide to produce a launch velocity of 180 mijhr in a distance (oF 300 f. Assume that the cartier i at anchor. ‘Ans. a= 361g 2/14 To test the effects of “weightlessness” for short peri= ds of time, a test faily is designed which acecler- ates a test package vertically up from A to B by means of a gusactivated piston and allows it to as- fend and descend from H to C to J under free-fall conditions, The test chamber consists ofa deep well and is evacuated to eliminate any appreciable mir re- sistance, Ifa constant acceleration of 4g from A to 18s provided by the piston and ifthe total test time for the “weightless” condition from B to C to B 10 5, calculate the required working height & of the chamber. Upon returning to B, the test package is recovered in a basket fled with polystyrene pellets inserted in the line offs an ‘Test package Accelerator Piston and ‘ylinder Problem 2/14 ‘The plot ofa Jet transport brings the engines to full takeof? power before releasing the brakes as the ai~ craft is standing on the runway. he jet thrust re- ‘mains constant, and the aireraft has a near-eonstant acceleration of 04g. IF the taken speed is 200 kam, caleulate the distance sand time from rest to takeoft. Ans. = 398 m,t= 14.168 A jt airevat with a landing speed of 200 kinh has a ‘masimur of 600 m of available runvay after toueh- down in which to reduce its ground speed to 30 kmh, Compute the average acceleration a required of the aircraft during braking. A particle traveling in a straight line encounters retarding force which causes ita velocity to decrease according tov = 206-* ft/sec, where tis the time in seconds during which the force acts, Determine the avecleration a of the particle when t= 10 see and find the corresponding distance s which the particle thas moved during the 10-second interval. Plot» ‘unetion oft fr the frst 10 seconds ‘Ans.a= ~0.736 Msoc’ ¢ = 126.47 In the inal stage of moon landing, the hiner mod tle descends unerrtrothrst oft descent engine towithink~ 8 m of th nar surface where fas a downward vlotyof 2 mn. tthe descent engine ix ut off abruptly at his point, compute the impact ve- lncity of the landing gear ith the moon. Tainar sravy is Motte arts gravityProblem 2/18 2/19 A particle moves along the sirection with constant acceleration. Tho displacement, measured from a Comveniont position, is 2m at time ¢ = 0 and ia 2670 ‘when ¢ = 10 5.1 the velocity ofthe particle is sor ‘mentarily zor0 when f ~ 65, determine the acceler tion a and the velocity v when f = 10° Ans. a= 0.2m, = 0.8 mis Representative Problems 2/20 The main elevator A of the CN Tower in Toronto ‘iss about 360 m and for moat ofits ran has acon Santee of 2h aru tat bath the cel Gaetan accesories eaten of and determine the ine duration ¢ of he ea. Sone Problem 2/20 2/21 A particle oscillates along.a straight line with a sinu soidally varying velocity in millimeters per socond given by v = 16 sin m6, where tis in seconds. I'the displacement ofthe particle is 8 mm when ¢~ 0, de- termine its maximum displacement Su and plot + vorsust for one eomplote eydle. Ans. fx = 69.1 at 2/22 A vehicle enters n test section of straight road atx ‘with a spood of 40 anh It thon undorgoes an acceler- ation whieh varies with displacement a shown. De- termine the velocity v of the vehicle as it passes the position s= 0:2 km, ama Problem 2/22 2/23 Small steel balls fll from rest through the opening, fat A at the steady rite of two per second. Find the vertical separation h of two consecutive balls when the lower one has dropped 8 meters. Neglect ait reaistance. Ans. = 2.61 m34 Chapter? _Kinem: cs of Particles 2/24 A retarding foree acts on a particle moving initially with a velocity of 100 mis and gives it « deceleration as recorded by the ozillezcope record shown. Ap- proximate the velocity ofthe particle at ¢ = 48 and ate Be, Deceleration 46 Times Problem 2/24 2/25 A gin rolls a ball up an incline and allows it to re. ‘turn to her. For the angle and ball involved, the ac- celeration of the ball along the incline is eonstant at 0.254, directed down the incline. If the ball is re- leased with a speed of 4 ms, determine the distance ‘it moves up the incline before reversing its divec- ton and the total time ¢ required forthe ball to re- ‘turn to the child's hand. Anas 26m,¢= 3.265 Problem 2/25 2/26 Abody movos in a straight line with a vloeity whose ‘square decreases linearly with the displacement be- ‘tween two points A and, which are 300 ft apart as shown. Determine the displacement As of the body ring the last 2 seconds before arrival at B. ‘Problem 2/25 2/27 The 14in, spring is compressed to an 8:in. length, where itis released from rest and accelerates the sliding block A. The acceleration hasan initial value (f 400 ft/sec? and then decreases linearly with the movement of the block, reaching zero when the spring regains its original 14in. length. Calculate the time # forthe bloc to go (a) 3 in. and () 6 in ‘Ane. (a) = 0.0370 see, 6) = 0.0555 see | on | 1 | WW Problem 2/27 2/28 A motoreydle starts from rest with an initial aeoler- ‘tion of 3 m/s and the acceleration then changes with distance s as shown. Determine the velocity » of ‘the motoregele when's = 200 m. At this point also a Aetermine the vale of the derivative 100 700 Problem 2/28lems 35 ticle 2/2 2/29 The car is traveling at a constant speed vy = 100 Jamh on the level portion of the road. When the 6-percent (tan # = 6/100) incline is encountered, the river dove not change the throttle setting and eon- sesuently the ear dacelerates at the constant rate g sin 0. Determine the speed ofthe car (a) 10 seconds after pacing point A and (D) when & = 100 m. Ans. (a)0 = 21.9 mis, (6) v= 25.6 mis ee Problem 2/29 2/30 A particle moving along the postive x-direction with an initial velocity of 12 mis is subjected to a vetard- ing forve that gives ita negative aceeleration which varies linearly with time for the first 4 seconds as shown. For the next 5 seconds the force is constant land the acceleration remains constant. Plot the ve- locity of the particle during the 8 seconds and specify its value at ¢= 4, Also find the