Engineering Physics (BE)

PHYSICS

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THEORY (FM=100 )add text PRACTICAL (FM=50)

FINAL (FM=80) ASSES. (FM=20) EXPT. (FM=30) ASSES. (FM=20)

Note: 1) Theory Asses. Exam will be taken on Scheduled date from
chapter- 1, 2, 4.1, 4.2, 5, 7 & 8.
2) Practical Asses. Exam will be taken on Scheduled date after
doing all eight Expt.
 Reference Books
1) Fundamental of physics: Hallliday, Resnick & Walker
2) A Text book of optics: Brizlal & Subrahmanyam
3) Waves & Oscillation:
Click to Brizlal
add text & Subrahmanyam
4) Fundamentals of Eng. Physics: Bhadra Pokhrel, ..
5) A Text book of Eng. Physics: Tika Ram Lamichhane,..
6) Essential of Eng. Physics: Krishna Raj Adhikari

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CHAPTER-1: Oscillation
1.1 Mechanical Oscillation
The motion of a particle which oscillates or vibrates
about mean position, when it is displaced from its
equilibrium or mean position mechanically by means
of any way and then released is called mechanical
oscillation. The oscillation may be of following three
types:
i) Free oscillation
ii) Damped oscillation
iii) Forced oscillation
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1.1.1 Introduction of Simple Harmonic Motion
The motion of a particle that repeats itself after a
regular interval of time is called Simple Harmonic
Motion (SHM) and the particle is said to be in
oscillation. For example, the to and fro motion of a
simple pendulum, the up and down motion of a loaded
spring, the twisting and untwisting motion of a wire
used in torsional pendulum, etc.. The particle,
executing SHM, completes one oscillation or cycle or
vibration when the motion of the particle exactly
repeats its motion at once.
Mean or equilibrium position; Extreme position;
Restoring force
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1.1.2 Projection of a particle, describing
uniform circular motion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cx-qHZwsLqs

5
 Contd…
(i)Displacement (y) : The distance of a particle,
executing SHM, from the mean position at an instant of
time, t is called displacement (y) of the particle at that
instant of time which is represented by the equation
, where ‘ω’ represents angular velocity and ‘a’
represents maximum displacement which is called
amplitude.
If be the initial phase of the particle, executing SHM,
then the displacement is represented by
(ii)Velocity(v):The velocity of a particle, executing SHM,
at an instant of time represents the rate of change
displacement at that instant of time which is
given by the equation
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1.1.3 Characteristics of SHM

7
Contd..
iii) Acceleration (ac) : The acceleration of a particle,
executing SHM, at an instant of time represents the
rate of change velocity at that instant of time which is
given by the equation
(iv) Time period (T) : The time period of a particle,
executing SHM, represents the time taken by the
particle to complete one vibration or oscillation which
is given by the equation
(v) Frequency (f) : The frequency of a particle,
executing SHM, represents the number of vibration
completed by the vibrating particle per second. So,

8
Contd…
(vi) Phase ( ) : The phase of a particle, executing SHM, at
an instant of time represents its state, i.e. position and
direction at that instant regarding the mean position in
positive direction. The phase of a vibrating particle (M) at
an instant of time can be represented by the angle covered
by the reference particle (P) at that instant since M last
passed through its mean position in the positive direction.
Also, it can be represented by the fraction of time period
that has elapsed since the vibrating particle last passed
through its mean position in the positive direction. Again,
it can be represented by the fraction of wavelength of the
wave that has covered since the vibrating particle last
passed through its mean position in the positive direction.
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1.2.2 Average Kinetic Energy of a particle,
executing SHM
Ins. K.E. is given by

So,

10
 1.2.3 Total Energy of a particle, executing SHM

e have
nd corresponding restoring force is
,
hus,
ence,

nally,

hich is a constant but independent of displacement.

11
1.2.4 Equation for free oscillation and solution
In the absence of resisting forces, the body oscillates
with its natural frequency such that the amplitude
always remains constant as shown in figure which
indicates that the total energy of the oscillating body
always remains constant and such a oscillation is
called free or undamped oscillation.

