Components of Dams | Functions of

Components of Dams
Main Dam

This is the main structure built across the river. The height of a dam depends upon desired
storage capacity and the site conditions. The crest length of he dam depend upon topography at
the dam site. The dam may be built of many different materials. The stored water is released
from the dam as per requirements.

1.6.2 Flanks/Abutment:

The rock mass on right & left banks of the river constitute abutments. Dam is joined with and
supported by the abutments. In addition outlet tunnels, diversion tunnel, spillway are also placed
in the flanks. The geology of the abutments has to be strong enough to enable placing various
structural components without any risk. In addition abutments need to be of competent rock
without any structural defects and lowest permeability

1.6.3 Saddle Dam:

The reservoir is usually formed by the main dam on one side and low/high hills on all other sides
of the reservoir. In most cases the elevation of the hills along the rim of the dam is much higher
than the reservoir maximum water level. In some other cases elevations of surrounding hills
along a part of the rim/periphery of the reservoir is not high enough over a small section to
completely contain the stored water and a saddle (low level place) is formed. Water can flow out
through the saddle. A small embankment is then constructed at this low/saddle point to seal off
the reservoir rim and is called as saddle dam. Example: Sukian dam and Jari dam for Mangla
Dam project.

1.6.4 Diversion Channel/Tunnel

These channel or tunnel are constructed prior to dam construction such that river flow is passed
around and away from the dam site through the diversion tunnels and that than dam site remain
dry and accessible to construction at all time. The capacity of diversion structure is set such that
most probable floods likely to occur during the construction period can be passed over without
danger of overtopping of cofferdam and inundation of construction area. Necessary arrangements
are made at d/s end for energy dissipation. These tunnels may be abandoned (plugged – Simly
dam) after project completion or converted to irrigation / power / desilting tunnels. Diversion
tunnel may not be provided (Mirani dam) and u/s coffer dam.

Cofferdam

These are small temporary dams built u/s and d/s of the dam site to make the construction area
dry and workable. The u/s cofferdam causes water to flow through the diversion tunnel and the
d/s cofferdam prevents backwater level to inundate the construction area. Coffer dam may be
dovetailed in u/s part of dam (Mangla) or abandoned. Material used earth, rock, concrete etc.
Arrangemnet are required for control of seepage across the coffer dam.
1.6.6 Spillway

This is a water release/conveyance structure to pass the large flood volumes safely across the
dam without danger of overtopping of the dam crest. There would be one or more spillways
usually at different levels (Service, additional, emergency). The lower spillway is used to release
often occurring flood and regular inflows and is called as service spillway. It has usually more
elaborate arrangements and may be free flowing or gated. The auxiliary or emergency spillway is
set at or above normal conservation level and has fewer arrangements and is usually free
flowing. This is used only during flood events of extra-ordinary nature. Fuse plug, rubber dam
etc may be used to delay water release and possible additional storage at the reservoir.
The spillway may be a integral part of the main dam (mostly for concrete dams) or be a separate
structure in the dam abutments.

1.6.7 Outlet Works

(a) Intake Structure / Tower: This is a structure to admit and control flow of water into the
irrigation/power outlets. It would be a tower or inlet flush with reservoir side walls. Gates may
be provided at u/s, intermediate or d/s end of the outlet tunnel. Necessary provision is made to
keep the intake operation for long after sedimentation by having multiple water entry levels
particularly for domestic supply purposes. Multi level inlet openings may be used.

(b) Irrigation/Power Outlet Tunnel: This is a large water conveyance structure to release water to
irrigation network and/or powerhouse turbines. The outlet is in the form of a tunnel dug or
formed through the abutment / flank for earth / rockfill dams or through the dam body for a
concrete dam. At the u/s end an intake is provided along with gates, trash rack. The tunnel design
must eliminate risk of cavitation and/or aeration. Gates may be placed at u/s, d/s or intermediate
location. The power tunnel is transitioned into surge chamber, penstock/scroll case etc. Energy
dissipation structure may be provided at d/s end, if needed. Irrigation outlet may release into a
canal or into the river if demand site is at distance from the dam. The intake level of the tunnel is
kept below or at the dead storage level. Air vent is provided to minimize cavitation. Water
cushon for vortex control are also provided.