distance As traveled bby the particle from its position at ¢ = 0 tothe point ‘where it reverses its direction, 4 agemb? Problem 2/30 2/31 A body which moves in a straight line between two points A and B a distance of 80 m apact has veloo- ity whoco square incroacos linearly with the distance ‘traveled, as shown on the graph. Determine the dis- placement Ax of the body during the last 2 seconds before arvival at B, Ans, Ss = 1.6m Problem 2/31 2/32 A motoreyele patrolman starts from rest at A two seconds after a ear, speeding at the constant rate of 120 kmh, passes point A. If the patrolman acecler- ates at the rate of 6 ms? until he reaches his maxi- mum permissible speed of 150 km/h, which he ‘maintains, ealulate the distance s from point A to te point at which he overtakos the ear. Problem 2/32 2/35 A sprinter reaches his maximum speed tng in 2.5 Seconds from rest with constant seceleration, He then maintains that speed and finishes the 100 yarda in the overall time of 9,60 seconds, Determine his ‘maximum speed Ua Ans Vaux = 95.9 fee 10 ya ——4 120 1=2.5 800 1= 9.60 eee mA SK Problem 2/33 2/34 A vacuummepropelled capsule for a high-speed tube ‘transportation system of the future Is being de- signed for operation between two stations A and B, ‘which are 10 km apart. Ifthe accleration and docel- eration are to have a limiting magnitude of 0.6 ‘and if yelectios are to be limited to 400 kmh, deter- ‘mine the minimum time ¢ for the capsule to make the 10m trip = Oem e ‘Problem 2/342/35 The body falling with speed v strikes and maintains contact with the platform supported by a nest of springs. Tho sccoloration of the body after impoct ix a= g— co wherec is a positive constant and y is ‘measured from the original platform position, Ifthe ‘maximum compression of the springs is observed to be ip, determine the constant c P+ 2 Anae Problem 2/35 2/36 Particle 1 is subjected to an acceleration @ = to particle 2 is subjectod to a ~ ~Rt, and particle 8 is subjected to a = —ks. All three particles start at the origin « = O with an initial velocity uy = 10 me at time ¢ = 0, and the magnitude of is 01 for all three particles (note that the units of # vary from case to ase). Plot the position, velocity, and accoleration ver- tus time for each panicle over the range 0 = ¢= 10s. 2/37 A self propelled vehicle of mass m whose engine deli rs constant power P hus an acceleration a = Primo) ‘where al retinal resistanes ia neglected. Determine expressions forthe distances traveled and the corre: sponding time t required by the vehicle to nerease its speed from 3 2 Ans, = (048043) t= Beto) 2/38 A cortain lake i proposed asa landing area for large Jet aireraft. The touchdown speed of 100 mihr upon contact with the water isto be reduced to 20) mir {n.adistance of 1500 ft Ifthe deceleration is propor- tional to the square of the velocity of the aircraft through the water, @ = ~Ku#, find the value of the design parameter K, which would be a measure of the size and shape of the landing gear vanes that plow through the water. Alco find the time ¢ elapsed ving the specified interval 2/39 A particle moving along stralght line decelerate ac cording toa = ~he, where kis a constant and vis ve- Tity. I te iitial velocity a time # = Ody = 4 mle and its velocity at time ¢ = 2sisu = mis, determine tho time 7 and corresponding distance D for the par- ticle speed to be reduced to one-tenth of its initial value, Ans.T = 8826,D > 519m 2/40 The cone falling with a speed vy strikes and pene: trates the block of pasking material. The accelera ton ofthe cone after impact isa = g ~ ey#, where ¢ is a positive constant and y is the penetration dis- tanee. If the maximum penetration depth is ob- served to be), determine the constant “lV as Problem 2/80 ines on nS eae pain i amaemtnr aaa eee pein ine opens meg reo a = —C, — Cw", where C, and C; are constants Fa ere tee eee ee See 1 ts Se) 2, a” Problem 2/41 2/42 Compute the impaet speed of a body released from rest at-an altitude A= 500 mi, (a) Assume a con- stant gravitational aeceleration gy ~ 32.2 fsee! and (@) account for the variation of g with altitude (refer to Art, 15), Neglect the effects of atmospheric dragProblem 2/42 2/43 Compute the impact speed of body A which is re leased from rest at an altitude = 750 mi above the surface of the moon. (a) First assume a constant gravitational accoloration g., ~ 5.82 fsee* and (b) then account for the variation of gq with altitude (refer to Art. 15). ‘Ans. (2) © = 6490 Ase, (6) v= 4980 sec Problem 2/43 2/44 The horizontal motion ofthe plunger and chat is ar- rested by the resistance of the attached disk which ‘moves through the oil hath. Ifthe velocity of the plunger is vin the postion A where x = 0 and ¢ = 0, and if the deceleration is proportional ¢o © s0 that 1 = hv, derive expressions for the velocity v and position coordinate + in terms ofthe time. Also ex- press ein terms of Problem 2/44 45. small object is released from rest in a tank of oll ‘The dawnward acceleration of the object is g — ke, where g isthe constant acceleration die to gravity, is @ constant which depends on the viseosity of the oll and shape of the object, and o is the downward velocity of the object. Derive expressions for the ve- locity v and vertical drop y as funetions of the time f after release -fo-e nso =e) “ilejo-e] 2/46 On its takeolt roll, the airplane starts from rest and accelerates according to ~ ay ~ hu, whore gis the Constant seceleration resulting from the engine ‘thrust and ~Zu* is the acceleration due to aerody- ‘namic drag, Ifa = 2 mis, k = 0.00004 m”?, and vis {in motors por second, determine the design length of rronviay requited for the airplane to reach the take- off spoed of 250 kay ithe drag term is (a) exchuded ‘and () ineluded, = 250 keh Problem 2/36 2/87 A test projectile is fined horizontally into a viseous liquid with a velocity of vp, The retarding force is, proportional to the square ofthe velocity, so that the ‘ceeleration becomes a = —ho!, Derive expressions for the distance D traveled in the liquid and the eor- responding time ¢ required to reduce the velocity to (2. Neglect any vertical motion, ‘nD = 000s ¢= | Problem 2/87Chapter 2 icles 2/48 A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant ate until it reaches 60 mihr in a distance of 200 ft, at which time the clutch is disengaged. The car then slows down to a velocity of $0 mi/hr in an additional distance of 400 f with a deceleration which It pro- portional to its velocity. Find the time for the car to travel the 600 &. 