HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION

1.1 DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF IRRIGATION

What is Irrigation ?

Irrigation comes from the Latin word irrigates, for "moist" or "wet," but it means the purposeful
wetting of something.

 It is the act of supplying dry land with water by means of ditches, etc. (dictionary)

 Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing
crops. (According to Paresh B. Shirsath)

 Irrigation can be broadly defined as the practice of applying additional water (beyond
what is available from rainfall) to soil to enable or enhance plant growth and yield, and,
in some cases, the quality of foliage or harvested plant parts. (Soil Scientist, Irrigation
Engineer, and Soil Microbiologist, Kimberly, Idaho, U.S.A.)

 Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals.

Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed
soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other
uses in crop production, including frost protection, suppressing weed growth in grain
fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct
rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming. (According to Wikipedia)

THE ROLE AND PURPOSE OF IRRIGATION

Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water onto cropland for the purpose of
satisfying the water requirements necessary for growing crops. Irrigation plays a key role in
stabilizing food production in a number of countries by either supplementing or replacing the
need for natural precipitation for the purpose of food production.

 Irrigation is a key to the ability of many farmers, and even nations, to feed themselves
and provide an adequate standard of living. Irrigation not only protects against drought
but brings with it numerous other benefits as well as occasional problems.

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 Irrigation has been credited with being a primary factor in the rise and fall of
civilizations. For example, in the region of Mesopotamia about 4,000 years ago, a
thriving civilization depended on a highly developed irrigation system. Waterlogging and
salinization, as well as the erosion and sedimentation resulting from irrigation, were
instrumental in bringing about the collapse of that empire. To this day, much of the land
remains saline and has not been recovered for crop production.

 Currently, about one-fourth of the cultivated land in the world is irrigated. In the United
States, the 10% of cultivated land that is irrigated provides some 25% of the value of
agricultural production.

 Irrigation can result in a number of benefits for the farmer and his or her community.
Irrigation stabilizes farm production by protecting against drought and by increasing crop
yields and quality when rainfall is insufficient. It permits farmers to grow moisture-
sensitive, high-value crops and crops that will improve their diet. In some areas with
proper climates, irrigation allows farmers to raise two or three good crops in a year. It
allows them to plant on time, thus optimizing market conditions. In some areas, irrigation
systems are used for frost protection. There are numerous problems, however that can be
caused by poor design, construction, and management of irrigation systems. Salinization
and waterlogging are other results. Poor design and management of systems often result
in irrigation of only one-half or one-third of the potential area. Thus, costs per unit area
may be very high, and the benefits of irrigation may extend to only a portion of the
farmers who could use the water.

 Irrigation is only one of many inputs to a farmer's sustainable agricultural system.

Cultural practices, farmer resources, farmer preferences, and other factors will affect the
selection, design, construction, and operation of an irrigation system. Therefore, it is very
important that those who work in irrigated agriculture understand clearly not only the
benefits and consequences of irrigation but also what it takes to maximize or optimize the
benefits.

 Supplements the supply of water received from precipitation and other types of
atmospheric water, flood waters and ground water.

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1.2 TYPES OF IRRIGATION
There are several methods of irrigation. They vary in how the water is supplied to the plants.
The goal is to apply the water to the plants as uniformly as possible, so that each plant has
the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.
Surface irrigation

Figure 1. Basin flood irrigation of wheat

Surface irrigation is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of
years. In surface (furrow, flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the
surface of an agricultural lands, in an order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface
irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often
called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the
cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural
land and is still used in most parts of the world.
Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes,
usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the
method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the
water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the level of the land. The water
application efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation.

Figure 2. Residential flood irrigation in Phoenix, Arizona

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 Surface irrigation is even used to water landscapes in certain areas, for example, in and
around Phoenix, Arizona. The irrigated area is surrounded by a berm and the water is
delivered according to a schedule set by a local irrigation district.

Micro-irrigation

Figure 3. Drip irrigation – a dripper in action

Micro-irrigation, sometimes called localized irrigation, low volume irrigation,
or trickle irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a
piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or
adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation using individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation
(SDI), micro-spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation, and mini-bubbler irrigation all belong to
this category of irrigation methods.