(c) Low Level Outlet: A low outlet tunnel may be provided to flush sediments, draw water from
below dead storage level under very drought condition, emptying of reservoir in emergencies,
draw water during repair of outlet tunnel/gates, etc. The intake level is kept much lower than the
intake level main irrigation tunnel. May discharge into stilling basin for spillways/outlet works or
as a separate energy dissipation structure provided. [Similar to under sluices in a barrage.]
(d) Gates/Valves/
(e) Trash Rack, air duct for cavitation control
1.6.8 Drainage System
Dams are designed to store water with least seepage through the dam embankment and the
foundation but seepage do occur. The drainage/seepage water also causes tremendous uplift
pressure particularly at d/s half of the dam base. Features are included in the dam design to
minimize seepage through the foundation and through the dam embankment and uplift pressure.
Cutoff wall, sheet piles, slurry trench, etc.
• Grout Certain: An impermeable zone is created under the dam.
• Grout Blanket: Impermeable area is created u/s of dam.
• Pressure relief / Drainage Wells: Wells are installed at d/s area to pick and remove seepage
water to reduce uplift pressure in the
• Drainage gallery
foundation area.
A horizontal/inclined gallery is formed in the body of the dam (specially in concrete dams)
where water from drainage wells discharge into and is ultimately flow out of the dam body. It
also intercepts leaks through dam body.
• Horizontal Blanket Drain: To intercept seepage lines at base of dam on d/s side.
• Chimney Drain:
• Toe Drain:
Vertical or inclined drainage filter layer (usually d/s of the impermeable clay core) to intercept
seepage flow.
A drain is provided at toe of dam (homogeneous coarse fill) to intercept seepage flow inside the
dam body.
1.6.8 Preliminary Works
Trench provided at d/s of dam to intercept seepage flow lines. gradient and seepage rate.
• D/S Trench:
• Impermeableblanket to lengthen the seepage path and lower hydraulic
Civil works, infrastructures, buildings required to be provided before start of construction of
main dam work. These include offices, staff housing, community buildings, water supply,
approach road, client/consultant/contractor camp, labor camp, security arrangements, rest house,
rail sidings, air strip, hele-pad, etc.
1.6.9 Hydropower Development
(a) Powerhouse: Building to house turbine, generators, mechanical workshop, valves, draft tube,
office, control room, visitor area, up transformer, etc for hydropower generation.
(b) Penstock: This is a large diameter pressure pipe used to deliver water to turbines.

(c) Surge chamber. To contain water hammer surge on plant load rejection / sudden shut- down.
(d) Switchyard: This is an area to install electrical equipment to change low to high tension
power supply for further transmission.
1.6.10 Slope protection/Riprap
Stone is placed on u/s & d/s dam slopes for protection against damage due to wave action, rain
water, burrowing animals. Parapet wall may be used to protect dam top against sudden waves
generated by strong winds, tsunami, etc.
1.6.11 Dam Instrumentation
Various gages/instruments are installed in the dam body, foundations, spillway to monitor
settlement, movement, stresses, pore water/uplift pressure, earthquake.
1.6.12 Stilling Basin
To dissipate excess energy of diversion tunnel, low level outlet, irrigation tunnel, spillway, etc.
1.6.13 Gallery/Shafts
These are provided in the dam body for access to interior of concrete dam body. These are
horizontal, vertical (with round stair ways), sloping.
1.6.14: Operational buildings
These are buildings required for operation of the dam and works. These include Office buildings,
Rest House, Security buildings, Staff residences and other community buildings, gate control
room.
1.6.15: Temporary works:
These are installations required for temporary use and are removed after project completion.
These include contractors camp, material processing, handling and stock area, machine room,
casting yard, steel fabrication, labor camp, etc.
Core:
It is made up of impervious material and its object is to make the dam water tight. The particle
size of material used in the core is small so that it can retain water and do not allow its further
seepage.

Shell:
Shell is made up of pervious material (porous material). It gives strength and support to the core
wall. The particle size of the materials used in shell is large i.e coarse material.

Transition filters:
As the core contains fine material and the shell contains coarse material so there is a chance that
both may get mixed into each other. These filters are installed in the dam body to stop the mixing
of materials from either sides into each other. Transition filters are made of material which is
semi-pervious in nature.

Cut off trench:

It is a trench dug to fill it with impervious material e.g. Rich Concrete

Sheet pile wall:

Sheet pile wall is used in areas where it is required to stop water from flowing across. OR when
the impervious layer is at very depth and if trench cannot be dugged out due to economic
constraints then this sheet pile wall is used.

Impervious stream blanket:

Impervious stream blanket is laid in the foundation of the dam and its objective is to stop the
seepage in the dam foundation.

Rip rap:
This material basically belongs to the category of geotextiles and is used to stop upstream face
from erosion. It is made up of large stones which ranges from 1/2 m - 1 m.

Horizontal drainage:
It is usually used if dam body is made of impervious material. The dam body may contain
moisture already or due to very loss seepage, If this water remains in the dam body, pore water
pressure is developed and effective pressure is reduced, so to remove that water this zone is used.

Soil turfing / Sod:

To avoid erosion due to rain, snow fall, wind etc. soil turfing is used. It is also called sod.

Crest / top:
It is the most upper part of the dam which divides the upstream face and the downstream face. Its
objective is to give access to vehicles over it.

Free board:
To avoid overtopping of dam, free board is used.

Spillway - Definition, Types of Spillways and

Classification
Definition:
"Spillways are structures constructed to provide safe release of flood waters from a dam to a
downstream area".

Every reservoir has a certain capacity to store water. If the reservoir is full and flood water enters
it, the reservoir level will go up and may eventually result in over-topping of the dam. To avoid
this situation, the flood has to be passed on to the downstream and this is done by providing a
spillway which draws water from the top of the reservoir. A spillway can be a part of the dam or
separate from it.

Spillways can be controlled or uncontrolled. A controlled spillway is provided with gates which
can be raised or lowered. Controlled spillways have certain advantages. When a reservoir is full,
its water level will be the same as the crest level of the spillway.

If a flood enters the reservoir at this time, the water level will start going up and simultaneously
water will start flowing out through the spillway. The rise in water level in the reservoir will
continue for some time and so will the discharge over the spillway. After reaching a maximum,
the reservoir level will come down and eventually come back to the normal reservoir level.