2/49 ‘To a close approximation the pressure behind a rifle bullet varies inversely with the position x of the bul- Jet along the barre. Thus the acceleration ofthe bul- let may be written as @ = A’x where is a eonstant [Ifthe bullet starts from rest tx = 7.5 min and ifthe ‘muzzle velocity of the bullet is 600 mis at the end of the 750-mm barrel, compute the acceleration of the Dullot as it passes the midpoint of the barrel at x = 275 mm. Ans, 0 = 1042 ken k 750mm +4 260m Problem 2/49 2/50 The driver of a car, which is intially at rest at the top A of the grade, releases the brakes and eaasts down the grade with an aceoleration in fet per sec- fond squared given by a = 3.22 ~ 0,0040%, where v is the velosty in foot per socond. Determine the veloc- ity ny at the bottom B ofthe grade. Problem 2/50 2/51 Wore he effect of evelyn dag is inched the acceleration of a baseball moving vertically upward sa, ~ ~~ he", while the acceleration whon the ball is moving downward is ag =~ + Au, where his 8 positive constant and vi the speed in feet per seeond, Ifthe balls thrown upward at 100 fsee from essen- tially ground level, compute its maximum height and its speed v upon impact with the ground. Take Fe vobe 0.002 ft and assume that g fs constant. Ans. = 120.8 fh uy = 785 fece 2/52 For the baseball of Prob, 261 thrown upward with an initial speed of 100 fsec, determine the time 1, {rom ground to upex and the time fy from apex to ground. 2/53 The acceleration of the drag racer is modeled =e, — ea, where the v®.term accounts for nero- dynamic drag and where cy and ¢y are positive eon- stants, Ife, is known (from wind-tunnel tests) to be 5110") fe, determine ey if the final speed is 190 mihr, drag rage is a L-mile straight run from a standing start Ans.) = 914 Risex? Start Finich Problem 2/53 2/58 Use the value fr cy cited in the answer to Prob. 2158 ‘and determine the time ¢ required forthe drag racer described in that problem to complete the 1dmile 2/55 The fuel of «model rocket is burned so quickly that fone may assume that the rocket acquires its burnout velocity of 120 m/s while essentially still at ground level. The rocket then enasts vertially upward to the trajectory apex. With the inclusion of serody- namic drag, the y-aeceleration Isa, =~ ~ 0.0005." during this motion, where the units are meters and seconds. At apex a parachute pops out of the nose cone, and the rocket quiekly acquires a constant downward speed of 4 m/s. Estimate the Nighttime t Ans. = 1477 8ile 2/2 | 120 mi Problem 2/55 2/56 The stories of tall building are uniformly 10 foot in Iheight. ball A is dropped from the rooftop position shown. Determine the times required for it to pass the 10 feet of the first, tenth, and one-hundredth stories (counted from the top). Negleet aerodynamic Be " wt A Hl Y ll Ul Problem 2/56 2/S7 Repeat Prob. 256, except now include the effects of seroriynamic drag. The drag force eases an acveler- ation component in fjse! of 0.00502 in the direction ‘opposite the velocity vetor, where vis in se. “Ans. f= 0.795 se, ho = 0.1582 see tipo = 01246 see 2/58 A particle which moves along the x-axis s subjected to an accelerating force which increases linearly with time and a retarding force which increases di- reetly with displacement. The resulting acceleration isa = Ki — Kx, where Kand & are positive constants land where both x and » = are zero when the time ¢= 0, Determine the displacement x as a function oft, 2/59 Car A travels at a constant speed of 65 mizhr. When in the position chown at time ¢ = 0, car 2 bas & speed of 25 mishr and accelerates at a constant rate (of 0. along its path until it reaches a speed of 65 ‘ihr, after which it travels at that ennstant speed. What is the steady-state postion of car A with re- spoct tocar B? Ans, Ais aad of B hy 706 Problem 2/59 2/60 Repeat Prob. 2/59, except that ear B, rather than possessing a constant acceleration, now accelerates fas shown in the accompanying plot. Time ¢y is the time at which the spoed of ear B reaches 63 mijhr. After time f, the speed remains constant. Compare your result with that stated for Prob, 269,40 Chapter 2 sof Particles 2/3 PLANE CuRVILINEAR MOTION We now treat the motion of a particle along a curved path which lies in a single plane. This motion is a special case of the more general three dimensional motion introduced in Art, 2/1 and illustrated in Fig. 2/1. [fwe let the plane of motion be the x:y plane, for instance, then the coordinates Zand 6 of Fig. 2/1 ure both zero, and R becomes the same as r. As men- tioned previously, the vast majority of the motions of points oF particles encountered in engineering practice can be represented as plane motion. [Before pursuing the description of plane curvilinear motion in any specific sot of coordinates, we will rst use veetor analysis to describe the motion, since the results will be independent of any particular coor- dinate system. What follows in thie article constitutes one of the most basic concepts in dynamies, namely, the time derivative of a veetor ‘Much analysis in dynamics utilizes the time rates of change of vector ‘quantities. You are therefore well advised to master this topie at the ‘outset hecause you will have frequent occasion to use it. Consider now the continuous motion of a particle along a plane curve as represented in Fig. 2/5. At time ¢ the particle is at position A, which is located by the position vector r measured from some convenient fixed ori- gi O. HbA the eagnitude and direction of rare known at time ¢, them the position of the particle is complotely specified. At time f + Af, the par- ticle is at A’, located hy the position vector x + Ar. We note, of course, ‘that this combination is