12
Contd…
For a vibrating body of mass ‘m’ at a displacement ‘y’

where
But, for free oscillation, the total energy (E) always
remains constant. So, E= Constant
i.e.
On differentiating w.r.t. t, we have
which represents eq. for free oscill.

and solution will be

13
1.2.5 Force law for a particle, describing SHM
For a particle of mass ‘m’, executing SHM, restoring force
is
where which is called force constant

Thus, the time period of the particle, executing SHM, is

In practice, a block-spring system represents a linear

harmonic oscillator because the force (F) α y
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1.2.6 SHM of a block with mass, m, suspended
in a spring (Block-Spring System)
At the equilibrium
position, i.e. at C, A
F=-W
i.e. –kl = -mg
i.e. ------(1)
B
As the block displaces C
through a displacement
D
‘y’ from its equilibrium
position, i.e. at D, then

15
Contd…
F ' = - k (l+y) ------(2)
So, the net force acting on the block is given by
FNet = F '-F = -{k(l+y)} - {-kl} = -ky
But, FNet = m ac = m
Thus, = -ky

i.e. ---(3), which is similar to differential

equation for SHM, i.e. ----(4) so that the
system describes SHM such that -----(5)
and its Time period is , by (1) ---(6)

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Contd…
Special Cases:
(i) If two identical springs, each of spring constant 'k' ,
are suspended in parallel from a rigid support and a
block of mass, m is suspended at the common point
of lower ends of the two springs, then the new spring
constant is given by k' = 2k so that the new time
period is
(ii) If two identical springs, each of spring constant 'k' ,
are suspended in series from a rigid support and a
block of mass, m is suspended at the lower end of the
last spring, then the new spring constant is given by
k' = k/2 so that the new time period is
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1.2.7 Compound ( Physical) Pendulum
A rigid body of any shape, suspended from a point S
(called point of suspension), such that it is free to
oscillate about a fixed horizontal axis passing through
S is called compound (physical) pendulum.

18
Contd…
If the rigid body is displaced from its equilibrium
position such that the line joining S ad G makes an
angle with the vertical line, a restoring torque
(moment), about the horizontal axis passing through
the point of suspension (S) equal to –mgl comes to
play so that
But,
where I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body
about the horizontal axis passing through S.
Thus, (if )

i.e. -------(1)
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Contd…
Again, by using theorem of parallel axis,
where which represents the moment of inertia
of the rigid body about the horizontal axis passing
through the centre of gravity, G & K is radius of gyration
So, ------(2)
By using (1) & (2), ------(3)
This equation (3) is similar to standard differential
equation for SHM, i.e. so the compound
pendulum describes SHM and ---(4)

and Time period is ---(5)

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Contd…
Here, the quantity is called equivalent length of
simple pendulum, because the simple pendulum of this
length will have this time period.
Again, a point O at a distance equal to equivalent length
of simple pendulum from the point of suspension along
the line SG is called point of oscillation so that
. Thus, , since
. If the compound pendulum is inverted and made
to oscillate about the horizontal axis passing through O,
then the point O represents the new point of suspension
while the point S represents new point of oscillation so
that the distance of new point of suspension from C.G. is
..
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Contd…
Hence, the new time period is given by
-------(6)

which is exactly equal to T, i.e. the time period for the

compound pendulum with the point of suspension, S.
It indicates that the point of suspension and the point
of oscillation in compound pendulum are
interchangeable.

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23
1.2.8 Bar Pendulum
A bar pendulum is a special case of compound
pendulum. It is a rectangular metal bar of about 1m in
length, 5 cm in breadth and 0.5 cm in thickness which
consists of a number of holes at equal distance as shown
in figure-1.
The bar pendulum is allowed to oscillate about the knife
edge by fitting in each hole. In this process, the distance
between the knife edge and C.G. (denoted by l) and
corresponding time period (denoted by T) in each case
are measured. On drawing the graph between l (taken in
X-axis) and T (taken in Y-axis) for both sides of C.G., we
get two curves as shown in figure-2.