The top of the dam will have to be higher than the maximum reservoir level corresponding to the
design flood for the spillway, while the effective storage available is only up to the normal
reservoir level. The storage available between the maximum reservoir level and the normal
reservoir level is called the surcharge storage and is only a temporary storage in uncontrolled
spillways. Thus for a given height of the dam, part of the storage - the surcharge storage is not
being utilized. In a controlled spillway, water can be stored even above the spillway crest level
by keeping the gates closed. The gates can be opened when a flood has to be passed. Thus
controlled spillways allow more storage for the same height of the dam.

Types of Spillways - Classification of Spillways

There are different types of spillways that can be provided depending on the suitability of site
and other parameters. Generally a spillway consists of a control structure, a conveyance channel
and a terminal structure, but the former two may be combined in the same for certain types. The
more common types are briefly described below:

1. Drop Spillway
2. Ogee Spillway
3. Siphon Spillway
4. Chute or Trough Spillway
5. Shaft Spillway
6. Side Channel Spillway

Drop Spillway

In a drop spillway, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the
downstream side of the hydraulic structure. This type of spillway is suitable for weirs or
low dams. The crest of the spillway is provided with nose so that the water jet may not
strike the downstream base of the structure. To protect the structure from the effect of
scouring horizontal impervious apron should be provided on the downstream side.
Sometimes a basin is constructed on the downstream side to form a small artificial pool
which is known as water cushion. This cushion serves the purpose of energy dissipater.

Ogee Spillway

The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of the main dam
itself if sufficient length is available. The crest of the spillway is shaped to conform to the
lower nappe of a water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir.
It is a modified form of drop spillway. Here, the downstream profile of the spillway is
made to coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling water jet from a
sharp crested weir. In this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar to a projectile and
hence downstream surface of the ogee spillway will follow the parabolic path where “0”
is the origin of the parabola. The downstream face of the spillway forms a concave curve
from a point “T” and meets with the downstream floor. This point “T” is known as point
of tangency. Thus the spillway takes the shape of the letter “S” (i.e. elongated form).
Hence, this spillway is termed as ogee spillway.

The shape of the lower nappe is not same for all the head of water above the crest of the weir. It
differs with the head of water. But for the design of the ogee spillway the maximum head is
considered. If the spillway runs with the maximum head, then the overflowing water just follows
the curved profile of the spillway and there is no gap between the water and the spillway surface
and the discharge is maximum.

When the actual head becomes more than the designed head, the lower nappe does not follow the
ogee profile and gets separated from the spillway surface. Thus a negative pressure develops at
the point of separation. Due to the negative pressure, air bubbles are formed within the flowing
water. These air bubbles air responsible for the frictional force (i.e. abrasion) which causes much
damage to the spillway surface. Again, if the head of water is less than the designed head, the
waterjet adheres to the body of the spillway and creases positive pressure which reduces the
discharge through the spillway.
Chute (Trough) Spillway

In this type of spillway, the water, after flowing over a short crest or other kind of control
structure, is carried by an open channel (called the "chute" or "trough") to the downstream side
of the river. The control structure is generally normal to the conveyance channel. The channel is
constructed in excavation with stable side slopes and invariably lined. The flow through the
channel is super-critical. The spillway can be provided close to the dam or at a suitable saddle
away from the dam where site conditions permit.

Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of the dam. The water after
flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the crest. This is then carried
by a chute to the downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be used instead of a chute.

Shaft (Morning Glory or Glory hole) Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in plan, the flow over which is carried by a vertical
or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly at the stream bed level and eventually to the
downstream side. The diversion tunnels constructed during the dam construction can be used as
the horizontal conduit in many cases.

Siphon Spillway

As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. A hood provided over a
conventional spillway forms a conduit. With the rise in reservoir level water starts flowing over
the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The flowing water however, entrains air and once all the air in
the crest area is removed, siphon action starts. Under this condition, the discharge takes place at
a much larger head. The spillway thus has a larger discharging capacity. The inlet end of the
hood is generally kept below the reservoir level to prevent floating debris from entering the
conduit. This may cause the reservoir to be drawn down below the normal level before the
siphon action breaks and therefore arrangement for de-priming the siphon at the normal reservoir
level is provided.

Purposes of Dams - Importance, Functions

and Applications
A majority of dams built in the world are multipurpose in nature, but irrigation is the largest user
of the waters withdrawn. Dams enable  harnessing  of  large  water resources, to meet needs of
fast growing societies round the world: food, fodder,  fish production (aquaculture), drinking
water, clothing, sanitation, energy, industry, wildlife and others. A major portion of  water stored
behind dams in the world is withdrawn for irrigation which mostly comprises consumptive use,
that is, evapotranspiration (ET) needs of irrigated crops and plantations.

Dams for the purpose of Hydropower

When a dam is built, it stops the flow of the river and causes the water level to rise. The higher
water level then allows for the harvesting the energy of the through the falling of that water. The
reservoir the dam creates literally acts as stored energy. Water then flows from high to low
through turbines within the dam. The water spins the turbines which are connected to a generator
to turn the rotar which then creates the electric power.

Dams provide clean, pollution free energy, but they can also harm the environment. Species that
use rivers to spawn are often hurt by dams.

Hydropower plants has several advantages. Once a dam has been built and the equipment
installed, the energy source i.e. flowing water, is free. It's a clean fuel source renewed by snow
and rainfall. Hydropower plants can supply large amounts of electricity, and they are relatively
easy to adjust for demand by controlling the flow of water through the turbines.