vector addition and not scalar addition. The dis- placement of the particle during time Aris the vector Ar which represents, the vector change of position snd is clearly independent of the choice of origin. If an origin were chosen at sone different location, the position vector F would be changed, but Ar would be unchanged. The distance ac- tually traveled by the particle as it moves along the path from A to A’ is the scalar Jength 4s measured along the path. Thus, we distinguish be- ‘tween the vector displacement Ar and the sealar distance As, Velocity ‘The average velocity of the particle between A and A’ is defined as Vay = Ar/At, which is a vector whose direction is that of Ar and whose ‘magnitude is the magnitude of Ar divided by At. The average speed of Path of | particle | baycle 2/3 the particle between A and A’ is the scalar quotient As/At. Clearly, the ‘magnitude of the average velocity and the speed approach one another 1a the interval Ay decreases and A and A’ become closer together: ‘The instantaneous velocity v of the particle is defined as the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero. Thus, We observe (hl the diseetivn: of Ar approwelues ual of th Gangent to ‘the path as A? approaches zero and, thus, the velocity v is always @ vec- tor tangent to the path. We now extend the basic definition of the derivative of a scalar quantity to include a vector quantity and write Pe | ae ‘The derivative of a vector is itself a vector having both a magnitude and direction. The magnitude of v is ealled the speed and is the scalar ds Wwi= 9 At this point we make a careful distinction between the magnitude of the derivative and the derivative of the magnitude. The magnitude of the derivative can be written in any one of the several ways |ddt || = & = |v = v and represents the magnitude of the velocity, or the speed, of the particle. On the other hand, the derivative of the magni- tude is written dir|at = drid = F, and represents the rate at which the length of the position vector r is changing. Thus, these two derivatives have two entirely different meanings, and we must be extremely careful to distinguish between them in our thinking and in our notation, For this and other reasons, you are urged to adopt a consistent notation for handwritten work for all vector quantities to distinguish them from scalar quantitios. For simplicity the underline v is recommended. Other ‘handwritten symbols such as 7, v, and 0 are sometimes used. With the concept of velocity as a vector established, we return to Fig. 25 and denote the velocity ofthe particle at A by the tangent vector v and ‘the velocity at A’ by the tangent v'. Clearly, there is a vector change in te velocity daring the Ginwe A¢. Tlie velucity vat A plus (yeetoially) Use ‘change Av must equal the velocity at A’, so we can write v’ ~ v = Av. In- spection of the Vector diagram shows that av depends both on the change jn magnitude (length) of v and on the change in direction of v. These two ‘changes ar fundamental characteristics ofthe derivative of a veetor. ‘Acceleration ‘The average acceleration of the particle between A and A’ is defined ‘as Avi, which is a vector whose direction is that of Aw. The magnitude of this average acceleration is the magnitude of Av divided by At Je Cu42_Chapter 2 3 of ticles ‘The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle is defined as the limiting value of the average acceleration as the time interval ap- proaches zero. Thus, ay ang By definition of the derivative, then, we write Ss “ As the interval Af bocomes smaller and approaches zoro, the direction of the change Av approaches that of the difforential change dv and, thus, of a. The acceleration a, then, includes the effects of both the change in ‘magnitude of v and the change of direction of v. It is apparent, in gen- eral, that the direction of the acceleration of a particle in curvilinear ‘motion is neither tangent to the path nor normal to the path. We do ob- serve, however, that the acceleration component which is normal to the path points toward the center of curvature of the path. Visualization of Motion ‘A further approach to the visualization of acceleration is shown in Fig. 2/6, where the position vectors to three arbitrary positions on the path of the particle are shown for illustrative purpose. There is a velocity ‘vector tangent to the path corresponding to each position voetor, and the relation is v = #. If these velocity vectors are now plotted from some ar- bitrary point C, a curve, called the hodograph, is formed. ‘The derivatives of these velocity vectors will be the acceleration vectors a = ¥ which are ‘tangent to the hodograph. We see that the accoleration has the same rv- lation to the velocity as the velocity has to the position vector. ‘The geometric portrayal of the derivatives of the position vector r and velocity vector v in Fig. 25 can be used to describe the derivative of any vector quantity with respect to t or with respect to any other scalar variable. Now that we have used the definitions of velocity and accelera- tion to introduce the concept of the derivative of a vector, itis important to establish he rules for differentiating vector quantities, These rules Figure 2/6,ti Je 2/4 _Rectangu a3 are the same as for the differentiation of scalar quantities, except for the cease of the cross product where the order of the terms must be pre- served, Those rules are covered in Art. (/7 of Appendix C and should he reviewed at this point. ‘Three different coordinate systems are commonly used for describing the vector relationships for curvilinear motion of a particle in a plane: rec tangular coordinates, normal and tangential coordinates, and polar coor- dinates. An important lesson to be learned from the study of these ‘coordinate systems is the proper choice of a reference aystem for a given problem. This choice is usually revealed by the manner in which the mo- tion is generated or by the farm in which the data are specified. Each of the three coordinate systems will now be developed and illustrated, 2/4 _Rectancutar Cooroinates (x-y) "Phis