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Contd…

Fig-1 : Bar Pendulum

Fig-2 : Graph for l versus T of Bar Pendulum

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Contd…
From figure-2 , we can draw the following conclusions:
For the same time period, T, there are two positions on
either side of C.G., i.e. A and B in one side and C and D in
another side of C.G.. It indicates that a bar pendulum has
two lengths, i.e. l1 = AE and l2 = BE in one side while l1 = DE
and l2 = CE in another side of C.G. for which the time
period is same. It can be verified mathematically. From the
expression for time period of compound
pendulum, ------ (1)
i.e. , which is quadratic
equation in ‘ l ' so that the solutions are:

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Contd…
------- (2)

--------- (2)

And ------- (3)

As shown in fig-2, the time period is minimum, when

which is possible only when
& hence the corresponding length is given by


From the expression for time period, T is infinite as l tends to
zero. It indicates that the time period of bar pendulum
increases enormously as the point of suspension approaches
to C.G..

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Contd….
From equation (2) & (3),
i.e. ------ (4)

Here, represents equivalent length of Simple

pendulum. In fig-2, AE= DE = l1 where as BE = CE = l2.
So, l1 + l2 = AE+CE = AC or, l1 + l2 = DE + BD = BD. On
substituting l = l1 in equation (1), we get
----- (5)
On comparing equation (4) & (5), we have
----- (6)

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1.2.9 Torsional Pendulum

It is a solid body of any shape

which is suspended from a rigid
support with the help of a thin
cylindrical metal wire such that
the solid body describes twisting
and untwisting motion. If the
solid body is twisted through an
angle from the equilibrium
position about the vertical axis
passing through its C.G., the
metal wire (through which the Fig-1: Torsional Pendulum
solid body is suspended) gets
twisted by the same angle .

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Contd…
Thus, due to elastic deformation, the wire exerts a
torsional couple where (by the
knowledge of elasticity) which represents the couple
per unit angle twist. Here, 'r' & ‘ l ' be the radius and
length of the wire respectively and 'η' is the modulus
of rigidity of the wire. If I be the moment of Inertia of
the solid about the axis of rotation, then the couple,
i.e. rotational force is represented by
i.e. ------ (1)
This equation is similar to standard differential
equation for SHM, i.e. ----- (2)

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Contd…
So, torsional pendulum describes SHM & by equating
equations (1) and (2), we have ----- (3)

Thus, time period is given by ---- (4)

It is noted that the time period of torsional pendulum
is not changed even if the amplitude is large provided
that the elastic limit of the suspension wire is not
exceeded.
A modification of torsional pendulum is called inertia
table. It consists of a circular disc, D which is suspended
horizontally by thin metal wire, AB as shown in fig-2 . It
is used for the following two purposes:
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Contd…..
The quality factor in forced LCR oscillation at
resonance is also represented by

where are frequencies corresponding to the

current, ,i.e. half of maximum power in the
circuit, on either side of maximum current and
is the band width of the circuit.

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Contd…
• To determine the modulus
of rigidity 'η' of material of
the metal wire through
which the inertia table is
suspended:-
After leveling the inertia
table by using the three
weights, the time period of
torsional oscillation is
measured experimentally
which is represented by
------ (5) Fig-2: Inertia Table

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Contd…
Then, a solid body of known M. I. about the axis of
rotation 'I1' such as circular ring is placed on the inertia
table and new time period is measured experimentally
which is represented by ----- (6)
Click to add text
Again, the same procedure is repeated by keeping
another experimental solid body of unknown M. I. about
the axis of rotation, 'I2' after removing the first solid body
and corresponding time period is measured
experimentally which is represented by

----- (7)
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Contd….
On squaring and subtracting equations (5) and (6), we
have

But, and
where 'M' is mass, 'R1' & 'R2' are internal & external
radii respectively for above circular ring.
Thus,

i.e. ----- (8)

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Contd…
To determine the M. I. of the experimental solid body
about the axis of rotation (suspension wire)
On squaring & subtracting equations (5) & (6),we have
---- (9)
On squaring & subtracting equations (5) &(7),we have
----- (10)
On dividing equations (10) by (9), we have
so that ------ (11)

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1.3 Damped and Forced Oscillation
The free oscillation of a body is, in fact, ideal only
which occurs in the absence of resistive force. But, in
practice, a resistive force always exists during
oscillation so that energy is dissipated in each
oscillation and hence the amplitude decreases
continuously as the time increases as shown in fig-1.1.
Consequently, the body comes to rest after a while and
such an oscillation of the body is called damped
oscillation. If an external periodic force is applied on
damped oscillation so as to make constant amplitude,
then the system is called forced (or driven)
oscillation.