Dams for the purpose of Water Supply

Purposes of dams for domestic water supply includes everyday activities such as water for
drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, and lawn and garden watering.

Dams for Storage of Water

Not all the water stored behind dams is withdrawn for use. A top depth varying from 1 to 2
meters depending on local climate, is annually lost to atmosphere due to evaporation. At the
bottom, some depth serves as a dead storage for accommodating sediment brought in by inflow.
Dead storage size depends upon the catchment area characteristics but similar to evaporation
losses, tends to be proportionately more in case of a smaller dam. Storages provide insurance
against uncertainty due to climatic variability, can help reduce variability in season’ slow flows
in rivers and basically save societies from economic  upheavals  and  losses  due  to  flood  and
drought.

Dams for Flood Control

It is an internationally accepted practice that the water level of a reservoir should be kept below a
certain level before the onset of the monsoon season. This is so that when the monsoon rains
come, there is space to store the excess rainwater and also so that water can be released in a
regulated manner, thus preventing floods downstream when there is heavy inflow to the dams. It
is important that at least 30% of the storage capacity of dams be kept free before the monsoon.

In addition to helping farmers, dams help prevent the loss of life and property caused by
flooding. Purposes of dams for flood control impound floodwaters and then either release them
under control to the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses. For centuries,
people have built dams to help control devastating floods.

Dams, reservoirs, flood levees, embankments, and river training works constitute structural
measures for better flood management. In the field of Integrated Flood Management (IFM),
dams and reservoirs can be considered a viable and  effective alternative, especially when there
are extensive settlements on the floodplains which make it impossible to restrict land uses or
implement other non-structural measures. Dams and reservoirs, in general, constitute an effective
structural  measure, since  they are able to store large flow volumes, modify flood routing and
significantly reduce peak flows.

Dams for Recreation

Dams provide prime recreational facilities throughout the world. Boating, skiing, camping,
picnic areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams.

Navigation purposes of dams

Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation throughout the
heartland of the Nation.

Purposes of Dams in United States

Multipurpose Dams
Storage that serves the need for irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, power
generation and recreation can be more efficient and cost-effective than storage serving single
purposes. Multipurpose dams also have some disadvantages. Different uses of water have
different and sometimes conflicting requirements in terms of storage, use and releases. For
example, demands for energy during peak times may require water to be released from dams
when irrigators require water to be stored for later use. Ensuring reasonable allocation between
water-using sectors is critical and requires careful management to deliver the full range of
economic, social and environmental uses of water.
Dam is a barrier built across a river to hold back river water for safe retention and storage of
water or control the water flow. Dams allow to divert the river flow into a pipeline, a canal or
channel. Dams results in substantially raising water levels in the river over a large area, thus
create a storage space. Purposes of dams are described as below:

Purposes of Dams
Dams and reservoirs are built to raise water level for storage and safe retention of large quantity
of water. Water is subsequently raised to achieve various purposes. Dams may be constructed to
meet one or more purposes as:

1. Irrigation
2. Hydropower development (Tarbela Dam, Mangla Dam)
3. Domestic, municipal, industrial water supply (Hub dam, Simly dam in Islamabad)
4. Storage of Water
5. Flood control
6. Recreation (picnic, camping, fishing, swimming, kayaking, white water rafting).
7. Fish and wildlife protection and development, and improvement of river ecology.
8. River water quality / pollution control and management.
9. Stream flow regulation for various purposes.
10. Navigation

Most dams are multi-purpose, serving more than one purpose. Mostly these additional purposes
are achieved as byproduct outcome, e.g., hydropower, recreation, etc. For multipurpose dams,
the storage is allocated and prioritized for different purposes and cost allocation.

A
Layout of a Multipurpose dam
Dams for the purpose of Irrigation
According to a study of World Commission on Dams, half of the world's large dams were built
exclusively or primarily  for  irrigation and an estimated 30-40% of  the 271 million hectares of
irrigated lands worldwide rely on dams. Dams are estimated to contribute 12-16% of world food
production. About 1 billion people depend on food produced by reservoir  related irrigation.
There is no alternative of how this food could have been produced by other means. (WCD Study,
November 2000)

A majority of dams built in the world are multipurpose in nature, but irrigation is the largest user
of the waters withdrawn. Dams enable  harnessing  of  large  water resources, to meet needs of
fast growing societies round the world: food, fodder,  fish production (aquaculture), drinking
water, clothing, sanitation, energy, industry, wildlife and others. A major portion of  water stored
behind dams in the world is withdrawn for irrigation which mostly comprises consumptive use,
that is, evapotranspiration (ET) needs of irrigated crops and plantations.

Dams for the purpose of Hydropower

When a dam is built, it stops the flow of the river and causes the water level to rise. The higher
water level then allows for the harvesting the energy of the through the falling of that water. The
reservoir the dam creates literally acts as stored energy. Water then flows from high to low
through turbines within the dam. The water spins the turbines which are connected to a generator
to turn the rotar which then creates the electric power.

Dams provide clean, pollution free energy, but they can also harm the environment. Species that
use rivers to spawn are often hurt by dams.

Hydropower plants has several advantages. Once a dam has been built and the equipment
installed, the energy source i.e. flowing water, is free. It's a clean fuel source renewed by snow
and rainfall. Hydropower plants can supply large amounts of electricity, and they are relatively
easy to adjust for demand by controlling the flow of water through the turbines.