syste of cuurdiuales is pucticularly useful For deseribiay aio tions where the x- and y-components of aecoleration are independently generated or dotermined. The resulting curvilinear motion is then ob- tained by a vector combination of the x- and y-components of the posi- tion vector, the velocity, and the acceleration. Vector Representation "The particle path of Fig, 2/5 is shown again in Fig. 2/7 along with x and y-axes. The position vector r, the velocity v, and the acceleration ‘a of the particle as developed in Art. 2/8 are represented in Fig. 2/7 to- gether with their x- and y-components. With the aid of the unit vectors i and j, we can write the vectors x, v, and a in terms of their x- and y-components. Thus, (216) As wo diffarentiato with respeet to time, we observe that the time doi tives of the unit vectors are zero because their magnitudes and direc- tions remain constant. ‘Tho scalar values of the components of v and a are merely vg = uy ~ J and ay = 0, ~ ¥, ay = 0, = J. (As drawn in Fig. 2/7, a, is in the negative x-direction, so that % would bo a negative umber.) ‘As observed previously, the direction of the velocity is always tan- gent to the path, and from the figure itis elear that @aattae a= ara, Ifthe angle # is measured counterclockwise from the x-axis to v for the configuration of axes shown, then we can also observe that dyjdx tan 0 = 0/0,Chapter 2 If the coordinates x and y are known independently as functions of time,x = f,(0) andy = f,(0), then for any value of the time we ean com- bine them to obtain x. Similarly, we combine their first derivatives & ‘and 5) to obtain v and their second derivatives and J to obtain a, On the other hand, if the acceleration components a, and a, are given as functions of the time, we can integrate each one separately with re- spect to time, once to obtain v, and v, and again to obtain x = fy(P) and 4 = fa(f) Elimination of the time t between these last two parametric ‘equations gives the equation of the curved path y = f(). From the foregoing discussion we ean see that the rectangular- coordinate representation of eurvilinear motion is merely the superposi- tion of the components of two simultaneous rectilinear motions in the -x- and y-direetions. Therefore, everything covered in Art. 2:2 on reetilin- ‘ear motion can be applied separately to the a-motion and to the y-motion. Projectile Motion An important application of two-dimensional Kinematic theory 18, the problem of projectile motion. For a first treatment of the subject, ‘we neglect aerodynamic drag and the curvature and rotation of the earth, and we assume that the altitude change is small enough so that the acceleration due to gravity ean be considered constant. With these assumptions, rectangular coordinates are useful for the trajectory analysis, For the axes shown in Fig. 2/8, the acceleration components are 4-0 a= -8 Integration of these accelerations follows the results obtained previ- ‘ously in Art, 2/2a for constant acceleration and yields = (Qo (yy ~ at 0+ Cyt ~ fot ra xytlQgt 9» 2 = (oy)? — Baty — yo) In all these expressions, the subseript zero denotes initial conditions, frequently taken as those at launch where, for the case illustrated, epe= foeas 8 Figure 2/8Article 2/4_Rectangul finates (x-y) 45 Coo 4 ~ Yo = 0. Note that the quantity g is taken to be positive throughout this text. We can see that the x- and j-motions are independent for the simple projectile conditions under consideration. Elimination of the time ¢ be- ‘tween the x- and y-displacement equations shows the path to be parabolic ‘(see Sample Problem 2/6). If we were to introduce a drag force which de- ppends on the speed squared (for example), then the x-and y-motions would bbe coupled (interdependent), and the trajectory would be nonparabolic. When the projectile motion involves large velocitios and high alti- ‘tudes, to obtain accurate results we must aecount for the shape of the projectile, the variation of g with altitude, the variation of the air den- sity with altitude, and the rotation of the earth, These factors introduce considerable complexity into the motion equations, and numerical inte- «gration of the acceleration equations is usually necessary. ean Estee Reece ne46 Chapter 2 _Kinem: es of Sample jem 2/5 ‘The curvilinear motion of a particle is defined by v, = 50 ~ 161 andy = 100 ~ 442, where v, is in meters per second, y is in meters, and tis in seconds. tis alao known that x = O when ¢ ~ 0. Plot the path ofthe particle and deter- ‘mine its velocity and acceleration when the position y ~ 0 is reached. Solution. The «-coordinate is obtained by integrating the expression for ¢., ‘and the x-component of the acceleration is obtained by differentiating v,. Thus, [Jefe] flac [/s0-sm.a <=s0e-sem fa, = 8 Bone 60-160 ‘The y-components of weloity and acceleration are = Daw ee =H = £00 — 44) 8 mi a le) a= Seah a= ~8mi? We now caleulate corresponding values ofx and for various values of¢ and plot x against y to obtain the path as shown. ‘When, = 0,0= 100 ~ 4+4,s0% = 6. For thia value ofthe time, we have 30 mis », = 50 ~ 1665) 2 = 815) = —40 me 407% = 50 mis = CIS +8 = 17.59 mit 07 = ‘The velocity and accoleration components and their resultants are shown on the separate diagrams for point A, where y = 0. Thus, for this condition we may write 304 ~ 40) mis 164 — af mis* Ane, 0 0) 3 & 10) 20 tasa/] 03040 A 80 Path Path se2-t0mis gy 218 mie / Le Jay =-sme i a= 1780 me cy=-40 mis Helpful Hint We observe that the velocity veetor lica along the tangent to the path as it should, but that the acceleration vector is mot tangent to the path. Note ecpo- cially thatthe acceleration voctar has a component that points toward the in- side of the curved path. We eonchuded from our diagram in Fig. 25 that it ix impossible forthe acceleration to have a component that pointe toward the out- side of the curve,Article 2/4 Rectangular Co Sample jem 2/6 A rocket has expended all its fuel when it reaches position A, where it has a velocity of w at an angle # with respect to the horizontal It then begins unpow= cred flight and attains a maximum added