Figure 4. Drip Irrigation Plan

Drip irrigation

Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests.
In this system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or
near the rootzone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient
method of irrigation,[30] if managed properly, evaporation and runoff are minimized. The
field water efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when
managed correctly.
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further
reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known
as fertigation.

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 Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is
operated for too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from
very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are
usually needed than for most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center
pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity
throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing
a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure
compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech
solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from
a computerized set of valves.

Sprinkler irrigation

Figure 5. Crop sprinklers near Rio Vista, California

Figure 6. A traveling sprinkler at Millets Farm Centre, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom

Further information: Irrigation sprinkler
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within
the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using
sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred
to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and
are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate
in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very
high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in² (275 to 900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to
76 L/s), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns

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are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression
and logging.
Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a
hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate
areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of
these use a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on
the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across
the field. When the sprinkler arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system
is known to most people as a "waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used
extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water.
Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler
platform is pulled by a cable.
Center pivot

Figure 7. A small center pivot system from beginning to end

Figure 8. Rotator style pivot applicator sprinkler

Figure 9. Center pivot with drop sprinklers

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Figure 10. Wheel line irrigation system in Idaho, 2001

Figure 11. Center pivot irrigation

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation utilising several segments of pipe
(usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted
on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a
circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These
systems are found and used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of
terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler heads as shown in the image that follows.
As of 2017 most center pivot systems have drops hanging from a U-shaped pipe attached
at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the
crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers
that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a
circle to conform to the center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy
Precision Application). Originally, most center pivots were water-powered. These were
replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation) and electric-motor-driven systems (Reinke,
Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots feature GPS devices.

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1.3 COUNTRIES WITH MOST IRRIGATED LAND
Table 1. Countries with Most Irrigated Land

China

As the most populous country in the world, China always faces challenges for food
security. The country must feed its 1.3 billion people with less than 10% of the world’s arable
land. Over the last 60 years, the population of China has increased from 0.5 to 1.3 billion, the
total irrigated area has increased almost monotonically from 15.9 million ha to 61.7 million ha
and grain output has increased from 113.2 billion kg to 571.2 billion kg.
China began to forcefully exploit water resources and develop irrigation starting at the
time of the foundation of New China in 1949. The development of the effective irrigated area
(EIA) can be generally divided into three phases: 1949 to 1980, 1981 to 1990, and 1991 to
present.
During 1949 to 1980, a period of rapid expansion, the Chinese government invested
heavily in irrigation projects such as canals, reservoirs, dams, and wells. The EIA increased
dramatically from 15.9 million ha in 1949 to 44.9 million ha in 1980, representing nearly a
threefold increase

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 From 1980 to 1990, the Chinese government reduced its financial expenditures of
irrigation development and management. During the same period, with the fast industrialization
and urbanization, more water was consumed by domestic and industrial sectors. The EIA
remained stable, and by 1990, it had decreased slightly to 47.4 million ha.
After 1990, the total EIA increased slowly because reductions in existing EIA partly
offset the newly added EIA.

Figure 12. Dujiangyan

India

Figure 13. Irrigation system in India

Irrigation plays very important role in economic development of India. For the economic
development we need capital, and capital broadly defined as all assets, physical, human, social
and institutional, that create income and contribute to human welfare. Agricultural development
is now generally recognized as an integral part of overall economic development. Not only the
physical capital develop our economy but also some of the social and institutional change that
enhance human welfare.

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 In India, agriculture is at the mercy of timely rains. But the rainfall in the country is
highly irregular, uncertain and erratic. Consequently droughts and floods have become most
common, so irrigation is life blood for agriculture. Agriculture is the backbone of Indian
economy to make it strong and longstanding; government has taken many steps and implemented
programmes since independence. Each plan beginning with first plan in 1950-51 to twelfth plan
of today, listed the basic objective of India’s development. This objective acted as guiding
principles for Indian Planning.