Dams for the purpose of Water Supply

Purposes of dams for domestic water supply includes everyday activities such as water for
drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, and lawn and garden watering.

Dams for Storage of Water

Not all the water stored behind dams is withdrawn for use. A top depth varying from 1 to 2
meters depending on local climate, is annually lost to atmosphere due to evaporation. At the
bottom, some depth serves as a dead storage for accommodating sediment brought in by inflow.
Dead storage size depends upon the catchment area characteristics but similar to evaporation
losses, tends to be proportionately more in case of a smaller dam. Storages provide insurance
against uncertainty due to climatic variability, can help reduce variability in season’ slow flows
in rivers and basically save societies from economic  upheavals  and  losses  due  to  flood  and
drought.
Dams for Flood Control
It is an internationally accepted practice that the water level of a reservoir should be kept below a
certain level before the onset of the monsoon season. This is so that when the monsoon rains
come, there is space to store the excess rainwater and also so that water can be released in a
regulated manner, thus preventing floods downstream when there is heavy inflow to the dams. It
is important that at least 30% of the storage capacity of dams be kept free before the monsoon.

In addition to helping farmers, dams help prevent the loss of life and property caused by
flooding. Purposes of dams for flood control impound floodwaters and then either release them
under control to the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses. For centuries,
people have built dams to help control devastating floods.

Dams, reservoirs, flood levees, embankments, and river training works constitute structural
measures for better flood management. In the field of Integrated Flood Management (IFM),
dams and reservoirs can be considered a viable and  effective alternative, especially when there
are extensive settlements on the floodplains which make it impossible to restrict land uses or
implement other non-structural measures. Dams and reservoirs, in general, constitute an effective
structural  measure, since  they are able to store large flow volumes, modify flood routing and
significantly reduce peak flows.

Dams for Recreation

Dams provide prime recreational facilities throughout the world. Boating, skiing, camping,
picnic areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams.

Navigation purposes of dams

Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation throughout the
heartland of the Nation.
Purposes of Dams in United States

Multipurpose Dams
Storage that serves the need for irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, power
generation and recreation can be more efficient and cost-effective than storage serving single
purposes. Multipurpose dams also have some disadvantages. Different uses of water have
different and sometimes conflicting requirements in terms of storage, use and releases. For
example, demands for energy during peak times may require water to be released from dams
when irrigators require water to be stored for later use. Ensuring reasonable allocation between
water-using sectors is critical and requires careful management to deliver the full range of
economic, social and environmental uses of water.

Typical Cross Section of Earth Filled Dams

 
 

1.
1. Sheet Pile wall
2. Core wall + Sheet pile wall or Cut off wall
3. Core wall + Cut off trench
4. Core wall + Impervious blanket at the upstream surface
5. Flattening the downstream face
6. Rockfill toe on the downstream
7. Horizontal drainage / filter on the downstream side
8. Providing coarse section on the downstream face of the dam

There are three possibilities:

1. Only pervious soil is available:

1. Pervious dam body and base is impervious

2. Pervious dam body and base is pervious
3. Pervious dam body and base is pervious to a limited extent and impervious onward

2. Only impervious soil is available:

1.
1. Impervious dam body and base is also impervious
2. Impervious dam body and base is pervious

3. Pervious and impervious both types of soil are available:

1. Pervious dam body, base is pervious upto some extent and impervious onwards
2. Pervious dam body and base is pervious
3. Pervious dam body and base is impervious

Design of dam filters

Terzaghi's rules for design of dam filters

Perform sieve analysis test on the material from dam body and filter base materials and draw
gradation curve for both.

1. D15 (f) / D85 (s) < 5

2. D15 (f) / D15 (s) > 4 upto 20
3. D50 (f) / D85 (s) > 25
4. Filter material should be well graded
5. Gradation curves for both materials should be approximately parallel
6. All materials should pass sieve of 3" and not more than 5% passing sieve no. 200

How to Build Small Dams - Design and

Construction
Dams built up on small scale by compacting successive layers of earth, using the most
impervious materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the upstream and
downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain, and a suitable
spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic overflow of the dam.

Small Earth Dams

Simple earth dams can be built where there is an impervious foundation, such as Un-fissured
rock, or a clay subsoil. The channel upstream should preferably have a gentle slope, to give a
large reservoir for a given height of dam. An ideal dam site is where the valley narrows, to
reduce the width of the dam.

Design of Small Dams

The design below is suitable for dams up to 3 m high. It is a uniform embankment of inorganic,
clay loam soil, such as sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, or soil with a higher clay
content (sandy clay, clay, or silty clay). Any of these can be used provided cracks do not form.
The dam must have a 'cut-off' which locks it into the subsoil foundation, ensuring that the dam is
stable.
A 3m high dam would typically have a 2 m maximum depth of water when full, increasing to
2.5m under flood conditions, with a 0.5m depth of flow over the spillway. The top 0.5m
(minimum) is required to provide a safety margin (free board) which allows for water rising on
the dam due to wind and waves, and wear and tear on the dam crest. The total design height of
the dam must be increased for construction by at least 10 per cent, to take account of settlement.