height ’ at position B after traveling a Ihovizontal distances from A. Determine the expressions for hand, the time tof fight from A to B, and the equation of the path, For the interval concerned, as- ‘sume a flat earth with a constant gravitational acceleration g and neglect any at ‘mospheric resistance. Solution. Since ai! motion components are directly expressible in terms of horizontal and vertical coordinates, « rectangular eet of axes sy will be em- © ployed. With the neglect of atmospheric resistance ~ 0 and a, = ~x, and the rosulling motion isa diret superpaition of two reiinear motions with com stant acceleration, Thus, omer = (leet eer ten? Idx, usin ~gt yet (Pca [ica tay= ode) y= [use giidt —y=atsino— hee Position B is reached when v, = Ane, Substitution ofthis value for the time into the expression for y gives the maxi- ‘mum added altitude non tnd) ao — Be (ane F noise a he te apes Stab ® sa u(#84) cove Ans whichis clearly a maximum when # = 45°. The equation ofthe path is obtained by eliminating # from the expressions for x and y, which gives a9 -Pd as © This equation describes a vertical parabola as indicated in the figure. Helpful Hints © Note that this problem is simply the Aescription nf projectile motion ne- slecting atmosphere resistance, @® We sce thatthe total range and time of ight for a projectile fired above a horizontal plane would be twice the respective values of s apd ¢ given here, @ Lf atmospheric resistance were to be accounted for, the dependency of the ‘ccsleration components on the ver locity would have 10 be established before an integration of the equa- tions could he carried) out. ‘This be- comes a much more difficalt problem.at Chapter 2 PROBLEMS (in the following problems where motion as projectile in alr Is involved, neglect alr resistance unless otherwise stated and use g = 9.81 mis! or g = 92.2 fesec!) Introductory Problems 2/61 At time ¢ = 10 5, the velocity ofa particle moving in thexy planes v= + 0.11 +2) mia. By timer = 10.15, its velocity has become ~0.1i + 1.8) ave. Determine the magnitude da, of its average aceeleration during this interval and the angle # made by the average ac- coloration with the positive x-axis. ‘Ans. Oy = 2.83 mist, 28° 2/62 A particle which moves with curvilinear motion has courts in millers which vary witht tne trocomds sccuding ox = 2 — Arend = 41 Defer he magetinde afte wot wad so: celeration a and the anges which thee vetom ‘inka wh theses winn =a 2/63 A particle which moves in two-dimensional motion thas coordinates given in Inches by x = ¢? ~ 47 + 20 and y = 3 sin 2, where the time fis in seeonds. De- termine the magnitudes ofthe yolocity v and the ac- celeration a and the angle @ between these two vectors at times = 3 see “Ans. = 6.10 in /see, a = 8.90 in,see e=u6T 2/64 For a certain interval of motion the pin A is foreed to ‘move in the fixed parabolic slot by the horizontal slotted arm which is elevated in the y-direction at the constant rato of 3 in./see. All measurements are in inches and seconds. Caleulate the velocity v and acceleration @ ofpin A when x ~ 6 in Problem 2/64 2/65 The partile P moves along the curved slot, a portion of which is shown. Its distance in meters measured ‘along the alot is given hy » = 2/4, where ¢ is in see- fonds. The particle is at A when f = 2.00 8 and at when = 2.20 8, Determine the magnitude @,, of the average neceleration of P between A and B. Also ex- press the acceleration asa vector a, using unit vee- tors andj Ans yy © 2.76 rst 8, = 2.261 — 1.880) mist 2/68 "To sd ymntions of uid A a with ght ange slot contra the earlier motion of the cn. teting pin P wich eve in tth sot For ach interval, the motions ae governed by f= 203i? and y = 15 ~ £15, where x and y are in millimeters fd sin sotnds, Calculate the magaltdes ofthe telociy¥ and sceration a ofthe pn for #2 Sketch he dection of th path and nde = oture for this natant.2/67 The positon vector ofa point which moves in the x9 plane is given by (eet ‘aprons ti nig vn hare 2/68 The rectangular coordinates of a particle moving In| the xe plane are given by x = 3 eos-4 andy = 2 sin 4, where the time is in seconds and.x and y are in feet Sketch the postion r, velocity ¥, and acceleration at time f= 14 see and determine the angles ti be- ‘ween Vand a and J between Fund a. 2/69_A long jumper approaches his takeoff board A with a horizontal velocity of $0 Musee, Determine the vert- cal component v, ofthe velocity of his center of grav- ity at takeoff for him to make the jump shown, What is the vertical rise h of his center of gravity? ‘Ans, v, = 11.81 fsee, h = 2.16 ft be as Problem 2/69 2/10 If the barrel of the rifle shown is aimed at point A, compute the distance & elow A to the point B where ‘he tne strikes, The uiuzzle velucity is G00 ws 2/11 The center of mass @ of w high jumper follows the trajectory shown, Determine the component vg, mea- sured in the vertical plane of the igure, of hia take- off velocity and angle 0 if the apex of the trajectory jst clears the bar at A. (In general, must the mass center G of the jumper cloar the bar during a sue- cessful jump?) Ans. uy = 16.83 Rise, 0 = 66.8" ‘Problem 2/71 2/72 With what minimum horizontal velocity u can a boy ‘Uhrow rock at A and have it just clear the obstrac- tion at 2? ape 2/73 Prove the well-known result tha, for a given launch speed ey, the launch angle # = 45° yields the maxi- ‘mum horizontal range R. Determine the maximum ange. (Note that this result does not hold when aerodynamic drag is included in the analysis) ‘Ans. Ry = a50 Chapter? _Kinem: sof Particles 2/T4 Water issues from the nozzle at A, which is 5 ft above the ground. Determine the coordinates of the point of impact of the stream if the initial water speed is (a) Uy = 45 see and (b) vp = 60 fs. 2/75 Blestcos sce ented st A wie a elects a at te angle # into the cpaco botwoon two charged plates. The cleetric field between the plates is in the direction ‘aul cupely (ue wlateons wpcvurhtey te upper pale ‘The field produces an acceleration of the electrons in the Bdireetion ofem, where e isthe elactron charge land m ie its mas, Determine the