United States of America

Figure 14. Irrigation ditch in Montour County, Pennsylvania

The earliest agricultural irrigation canal system known in the U.S. dates to between 1200
B.C. and 800 B.C. and was discovered in Marana, Arizona (adjacent to Tucson) in 2009. The
irrigation canal system predates the Hohokam culture by two thousand years and belongs to an
unidentified culture. In North America, the Hohokam were the only culture known to rely on
irrigation canals to water their crops, and their irrigation systems supported the largest population
in the Southwest by AD 1300. The Hohokam constructed an assortment of simple canals
combined with weirs in their various agricultural pursuits. Between the 7th and 14th centuries,
they also built and maintained extensive irrigation networks along the lower Salt and middle Gila
rivers that rivaled the complexity of those used in the ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. These
were constructed using relatively simple excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced
engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and
siltation. The Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize, beans and squash, as well
as harvested an assortment of wild plants. Late in the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they

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also used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to grow agave for food and fiber. Their
reliance on agricultural strategies based on canal irrigation, vital in their less than hospitable
desert environment and arid climate, provided the basis for the aggregation of rural populations
into stable urban centers.

Figure 15. Irrigation system in USA

Pakistan

Figure 16. Irrigation in Pakistan

In the early 1990s, irrigation from the Indus River and its tributaries constituted the
world's largest contiguous irrigation system, capable of watering over 16 million hectares. The
system includes three major storage reservoirs and numerous barrages, headworks, canals, and
distribution channels. The total length of the canal system exceeds 58,000 kilometers; there are
an additional 1.6 million kilometers of farm and field ditches.
A second phase of irrigation expansion began in 1968, when a US$1.2 billion fund, also
administered by the World Bank, was established. The key to this phase was the Tarbela Dam on
the Indus River, which is the world's largest earth-filled dam. The dam, completed in the 1970s,
reduced the destruction of periodic floods and in 1994 was a major hydroelectric generating
source. Most important for agriculture, the dam increases water availability, particularly during
low water, which usually comes at critical growing periods.
Despite massive expansion in the irrigation system, many problems remain. The Indus
irrigation system was designed to fit the availability of water in the rivers, to supply the largest
area with minimum water needs, and to achieve these objectives at low operating costs with

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limited technical staff. This system design has resulted in low yields and low cropping intensity
in the Indus River plain, averaging about one crop a year, whereas the climate and soils could
reasonably permit an average of almost 1.5 crops a year if a more sophisticated irrigation
network were in place. The urgent need in the 1960s and 1970s to increase crop production for
domestic and export markets led to water flows well above designed capacities. Completion of
the Mangla and Tarbela reservoirs, as well as improvements in other parts of the system, made
larger water flows possible. In addition, the government began installing public tube wells that
usually discharge into upper levels of the system to add to the available water. The higher water
flows in parts of the system considerably exceed design capacities, creating stresses and risks of
breaches. Nonetheless, many farmers, particularly those with smallholdings and those toward the
end of watercourses, suffer because the supply of water is unreliable.
The irrigation system represents a significant engineering achievement and provides
water to the fields that account for 90 percent of agricultural production. Nonetheless, serious
problems in the design of the irrigation system prevent achieving the highest potential
agricultural output.

Iran

Figure 17. Irrigation in Iran

The majority of the earliest agricultural civilizations developed in the Middle East, a regi
on 
known for its aridity. Since the ancient Assyrians, Middle Eastern civilizations have engineered 
ingenious technologies to capitalize upon the limited water supply. The most famous ancient 
civilization  associated  with  the  development  of  water  technology  is  the  Persian  Empire. 
However, today, due to environmental and political crises, agriculture and irrigation instability 
threaten the future of the Middle East. I hope my research will contribute to the burgeoning 
study of water in the Middle East by utilizing history to propose future irrigation reforms.  