Calculating the height of the dam

The height of the dam will depend on the storage required in the reservoir. To calculate this:

 Determine the water requirement per day (R litres per day);

 Estimate the area of the reservoir (A m2), the evaporation and seepage losses per day (E
mm per day) and, hence, the volume of losses per day (A x E liters per day);
 Estimate the length of the critical period (T days), during which the stream flow is less
than the water requirement and losses, when requirements would be met using the storage
in the reservoir;
 Estimate the average stream flow during the critical period (Q liters per day);
 The effective storage required (S litres) = (water requirement per day plus evaporation
and seepage losses per day minus average inflow per day) multiplied by the length of
critical period:

S = (R + AxE - Q) x T

The dam must be high enough to store this quantity of water. The storage capacity of the
reservoir (C liters) is best determined from cross-section surveys across the valley, but can be
estimated from the area of the reservoir (Am2) and the maximum depth of water at the dam (D
m) when full:

C = 330 A x D

The site should then be surveyed to estimate the area (A) of the reservoir for different values of
D, and a trial-and-error method will then give the reservoir capacity (C) which meets the storage
required (S) and provides a safety margin. The resulting value of A should then be used in the
calculation of S to obtain a consistent result.

Height of dam = D + 1 m.

Construction of Small Dams

The materials should preferably be taken from the reservoir area; different parts of the side of the
valley should be examined so that the most suitable soils are located (soil textures will vary
according to position in the valley). The following materials should be avoided: organic material
- including topsoil - decomposing material, material with high mica content, calcitic clays, fine
silts, schists and shales, cracking clays, and sodic soils. Avoid material with roots or stones.

Other construction points to consider:

1. Construct during the dry season.

 2. Divert the stream; block it with a temporary low dam, or divert it through a culvert
(which could become part of the outlet works or spillway later).
3. Strip topsoil because it contains organic matter (such as roots) which prevents proper
compaction and may provide seepage routes (piping) once the organic matter has
decayed.
4. Pay attention to people's safety - avoid hazardous practices and dangerous equipment.
5. Place material in the dam:
o In layers 100 to 200mm deep;
o At the optimum moisture content - when material can be rolled to pencil thickness
without breaking, and is as wet as possible without clogging the roller; then
o Compact with a heavy roller, or by driving across vehicles or animals.
6. Cover the whole dam with topsoil:
o Plant strong grass (such as Kikuyu grass, star grass or Bermuda grass) to protect
against erosion;
o Maintain the grass (water in the dry season if necessary), but prevent trees taking
root, and keep out animals such as rats and termites.
7. Protect the upstream slope:
o Lay a stone or brush mattress (for example bundles of saplings between 25 and
50mm long) on the slope, and tie it down with wire anchored to posts;
o Secure a floating timber beam 2 m from the dam - these need replacing every 10
years or so.

Settlement of Dams
Even with compaction, earth dams settle as the weight forces air and water from voids
(consolidation) - allow for this settlement in the design. For small dams, well-compacted
settlement should be between 5 to 10 per cent of the height of the dam.

Seepage/filter
Some water will seep through the dam, even if it is constructed of good materials, and well-
compacted. This seepage reduces the strength of the dam. Nelson recommends the crest width
and slopes shown in Figure 2 to provide a stable, 3m-high embankment making extra seepage
protection unnecessary. A safer, but technically difficult, solution is to include a rock toe drain
(as shown), to collect seepage water. This should extend up to a third of the height of the dam,
and a graded sand and gravel filter must be placed between the dam fill material and the drain to
prevent fine clay particles being washed out. The filter must be designed according to the particle
size of the dam material and the drain.

Spillways
 A spillway is required to protect the dam from
over-topping, for example during high flows. It passes surplus water downstream safely,
preventing both the failure of the dam, and damage downstream.

Surplus water flows over a spillway crest at the top water level, and into an open channel around
the side of the dam, discharging safely into the stream below the dam. It may be made from
reinforced concrete, but a cheaper solution is a grassed spillway with a:

1. Vegetated earth channel

2. Protected crest at reservoir top-water level
3. Maximum velocity 2.5m/s

Types of Embankment Dams - Earth Dams,

Rockfill Dams
There are many types of dams based on different criteria as below:

1. Classification of dam types with respect to size/height of the dam

2. Classification of dam according to its purpose/use
3. Classification of Dams According To Location
4. Classification of Dams According to Release Pattern
5. Classification of dams according to Hydraulic Design
6. Classification of dams according to Size
7. Classification of Dams According to Filling and Emptying Mode
8. Types of Dams according to type of material

Types of Embankment Dams

The two principal types of embankment dams are earth and rock-fill dams, depending on the
predominant fill material used. Some generalized sections of earth dams showing typical zoning
for different types and quantities of fill materials and various methods for controlling seepage are
presented in Figure 2-1.

When practically only one impervious material is available and the height of the dam is
relatively low, a homogeneous dam with internal drain may be used as shown in Figure 2-1a.
The inclined drain serves to prevent the downstream slope from becoming saturated and
susceptible to piping and/or slope failure and to intercept and prevent piping through any
horizontal cracks traversing the width of the embankment.