field strength ‘which will permit the electrons to crm one-half ofthe ap between the plates, Also find the distances, is B= me siO 8,5 = 2b cot Problem 2/75 2/16 A small airplane lying horizontally with a speed of 100 wis al at llatude of 400 Nalevrea seu vale ley drops an emergency medical package at A. The package has a parachute which deploys at J and al- sant rate of 6 Wisc. UF the drop is designed wo that the package is to reach the ground 37 seconds after release at A, determine the horizontal lead Lo that the package hits the target. Neglect atmospheric re- sistance from A to B. 180 mir ‘Tangets k L | Problem 2/76 a/77 A projectile 8 ated with a velocity W atthe entrance AG A to.a horizontal tunnel of length Zand height 1. [Determine the minimum value of w and the corre- sponding value of the angle # for which the projectile will reach B at the other end of the tunnel without touching the top of the tannel, fu gt J+ 0 = tan” as) kL B -| Problem 2/77 [A rocket is released at point A trom a Jet atreratty- {ng horizontally at 1000 anh at an altitude of 800 m. {fthe rocket thrust remains horizontal and gives the rocket a horizontal acceleration of 0.4, determine the angle # from the horizontal tothe line of sight to the target <4 r a Problem 2/782/19 A projectile is launched from point A with the initial conditions shown in the figure. Determine the slant distance # which locates the point B of impact. Cal- culate the time of fight. 1057 m, ¢= 19.50 Problem 2/7 2/80 An outfielder experiments with two different trajec: tories for throwing to home plate from the postion shown: (a) vp = 140 fUsoe with # = 8" and (8) v= 120 fisee with # = 12". For each set of initial eondi- tions, determine the time ¢ required for the baseball to reach home plate and the altitude A as the ball crosses the plate Problem 2/80 2/81 A long-range arillory rifle at A is aimed at an angle ‘of 45° with the horizontal, and its shell is just able to clear the mountain peak at the top ofits trajectory. Determine the magnitude u of the muzzle velocity, the height ZY of the mountain above sea level, and the range R tothe esa, ‘Ans. = 396 mis, = 4600 m, = 16.58 km 2/82 A football player attempts w 30-yd fick goal. Ihe is able to impart a velocity u of 100 ftsce to the ball, compute the minimum angle @ for which the ball will lear the crossbar ofthe goal, int: Lat m = tan @) ee Problem 2/82 ‘83 If the tennis player serves the ball horizontally @ = ©), calculate its velocity © if the center of the ball clears the 36-in. net by 6 in. Also find the distance ¢ from the net to the point where the ball hits the court surface, Nogloet air resistance and the effect of ball sin. Ans.» = 70.0 fisec, 8 = 11.85 ft Problem 2/83 ‘94 IC the tennis player shown in Prob, 2/88 serves the ball with velocity © of 80 mifhr at the angle @ = 5°, calculate the vertical clearance fof the center of the hall above the net and the distance » from the net ‘where the ball hits the court surface. Neglect air re- sistance and the effeet of ball spin. /A5 A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 200 ‘mis at an angle of 60° with respect to the horizontal. ‘Compute the range R as measured up the inctine. ‘Ans. R= 2970 Problem 2/812/86 A boy throws a all upward witha speed up = 12 ms ‘The wind imparts w horizontal acceleration of 04 mis? to the left. At what angle @ must the ball be thrown so that it returns to the point of release? Ascume that ‘the wind docs not affect the vertieal motion Wind IWTITINTITII Problem 2/86 2/87 ‘The muzale velocity of a long-range rifle at Ais u = 400 je. Ratarmine the twn angles af slovation @ wih wil peril he prajeutite to Bit the saute, target 3. Ans. 6; = 26.1, = 80.6" Problem 2/87 2/88 In the eathode-ray tube, eleetrons traveling horizon- tally from their aurce with the velocity 1 are de- flected by an electric field E due to the voltage aradient across the plates P. The deflecting foree causes an acceleration in the vertical direction on ‘the sketch oqual to Bim, whore ¢ is the electron charge and m is its mass, When clear of the plates, the electrons travel in straight lines. Determine the expression for the deflection 5 for the tube and plate dimensions shown, ‘Problem 2/88 2/89 To mect design criteria, small ball bearings must Dounce through an opening of limited size at the top of thelr trajectory when rebounding from a heavy plate as shown, Caleuate the angle # made by the re- ound velocity with the horizontal and the wolocity » of the balls as they pass through the opening. ‘Ane. 0= 68.2, = 1.258 mis 2/90 A team of engineering students is designing a eata- pat to launch a small ball at A so that it lands inthe box. If it is known that the initial velocity vector ‘makes @ 30° angle with the horizontal, determine the range of launch speeds vy for which the ball will land inside the box.cle 2/4 ms 53 2/91 A horweshoe player releases the horseshoe at A with an inital peed vy ~ 36 ft/soe. Dotormine the range for the launch angle 0 for which the shoe will strike the Ldn. vertical stake Ana. $1.0" =0= 343° or 53.1 = 0= 547° Problem 2/91 2/92 Determine the location h of the spot toward which the pitcher must throw if the hall isto hit the eatcher's ‘mitt, The hall is released with a speed of 0 mv —_ en 22m es Problem 2/82 2/95 A projectile is fred with a velocity u at right angles to the elope, which is ineined at an angle @ with the hhorizontal. Devive an expression for the distance to the point of impact. Ans R= ten see € Problem 2/93 2/94 The basketball player likes to release his foul shots at an angle # = 50° to the horizontal as shown. What initial speed vy will cause the ball to pass through the center ofthe vim? 2/95 A projectile is launched feom point A and lands on. ‘the aame level at D. ts maximum altitude ish, De- termine and plot the fraction fo of the total light ‘time that the projectile is ubove the lovel fh, where {fra fraction which egn vary from zero to 1. State ‘the value of fs for fy = j Problem 2/95 2/96 A projectile is launched from point A with an intial spood vp = 100 fee. Determine the minimum value fof the launch angle « for which the projectile will land at point.54 Chapter 2 Kinematics of Particles »2/97 A projectile is ejected into an experimental fluid at time 1 = 0. The initial speed is uy and the angle to the horizontal isu. The drag on the projectile results in an acceleration term ap = hv, where his a eon stant and ¥ is the veloity of the projectile. Detee- ‘mine the x- and y-components of both the velocity land displacement as functions of time. What is the terminal velocity? Include the effects of gravitational acceleration, ncose i Ans. 0, = (ey e08 Oe a-e% sgelionas lon =}opamo+ goP (sine 7 Oye Problem 2/97 '»2/98 A projectile is launched from point A with the inital conditions shown inthe figure. Determine the x- and ‘y-coordinatos of the point of impact. Ana. <= 1242 ty = 62.78 2/99 An object which is released from rest from the top A >a of a tower of height will appoar not to fall straigiat down due tothe effect ofthe earth's rotation. It may’ be shown thatthe object has an eastward horizontal ceeleration relative to the horizontal surface of the earth equal to 20, cos 7, where v, is the freefall downward velocity, « is the angular velocity of the earth, and y is the latitude, north or south. Deter- ‘mine the deflection ® if A= 1000 ft and y= 30° north, From Table D(3, 1 = 0.7292(10-4) rad/see and from Fig. U/L g = 92.18 Asoc" Kast Problem 2/99 A projectile is launched with speedy from point A Determine the launch angle # which results in the ‘maximum range H up the incline of angle a (where = a = 9), Bvaluste your results for a = 0, 3°, and 45" 9a, Ans. 0 45", 60, 675°2/5 _Normat ano TANGeNtia Cooroinates (n-t) ‘Ao we mentioned in Art. $/1, one of the common deccriptions of curvilinear motion uses path variables, which are measurements made along the tangent ¢ are normal mw the path of the particle. These eoor- dinates provide a very natural description for curvilinear motion and are frequently the most direct and convenient coordinates to use. The rn- and f-coordinates are considered to move along the path with the par- licle, as seen in Fig. 2/9 where the particle advances from A tw B to C. ‘The positive direction for w at any position is always taken toward the center of curvature of the path. As seen from Fig. 2/9, the positive n-direction will shift from one side of the curve to the other side if the curvature changes direction. Velocity and Acceleration Wo now use the coaedinates n and ¢ to doseribe the volocity v and acceleration a which wore introduced in Art. 2/3 for the curvilinear mo- tion of a particle. For this purpose, we introduce unit vectors e, in the direction and e, in the t-direction, as shown in Fig. 2/10a for the posi- tion of the partiele at point A on its path. During a differential inere- ment of time d¢, the particle moves a differential distance ds along the ‘curve from A to A’. With the radius of curvature of the path at this posi- tion designated by p, we see that ds = p df, where B is in radians. It is ‘unnecessary to consider the differential change in p between A and A’ because a higher-order term would be introduced which disappears in ‘the limit, Thus, the magnitude of the velocity can be written v = ds(dt = p-dpide, and we can write the velocity as the veetor ‘The acceleration a of the particle was defined in Art. 2/8 as a = dvldt, and we observed from Fig. 2/5 that the acceleration is a vector which reflects both the change in magnitude and the change in direc- tion of v. We now differentiate v in Eq. 2/7 by applying the ordinary rule for the differentiation of the product of a scalar and a vector? and get is) ‘where the unit veetor e, now has a nonzero derivative because its diree- tion changes. ‘To find é, we analyze the change in e, during a differential incre- ‘mont of motion as the pasticle moves from A to A’ in Fig. 2/10a. The unit vector e, correspondingly changes to e;, and the vector difference de, is shown in part b of the figure. The veetor de, in the limit has a ‘magnitude equal to the length of the are |e dB — dB obtained by swinging tho unit voctor e, through tho anglo df oxprossed in radians. “See Art, C7 of Appendix C. ge, s a ® Figure 2/1056 Chapter? 3 of ticles ‘The direction of de, is given by e,. Thus, we can write de, = e, df. Di- viding by dB gives de, ap Dividing by dt gives de,/dt = (dpideve,, which can be written (ori) “ With the substitution of Eq. 2/9 and 6 from the relation v 28 for the acceleration bocomes eS) ais where We may also note that a, = 6 = digyide = pi + jy. This elation, how. cover, finds little use because we seldom have reason to compute jr Geometric interpretation Full understanding of Bq. 2/10 comes only when we clearly see the sscometry of the physical changes it deseribes. Figure 2/10 shows the ve- locity veetor v when the particle is at A and v' when itis a4’. The vector change in the velocity is dv, which establishes the direction of the acceler- ation a. The n-component of dv is labeled dy, and in the limit its magni- ‘tude equals the length of the are generated by swinging the vector v as a radius through the angle d8. Thus, |dv,| = v df and the n-component of accoleration is @, = |dv,|dt = uidpidt) = vB as before. The t-component. ‘of dv is labeled dy, and its magnitude is simply the change du in the mag- nitude or length of the velocity vector. Therefore, the f-component of ae- celeration is a; = duidt = i = % as before. The acceleration vectors resulting from the corresponding vector changes in velocity are shown in Fig 2/106, It is especially important to observe that the normal component of acceleration a, is always directed toward the center of curvature C. The ‘tangential component of acceleration, on the other hand, will be in the postive -direction of motion if the speed vis increasing and in the noga- tive tdirection if the speed is decreasing. In Fig. 2/11 are shown schematic representations of the variation in the acceleration vector for ‘particle moving from A to B with (a) increasing speed and (6) decreas- ing speed. At an inflection point on the curve, the normal acceleration .2/p goes to zero because p becomes infinite