Indonesia

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Figure 18. Irrigation in Indonesia
Actually, the economic crisis (1998) is not the sole factor causing the current weakening
of food security in Indonesia. Empirically, food security over the last ten years has been
weakening since food supply, especially from domestic production, cannot be raised
significantly due to several factors. First, the country is not able to increase productivity of food
commodities. Second, there was failure in minimizing land conversion from agricultural use to
non-agricultural use. Third, capacity of paddy field tends to decrease because of deterioration of
irrigation performance as a result of late rehabilitation.
Performance of irrigated agriculture in publicly managed schemes is generally lower than
its technical and economic potential. The performance of the large-scale irrigation schemes has
been particularly unsatisfying. In most of these schemes, farmers often receive poor water
service, and reliable and timely irrigation service delivery is the exception rather than the rule.
The major causes of poor service delivery are commonly located in the interrelated problems of
bureaucratic institutional setup and rigid technical design, both of which generally originate in
the top-down, planning-led approach to irrigation. Bureaucratic institutional setups for large
scale irrigation have contributed to poor service delivery in a vicious circle of insufficient
funding, inadequate operation and maintenance, and system deterioration, often leading to the
need for successive rehabilitation. Technical design has suffered from the same top-down
approach. Many schemes were constructed with inflexible delivery patterns, which are suitable
to deliver water according to preset schedules, but are incapable of responding to changes in
demand by the users.

Mexico

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Figure 19. Irrigation in Mexico
Mexico, a classified arid and semi-arid country, has a total land area of 2 million square
kilometres, 23% of which is equipped for irrigated agriculture. The agricultural sector plays an
important role in the economic development of the country accounting for 8.4 of agricultural
gross domestic product (GDP) and employing 23% of the economically active population.
Irrigated agriculture contributes about 50% of the total value of agricultural production and
accounts for about 70% of agriculture exports. Mexico’s government initiated a number of
structural reforms in the water sector aimed to introduce modern water management and
irrigation.

Thailand

Figure 20. Irrigation in Thailand

In the ancient Lan Na period (about B.E. 1100) the people in the Northern region knew
how to build temporary weirs across the streams in combination with the small ditches leading to
paddy fields. These primitive irrigation systems are known as “the People’s Irrigation”. They
constructed and operated the facilities in participatory manner by the water users and they had
their own regulation agreed upon among the water users.
For water management in the past, the People’s Irrigation or Muang Fai system in the
Northern region had their own laws and regulation agreed upon among the water users for
operation and maintenance of their project facilities. They controlled water management to
achieve fair distribution of water which depends on the amount of available water and the size
and feature of the irrigation areas. The water users had cost sharing of construction and O&M
either in cash or in kind as stipulated in the agreement. Although such systems were practised
long time ago and no longer effective now, yet it has become the traditional practice among the
northerners to cooperate in present participation irrigation management.

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Figure 21. Irrigation Managementt

Brazil

Figure 22. Irrigation in Brazil

Irrigation in Brazil has been developed through the use of different models. Public
involvement in irrigation is relatively new while private investment has traditionally been
responsible for irrigation development. Private irrigation predominates in the populated South,
Southeast, and Center-West regions with most of the country’s agricultural and industrial
development. In the Northeast region, investments made by the public sector seek to stimulate
regional development in an area prone to droughts and with serious social problems. These
different approaches have resulted in diverse outcomes. Of the 120 million hectares (ha) that are
potentially available for agriculture, only about 3.5 million ha are under irrigation, although
estimates show that 29 million ha are suitable for this practice.

Bangladesh

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Figure 23. Irrigation in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, about 94% of the irrigated land is under small and minor irrigation.
According to a recent survey, water is being lifted in this country through 26,704 deep tubewells,
4,69,226 shallow tubewells, 56,829 low lift pumps, 1,42,132 manual pumps, and more than
5,65,000 indigenous water lifting devices. But sub-optimal use of these irrigation devices and
unplanned cropping activities have resulted in low irrigation coverage. The irrigation efficiency
is only about 30%. With proper utilization and improved management, 4.0 to 5.0 million ha of
land can be irrigated easily by using the same number of irrigation devices instead of the present
3.12 million ha.

Devices for irrigation water lifting range from age-old indigenous water lifts to highly
efficient pumps. Pumps operated by electric motors or engines have come into prominence in all
large scale lift irrigation schemes. This is because high output and efficiency levels can be more
easily attained and controlled using mechanically powered water lifts.

Selection of a suitable water lifting device for a particular situation depends on the
characteristics of the source of water and the lifting device, the amount of water to be lifted, the
depth to the pumping water level, the type and amount of power available and the economic
status of the farmers.

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Figure 24. Irrigation by shallow tubewell

The irrigation devices commonly used in Bangladesh may be divided into two main categories:
(a) motorized pumps, and (b) manual pumps.