Earth Dams with impervious cores, as

shown in Figures 2-1b and 2-1c, are constructed when local borrow materials do not provide
adequate quantities of impervious material. A vertical core located near the center of the dam is
preferred over an inclined upstream core because the former provides higher contact pressure
between the core and foundation to prevent leakage, greater stability under earthquake loading,
and better access for remedial seepage control. An inclined upstream core allows the downstream
portion of the embankment to be placed first and the core later and reduces the possibility of
hydraulic fracturing. However, for high dams in steep-walled canyons the overriding
consideration is the abutment topography. The objective is to fit the core to the topography in
such a way to avoid divergence, abrupt topographic discontinuities, and serious geologic defects.
For dams on pervious foundations, as shown in Figure 2-1d to 2-1f, seepage control is necessary
to prevent excessive uplift pressures and piping through the foundation.

The methods for control of under seepage in dam foundations are horizontal drains, cutoffs
(compacted backfill trenches, slurry walls, and concrete walls), upstream impervious blankets,
downstream seepage berms, toe drains, and relief wells. Rock-fill dams may be economical due
to large quantities of rock available from required excavation and/or nearby borrow sources, wet
climate and/or short construction season prevail, ability to place rock fill in freezing climates,
and ability to conduct foundation grouting with simultaneous placement of rock fill for sloping
core and decked dams (Walker 1984). Two generalized sections of rock-fill dams are shown in
Figure 2-2. A rock-fill dam with steep slopes requires better foundation conditions than an earth
dam, and a concrete dam (or roller-compacted concrete dam) requires better foundation
conditions than a rock-fill dam. The design and construction of seepage control measures for
dams are given in EM 1110-2-1901.

Earth Dams
An earth dam is composed of suitable soils obtained from borrow areas or required excavation
and compacted in layers by mechanical means.

Following preparation of a foundation, earth from borrow areas and from required excavations is
transported to the site, dumped, and spread in layers of required depth. The soil layers are then
compacted by tamping rollers, sheep foot rollers, heavy pneumatic-tired rollers, vibratory rollers,
tractors, or earth-hauling equipment. One advantage of an earth dam is that it can be adapted to a
weak foundation, provided proper consideration is given to thorough foundation exploration,
testing, and design.

Rock-fill Dams

A rockfill dam is one composed largely of fragmented rock with an impervious core. The core is
separated from the rock shells by a series of transition zones built of properly graded material. A
membrane of concrete, asphalt, or steel plate on the upstream face should be considered in lieu of
an impervious earth core only when sufficient impervious material is not available.

However, such membranes are susceptible to breaching as a result of settlement. The rock-fill
zones are compacted in layers 12 to 24 in. thick by heavy rubber-tired or steel-wheel vibratory
rollers. It is often desirable to determine the best methods of construction and compaction on the
basis of test quarry and test fill results. Dumping rock fill and sluicing with water, or dumping in
water, is generally acceptable only in constructing cofferdams that are not to be incorporated in
the dam embankment.

Free-draining, well-compacted rock fill can be placed with steep slopes if the dam is on a rock
foundation. If it is necessary to place rock-fill on an earth or weathered rock foundation, the
slopes must, of course, be much flatter, and transition zones are required between the foundation
and the rockfill. Materials for rock-fill dams range from sound free draining rock to the more
friable materials such as sand stones and silt-shales that break down under handling and
compacting to form an impervious to semi-pervious mass.

The latter materials, because they are not completely free draining and lack the shear strength of
sound rock fill, are often termed "Random Rock" and can be used successfully for dam
construction, but, because of stability and seepage considerations, the embankment design using
such materials is similar to that for earth dams.

Spillway Control Devices - FlashBoards and

Stop Logs
The simplest form of control for a spillway is the free, or uncontrolled, overflow crest, which
automatically releases water whenever the reservoir water surface rises above crest level. The
advantages of the uncontrolled crest are the elimination of the need for constant attendance and
regulation of the control devices by an operator and the freedom from maintenance and repairs of
the devices.

A regulating gate or other form of movable crest control is required if a sufficiently long
uncontrolled crest or a sufficiently large surcharge head cannot be obtained for the required
spillway capacity. Such devices are also required if the spillway is to release storages below the
normal reservoir water surface.

Selection of the type and size of the crest control device may be influenced by such conditions
as the discharge characteristics of the device, the climate, frequency and nature of floods, winter
storage requirements, flood control storage and outflow provisions, the need for handling ice and
debris, and special operating requirements.

Whether an operator will be in attendance during flood periods and the availability of electric
power, operating mechanisms, operating bridges, etc., are also factors that could influence the
type of control device selected.

Many types of crest control have been devised. The type selected for a specific installation
should be based on a consideration of the factors noted above as well as economy, adaptability,
reliability, and efficiency. Movable crests include such devices as flashboards, stoplogs, and
drum gates. Regulating devices include vertical or inclined rectangular lift gates, wheel-mounted
gates, roller-mounted gates, and radial gates. Radial gates and wheel mounted slide gates are
most commonly used for large spillways.
For simplicity of design and operation, the simpler control devices are considered appropriate for
spillways for small dams. These devices include flash boards, stoplogs, rectangular gates, and
radial gates, which should be used whenever possible because they can be easily fabricated and
obtained commercially.