37
Contd…..

38
1.3.1 Equation for damped oscillation and solution
For a particle, executing damped oscillation, the force
(F) acting is balanced by restoring force (Fres) and
resistive or frictional force (Ffric), i.e. F = Fres + Ffri
But, , where m and y be the mass and
displacement of the particle.
, where k is force const. and –ve
sign indicates opposing nature of Fres
, where is damping const. & –ve
sign indicates opposing nature
Thus, (1.1)
which represents diff. equ. for damped oscillation.
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Contd…..
Equation (1.1) is similar to general diff. equation
(1.2)
where (1.3)
The possible solution of equation (1.2) is
where A is a constant
(1.4)
On putting the values of in equation (1.2),
we have (1.5)
So, the two solutions of equation (1.4) are:
and (1.6)
where A1 and A2 are constants
40
Contd…..
Thus, the general solution is
(1.7)
Special cases:
i) The quantity is imaginary, if (which
represents under-damped case where the damping is
so low, i.e. amplitude is oscillatory).
ii)The quantity is zero,if (which represents
critically damped case where the amplitude is
oscillatory)
iii) The quantity is real, if (which represents
over-damped case where the damping is so high, i.e.
amplitude is not oscillatory).
41
Contd….
At under-damped case,
(1.8)
Thus,

(1.9)
where
From the study of equation (1.9), we can conclude that
the amplitude of damped oscillation depends upon
time and it is equal to ae-bt which decays as the time
increases.
42
Contd….
Further, the time during which the amplitude drops to
of its initial value is called mean life time of
oscillation so that
(1.10)
The amplitude versus time curve for damped
oscillation is shown in fig-1.2.

43
Contd….
Again, from equation (1.8),

(1.11)

So, (1.12)

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1.3.2 Equation for forced oscillation and solution
For a system, executing forced oscillation, the force (F)
acting on the system is balanced by restoring force
(Fres), resistive or frictional force (Ffric), and external
periodic force (Fext) i.e. F = Fres + Ffri + Fext
Thus,
where is the angular frequency and F0 is the
amplitude of the external periodic force.
i.e. (1.1)
which represents differential equation for forced
oscillation.

45
Contd….
The solution of equation (1.1) is represented by
(1.2)
But from the general solution for damped oscillation,
where ,
Thus, the general solution of forced oscillation will
include both the particular solutions for damped and
forced oscillation. Hence,
(1.3)

Also, (1.4)

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1.3.3 Resonance and Sharpness of Resonance
The general solution for forced oscillation is
represented by equation (1.3)

If the effect of viscosity of the medium is small, i.e. μ is

small, the amplitude of forced oscillation (since 1 st
term tends to zero after some time) is
(1.5)

The amplitude is maximum when denominator of

above expression is minimum which is possible when
and this state of forced
oscillation is called RESONANCE.
47
Contd….
Further, the amplitude will be infinite if μ is also zero at
resonance. In case of presence of friction, the
amplitude at resonance is (1.6)
From equation (1.5), it can be concluded that the amplitude
(A) of forced oscillation depends upon the difference
between the square of forced and natural frequencies of
oscillating particle, i.e. , and their relation is shown
by the graph as shown in fig-1.13. If maximum amplitude at
resonance falls sharply as ω'' is increased or decreased than
ω, then the resonance is said to be sharp. The curves X and
Y are drawn for different values of μ which indicates that
the sharpness of resonance increases as damping constant
decreases (μ).
48
Contd….