1.4. HISTORY OF IRRIGATION

Archaeological records reveal that people started early in ancient times to engage in
farming as a way of life. At first, these early farmers depended solely on rainfall or floodwaters
in the culture of their crops. They found a means of supplementing rainfall or floodwaters in
growing their crops and in making arid lands cultivable, which is known as “irrigation”.
It is most likely that irrigation was first practiced in the great river delta of the Nile in
Egypt.
Biblical Times. The Scriptures confirm the ancient origin of irrigation. In Genesis 2:10, there is
reference to a river that “went out of Eden to water the garden….” . In II Kings 3:16, the allusion
is clearer: “And he said, “Thus, saith the Lord, Make this valley full of ditches.;’ For, saith the
Lord, ‘Ye shall not see wind, neither shall ye see rain; yet the valley shall be filled with water
….”

IRRIGATION TIMELINE

6000 BC

Irrigation began at about the same time in Egypt and Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and
Iran) using the water of the flooding Nile or Tigris/Euphrates rivers. The flood waters, which
occurred July through December, were diverted to fields for 40 to 60 days. The water was then
drained back into the river at the right moment in the growing cycle.

circa 3,000 B.C.

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 Menes, the first King of a unified Egypt is believed to have built banks along the Nile to
control flooding, originating the basin system of irrigation. Ancient Egyptians devised gauges
that registered the height of water level at any given time, which are called nilometers (literally,
“measurement of the Nile”). Nilometers are graduated scales cut out on a natural rock or on a
stone wall of a pit connected by a tunnel to the Nile.

Figure 25. Nilometer

2,000 B.C.

.Figure 26. Cement pipe

Cross-section of pipe made with cement and crushed rock by the Romans to carry water.
Similar pipe was used a century ago to carry domestic water into the San Gabriel Valley of
California.

1792 BC
Water Regulations
Babylonian King Hammurabi; was the first to institute water regulations within his kingdom.
This early code covered:
A) The distribution of water proportionally based on the acres farmed.
B) A farmer’s responsibilities in maintaining canals on his property.
C) The collective administration of the canal by all users

1700 BC
Irrigation Shaduf

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 Shaduf / Shadouf / Shadoof

Figure 27. Shaduf

(Shadoof) A large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a rope and bucket on one end and a heavy
counter weight at the other. By pulling the rope it lowered the bucket into a canal or river. The
operator would then raise the full bucket of water by pushing down on the counter weight. The
pole could be swung around, and the bucket emptied in a field or different canal. This
development enabled irrigation when a river wasn’t in flood which meant higher ground could be
used for farming.

700 BC

Figure 28. Noria

Noria
(Egyptian Water Wheel) A wheel with buckets or clay pots along its circumference, the wheel
was turned by the current of the river. The flow filled buckets by immersion and as it rotated the
upper buckets are emptied by gravity into a trough or aqueduct. The empty buckets then returned
to be refilled. The Noria provided the ancient world with its first non-human operated lifting
device.

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604 BC
Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Figure 29. Hanging Gardens

The "Hanging Gardens of Babylon," one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, were created
under King Nebuchadnezzar in Mesopotamia. What is lost to history is how the gardens were
watered although it is known they were irrigated.

550 BC
Qanat

Figure 30. Qanat

(Kareze in Mesopotamia) The development of this technique allowed the use of ground water to
become the primary source for crop irrigation. A Qanat was built by first digging a vertical well
into sloping ground. Once the well was completed a tunnel was dug nearly horizontal to the
lower end of the well. The natural slope would allow well water to travel by gravity down the

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 tunnel and emerge some distance down slope from the well. Construction of Qanats was labor
intensive and vertical openings were placed every 20-30 meters to allow the tunnel diggers to
breathe and to remove the debris from the tunnel. Once the tunnel was completed, the area had a
constant source of water. Qanats are still in use today and at least 20,000 still operate from China
to Morocco.

500 BC
Sakia or Persian Water Wheel

Figure 31.
Sakia
(Persian Water Wheel) The first use of what is
now called a pump. This device was an endless
series of pots on a rope which ran over two
pulleys. The oxen-powered device powered a
cogged wheel allowing the pots to enter the water
supply, fill and then be raised and emptied. The
Sakia was similar to the Noria except that it was
powered by an external force rather than the flow
of the river’s current.