49
1.3.4 Power Dissipation and Quality Factor
in Damped Oscillation
In damped oscillation,
So,
and

Also, ,if
Hence, Total energy (E) = K.E. + P.E.
i.e.
Thus, av.e total energy in each cycle if e-2bt = constant is

50
Contd…..
But,
Thus,

If damping is low,
Hence,
where
Then, average power dissipation (loss) in each cycle is
given by
i.e. (1.1)

51
Contd….
The sharpness of resonance is inversely to the
damping constant (μ) which can be represented in
terms of Quality Factor (Q). It represents the
efficiency of the oscillating system which measures its
quality related to damping. The Quality Factor (Q) is
defined as 2π times of the ratio of energy stored to
average energy loss in one cycle.
Thus, (in each cycle)
i.e. Where T is time period of oscillation

52
1.4.1 Electromagnetic LC Oscillation
From the discovery of magnetic effect of current and vice-
versa, it is concluded that electricity and magnetism are
interrelated to each other so that electricity and magnetism
are taken as two faces of a coin. It is also noted that electrical
energy can be stored in a capacitor while magnetic energy can
be stored in inductor. As a charged capacitor is connected with
an inductor in an electrical circuit, electrical energy stored in
the capacitor decreases while magnetic energy associated with
inductor increases in same proportion. However, the inductor
does not allow the electric current to change suddenly to zero
so that the current flows continuously in decreasing order for
some time which charges the capacitor oppositely and hence
magnetic energy related to inductor converts into electrical
energy in capacitor again and so on.

53
Contd….
By this process, oscillation of energy of the capacitor's
electric field and inductor's magnetic field takes place
which is called electromagnetic oscillation.

54
1.4.2 Electromagnetic LC oscillation analogy to SHM
A block spring system describes SHM which has many
similarities with electromagnetic LC oscillation as
summarized below:
Types of Element Energy involved
oscillating involved
systems
Block-Spring Block and Potential Energy
system Spring Kinetic Energy

Capacitor- Capacitor Electric Energy

Inductor System and Magnetic Energy
Inductor

55
1.4.3 Expression for LC oscillation and solution
In LC oscillator, the total electromagnetic energy is
given by
On differentiating this equation with respect to time,

But, , since U is constant in LC oscillation.

Thus, ---(1.1), which is diff. equation for LC
oscillation.
The general sol. is ---- (1.2)
where 'q0' is amplitude of charge variation, 'ω' is ang.
frequency of LC oscillation and 'ϕ' is phase constant.

56
Contd….
So,
where represents amplitude of sinusoidal
varying current, I.
Again,

Click toof
On substituting the value add text
q and in equation (1.1),

i.e. i.e.

Thus

and
57
1.4.4 Expression for LCR oscillation and solution
(Damped Oscillation)

In LCR, total electromagnetic energy (U) of the circuit is no

longer constant but decreases with time due to dissipation of
energy in the form of heat through the resistance. Thus, the
amplitude of charge, current and potential difference decreases
continuously during each oscillation which is called damped
oscillation.
58
Contd….
Here,

So,

But,

Thus,

i.e. ---(1.1), which is diff. equation

for LCR oscillation.
The general solution is ---- (1.2)
where ω' is the angular frequency of LCR damped oscillation.

59
Contd…..
Also, ---- (1.2) where

Also, electrical energy for LCR oscillation is given by

The amplitude of oscillation, i.e. , decreases

exponentially with time.
Thus, total electromagnetic energy in LCR damped
oscillation is represented by

60
Contd…..

From equation (1.2), we can conclude the following

three cases:
i) If , the discharge is not oscillatory

ii) If , the discharge is periodic and critically

damped
iii) If , the discharge is oscillatory.
Thus, the circuit is oscillatory, if .

61
1.4.4 Expression for forced electromagnetic
oscillation and resonance

If we apply a source, supplying periodic emf,

in LCR circuit to maintain constant amplitude, then
such oscillation is called forced or driven
oscillation.
62
Contd….
Here,
i.e. ----- (1.3)

which represents differential equation for forced

oscillation.
The general solution is

where

and

63
Contd……
Also,
So,

Thus,

64
Contd…..
Here,
i.e. which represents impedence
where which is called Inductive
reactance and which is called
Capacitive reactance
For the current amplitude to be maximum, i.e. for
resonance, Z should be minimum which is possible
when
Thus, at resonance, where
i.e. i.e. which is resonant frequency

65
Contd….
Further, the quality factor
In case of inductor, the energy stored is equal to
and the energy dissipated in resistance is
so that Similarly, in case of capacitor,

Also, the graph between current versus frequency in

forced LCR circuit is called resonance curve which is
sharp for small R but less sharp for large R as shown in
fig-1.2.

66
Contd….

67