Figure 32. Sakia

250 BC
Tambour- Archimedes Screw

Figure 33. Archimedes Screw

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 While visiting Egypt the Greek scholar Archimedes created this device which consisted of a
screw inside a hollow tube. The screw was turned and as the bottom end of the screw rotated, it
scooped up water. The water traveled up the length of the screw until it poured out the top of the
tube. Today the principal is used in transporting granular materials such as plastic granules used
in injection molding and in moving cereal grains.

500 AD
Windmills

When the first use of a windmill occurred is unknown, although

drawings of a water pumping windmill from Persia (current day Iran)
exist. This design had vertical sails made of bundles of reeds or wood
which attached to a central vertical shaft.

1800 AD
Irrigated Acreage Worldwide
Figure 34.Windmill
Irrigated acreage worldwide reaches 19,760,000 acres. This compares with an estimated
600,000,000 acres today.

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1.5. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION
Development of Irrigation in the World

The irrigation of arable land and pastures has been practiced around the world for
thousands of years. With the aid of irrigation it was and still is possible to grow crops with
reliably high yields in all arid regions of the earth. At the same time, irrigation has guaranteed an
adequate and continuous supply of foodstuffs. without which it would not have been possible for
sophisticated civilizations to develop along the Nile (Egypt), the Tigris and Euphrates (Turkey,
Syria and Iraq), the Indus (Pakistan and India), the Ganges (India and Bangladesh) and also
along the Hwang Ho (Yellow River) in China. It is estimated that by the year 1800 about 8
million hectares of land were irrigated around the world, but 100 years later this figure had
increased to about 40 million hectares, partly as a result of modern sprinkler irrigation systems
that had become available to gardeners and farmers.
By the year 1950, the irrigated area had risen still further to a total of about 94 million
hectares on a world-wide basis. Irrigation farming continued to grow at a considerable rate in
subsequent years. especially during the so called., Green Revolution". Nowadays, about 250
million hectares, or 17 % of the world's agricultural area, are irrigated, producing about 36 % of
the world's food supplies. On a regional basis, it is estimated that around 60 % of the value of
crop production in Asia is grown on irrigated land. This includes about 80 % of Pakistan's food,
70 % of China's food and over 50 % of the food in India and Indonesia. In the Middle East and
North Africa, more than one third of the region's crop production by value is irrigated, including
all the food grown in Egypt and more than half of that grown in Iraq and Iran. A relatively small
proportion of agricultural production in Latin America, around 10 %, is grown under irrigation,
but half of the crops grown for export in Chile and Peru are irrigated. Madagascar produces more
than 20 % of its agricultural output and food on irrigated land. Sub-Saharan Africa has the
smallest regional area under irrigation. and produces an estimated 9 % of its total food
production on irrigated land.

Figure 35. Sprinkler and drip technologies

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The employment of new irrigation technology in developing countries is a perplexing issue.
Theory tells us that new technologies improve the productivity of an economic enterprise and
reduce its cost. Yet while there have been dramatic changes in irrigation technology in Australia,
North America and Europe in the past 35 years. little of this development affected. for instance,
Asian irrigation. Technology employed in many recently constructed canal irrigation systems in
Asia would be perfectly recognizable to a tum·of-the-century irrigation engineer. Swendsen and
Rosegrant (1994) see a principal reason for this lack of technology transfer in the fact that the
most important developments in irrigation technology have occurred in the area of water
application and not in the area of conveyance and distribution.
In developing countries. especially in Asia where farms and, often, irrigation schemes
are far smaller than Australian or U.S. farms. there has been little adoption of the sprinkler and
drip technologies which are the principal targets of research attention. In Asia up to now, most
needed are improved technologies for water conveyance, delivery and allocation. and not for
water application in the field. This requires, according to Swendsen and Rosegrant (1994), a type
of research which is vastly different from the agronomy-related research models that have been
introduced to the Asian region from abroad. Such new models must be developed, for instance.
in Asia involving close linkages between technology assessment and adaptation and system
management innovation.

Development of Irrigation in the Philippines

Irrigation development in the country dates back to the pre-Spanish period as evidenced
by the centuries-old Banaue terraces, covering 25 thousand hectares that were built by the local
community.

Figure 36. Banaue rice terraces

During the Spanish period, many small run-of-the-river irrigation schemes along coastal
plains totaling about 200 thousand hectares were constructed largely in friar lands close to
Manila and Ilocos region. These irrigation schemes were built either through cooperative
societies (“Zanjaras”) or by mobilizing labor for construction and operation in large haciendas
and friar lands.
Public investments in irrigation development began under the American regime with the
establishment of an Irrigation Division in the Bureau of Public Works in 1908. This division

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directly constructed and managed 12 irrigation systems in Central Luzon, Ilocos, and the Panay
Island in Western Visayas by the late 1920’s. Although some public support for communally
built and managed small-scale irrigation were provided in the 1930’s and 1940’s, it was not until
the postwar period that major pubic support for irrigation was resumed. This renewed expansion
of irrigation in the 1950’s included communal irrigation and the first irrigation projects in
Mindanao and other new areas.

Figure 37. National Irrigation Administration

In the effort to further strengthen institutional support for irrigation development, the
National Irrigation Administration (NIA) was established in 1964 as a public corporation in
place of the former Irrigation Division and provided greater financial resources and financial
flexibility. Although NIA continued to be attached to the Department of Public Works and
Higways, the board included the Secretary of Agriculture to ensure the coordination of irrigation
with other agricultural programs. There were other government agencies (Irrigation Service Unit
and the Farming Systems Development Corporation) involved in irrigation development mainly
in promoting private pump irrigation. These have been abolished and the task of developing both
pump and communal irrigation was eventually integrated into the functions of NIA. With the
recent transfer of the NIA to the Department of Agriculture (DA), the irrigation-related (Small
Water Impounding Projects) projects of the DA’s Bureau of Soils and Water Management as
well as other agricultural programs are expected to be better coordinated with irrigation
concerns.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS

There are three categories of irrigation systems: national, communal, and private.
1.  National irrigation systems (NIS) are large and medium schemes. These are basically
operated and maintained by NIA where beneficiaries are charged irrigation service fee for
the services rendered in the delivery of water. In the 1980s, joint management of portions
of national systems with irrigators associations (IA) was effected.

2. Communal irrigation systems (CIS) are small-scale schemes and constructed with the
participation of farmer-beneficiaries thru their IAs. The operation and maintenance
(O&M) of CIS is turned over to IAs upon project completion subject to a cost recovery
arrangement. Farmers amortize the chargeable cost for a period not exceeding 50 years at

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 0 percent interest. The repayment scheme is pre-arranged and acceptable to both NIA and
the IA.

3. Private irrigation systems are those constructed, operated and maintained by private
individuals or groups with or without technical assistance by NIA or other government
agencies.

Table 2. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE NATIONAL AND COMMUNAL IRRIGATION

SYSTEMS

For Comparison National Irrigation System Communal Irrigation System

  Area (ha)   > 1,000   < 1,000
  Implementation/constructio   NIA with farmers'
  NIA
n participation
  Operation and maintenance   NIA and Irrigators Associations   Irrigators Associations
  Farmers pay irrigation service fee
  Water charges per   Farmers pay amortization
 hectare/season/crop
  Purpose of water charges   Purpose of water charges   Capital cost recovery

TYPES OF SCHEME OF DEVELOPMENT

The three schemes of development of irrigation systems are run-of-the river diversion, storage or
reservoir, and pump irrigation.

a.) Diversion projects entail the drawing of water under controlled conditions directly from
the flow of rivers or streams.

Figure 38. Dinauyan River Diversion Channel

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b.) Storage or reservoir projects involve the construction of storage dams to impound water
and released as needed to be drawn from a diversion dam downstream. Reservoir projects
are usually multi-purpose to include other functions like power generation, flood control,
fishery and recreation.

Figure 39. Magat Dam

Figure 40. Ambuklao Dam

c.) In pump projects, water is lifted from underground or from rivers and streams. Pump
systems are also common in some storage or diversion schemes to lift water to irrigate
areas on higher elevation or pump groundwater to supplement available supply from the
river. Environmental protection and conservation is a key consideration in the design of
various schemes.

Figure 41.Pump irrigation system in a remote village in Mlang, North Cotabato 

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NIS schemes have been constructed, operated and maintained by the NIA. The construction cost
is borne entirely by the NIA, while farmers pay for operation and maintenance (O&M). In 1992,
there were about 150 NIS schemes throughout the country. There are three main subtypes
depending on water origin:

 Three large schemes: Magat with 80 977 ha; Upper Pampanga with 94 300 ha; and
Angat Maasim with 31 485 ha are backed by multipurpose reservoirs. Although
classified as single entities, they are actually conglomerates served by multiple diversion
structures, which also utilize supplies from uncontrolled rivers crossing the irrigated
area. Parts of the service area may be too high to be commanded by the reservoir and are
commanded by pump schemes.

Figure 42. Magat Dam

Figure 43. Upper Pampangga Irrigation System

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Figure 44. Angat Dam

 Run-of-the-river diversion schemes: Most are relatively small. These diversion schemes
can be fairly complicated, with several intakes and reuse systems that are often
developed over time in response to observed drainage flows. The largest schemes are
located in the alluvial plains. In 1989, the cropping intensity on these schemes was
about 72 percent during the wet season and 54 percent during the dry season.

 Pump schemes: In 1992, there were around seven schemes irrigated only by pumps, and
five large NIS schemes served mainly by gravity flow but which use pumps for a part of
their equipped area.

CIS schemes have been created either by the farmers themselves over the centuries, or more
recently by the NIA and then turned over to the irrigation associations for O&M. Almost half
of the communal schemes are in the province of Ilocos (northwest Luzon), which reflects a
long history of irrigation based on private initiative in this area. The average size of the
communal schemes is about 115 ha, but range from 40 to 4 000 ha.

Private schemes are generally supplied by pumps. They originated in publicly assisted river lift
and groundwater development projects.

Surface water development for irrigation is in the form of dams or reservoirs while groundwater
development is through pumping from deep and shallow aquifers. Groundwater irrigation
development, particularly from deep aquifers, is relatively expensive including O&M. This is
one of the reasons why less groundwater is used for irrigation, aside from the fact that
groundwater withdrawal is being reserved for municipal/drinking purposes owing to its inherent
good quality.

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Figure 45. Surface water development (Ambuklao Dam, Benguet )

Figure 46. Groundwater Irrigation Development

Surface irrigation is the major technique practiced in the Philippines owing to rice, which
accounts for 1 863 664 ha or over 99 percent. Lowland paddy fields are flooded to prevent weeds
and ensure yields. Sprinkler and localized irrigation systems, 4 500 ha and 10 920 ha
respectively, are used on privately-owned large plantation areas such as for banana, pineapple
and sugarcane. Their use is constrained by their relatively high investment cost and the skills
required to operate and maintain them. Currently, the use of sprinkler and drip is being
promoted, even for small-scale production systems, particularly in water-scarce areas. These
include greenhouses producing high-value commercial crops, such as vegetables, where
investment costs could be recovered over a shorter period.

Figure 47. Surface Irrigation in Mlang, North Cotabato from Philippine Rural Development
Project

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Figure 48. Sprinkler Irrigation (Philippines)

Figure 49. Greenhouse and drip irrigation system in the Philippines

STATUS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

The Philippines has about 10.3 million ha agricultural lands. Out of this, around 3.1 million ha
are considered irrigable, with up to 3 percent slope, and primarily devoted to rice and corn. A
study by the World Bank, however, identified more than 6.1 M ha as irrigable, including areas
that are relatively more difficult to irrigate and up to 8 percent slope.
As of December 2015, about 1.731 million ha or 57.33 percent of the 3.1 million ha have been
developed for irrigation. Of the total area under irrigation, about 754,665 ha are under NIS;
615,797 ha under CIS that are farmer-managed; and 187,766 ha under privately owned systems
that are constructed through private initiatives.

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 Table 3. Status of Irrigation Development in the Philippines as of 2016

In 2017, NIA’s budget was only about P38 billion, but this year (2018), Recto said it was
increased to P40.8 billion.

Mr. Duterte could make irrigation and other farm infrastructure part of the government’s “Build,
Build, Build” program.
“Out of 3 million hectares of irrigable land, only 1.7 million are irrigated, leaving a backlog of
1.3 million hectares,” he said.

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