Flashboards and stoplogs:

Flashboards and stoplogs can be used as means of raising the reservoir storage level above a
fixed spillway crest level when the spillway is not needed for releasing floods. However, safety
of dams considerations often prevent the use of these devices. Flashboards usually consist of
individual wooden boards, or structural panels anchored to the crest, stoplogs are wooden boards
or structural panels spanning horizontally between slots or grooves recessed into the sides of the
supporting piers. To provide adequate spillway capacity, the flash boards or stoplogs must be
removed before the floods occur, or they must be designed or arranged so that they can be
removed while being overtopped. These devices should be used only where adequate removal is
ensured. Various arrangements of flash boards have been devised. Some must be placed and
removed manually, some are designed to fail after being overtopped, and others are arranged to
drop out of position either automatically or after being manually triggered when the reservoir
exceeds a certain stage.

Flash-boards provide a simple economical type of movable crest device, and they have the
advantage that an unobstructed crest is provided when the flash-boards and their supports are
removed. However, flash boards have several disadvantages that greatly limit their adaptability.
Among these disadvantages are the following:

1. They present a hazard if not removed in time to pass floods, especially where the
reservoir area is small and the stream drainage basin is subject to flash floods.
2. They require the attendance of an operator or crew and equipment for their removal,
unless they are designed to fail automatically.
3. If they are designed to fail when the water reaches a predetermined stage, their operation
is uncertain, and when they fail they release sudden and undesirably large outflows.
4. Ordinarily, they cannot be placed back into position while flow is passing over the crest.
5. If the spillway functions frequently, the repeated replacement of flash boards may be
costly.
6. In some cases, they can be used only during low inflow periods.

Stop-logs are usually wooden beams or structural steel panel units stacked one upon the other to
the desired height. They form a bulkhead that is supported in slots or in grooves recessed into the
supporting piers at each end of the span. The spacing of the supporting piers depends on the
material from which the stop logs are constructed, the head of water acting against the stoplogs,
and the handling facilities available for installing and removing them. Stop logs that are removed
individually as the need for increased discharge occurs are the simplest form of a crest gate.

Stop logs can be an economical substitute for more elaborate gates where relatively close spacing
of piers is not objectionable and where removal is required only infrequently. However, stop-
logs that must be removed or installed in flowing water may require elaborate handling
mechanisms that make them as costly as gates with attached hoists. A stoplogged spillway
requires the attendance of an operating crew for removing and installing the stoplogs.
Furthermore, the arrangement may present a hazard to the safety of the dam if the reservoir is
small and the stream is subject to flash floods, because the stoplogs must be removed in time to
pass the flood.

Stability and Failure of Earth Filled Dams

Failure of earth dams may be:

1. Hydraulic Failure
2. Seepage Failure
3. Structural Failure

1. Hydraulic Failure:
Types of Rolled filled dams:

1.
1. Overtopping of dams
2. Erosion of the Upstream Surface
3. Erosion of the Downstream Surface
4. Erosion of the Downstream toe

i. Overtopping of dams:

This type of dam is made up of only one type of material. Usually porous materials is used.
These dams are easy and cheap to construct but cannot be used to make multipurpose large
dams. For large multipurpose dams zoned type method is used. Over topping failures result from
the erosive action of water on the embankment. Erosion is due to un-controlled flow of water
over, around, and adjacent to the dam. Earth embankments are not designed to be over-topped
and therefore are particularly susceptible to erosion. Once erosion has begun during over-
topping, it is almost impossible to stop. A well vegetated earth embankment may withstand
limited over topping if its crest is level and water flows over the crest and down the face as an
evenly distributed sheet without becoming concentrated. The owner should closely monitor the
reservoir pool level during severe storms.

ii. Erosion of the Upstream Surface:

Here zones of different materials are made.

Shell is used to give support and stability to the structure of dam. It is made of coarse materials
and is pervious in nature.

Core is used to make the dam water tight and to reduce the seepage. Fine material is used here.
Used in large dams.

iii. Erosion of the Downstream Surface:

Due to rainfall, snow and winds the downstream surface of the dam also erodes. By providing a
section of coarse materials here, this erosion can be reduced or prevented.

2. Seepage Failure:
All earth dams have seepage resulting
from water permeating slowly through
the dam and its foundation. Seepage
must be controlled in both velocity
and quantity. If uncontrolled, it can
progressively erode soil from the
embankment or its foundation,
resulting in rapid failure of the dam.
Erosion of the soil begins at the
downstream side of the embankment,
either in the dam proper or the foundation, progressively works toward the reservoir, and
eventually develops a direct connection to the reservoir. This phenomenon is known as "piping."
Piping action can be recognized by an increased seepage flow rate, the discharge of muddy or
discolored water, sinkholes on or near the embankment, or a whirlpool in the reservoir. Once a
whirlpool (eddy) is observed on the reservoir surface, complete failure of the dam will probably
follow in a matter of minutes. As with over topping, fully developed piping is virtually
impossible to control and will likely cause failure. Seepage can cause slope failure by creating
high pressures in the soil pores or by saturating the slope. The pressure of seepage within an
embankment is difficult to determine without proper instrumentation. A slope which becomes
saturated and develops slides may be showing signs of excessive seepage pressure.

Seepage failure of the dams is of the following types

1.
1. Piping through the dam
2. Piping through the foundation
3. Conduit Leakage

1. Piping thorugh the dam: There are two kinds of forces acting on the downstream face
of the dam:
1. Weight of the material
2. Seepage Force

If the seepage force exceeds the weight of the material the water washes away the soil from the
plate and creates a hole in the ground. This hole deepens as more and more mateial is taken away
from it and extends longitudinally, making a pipe hole called "Piping in the dam".

3. Structural Failure:
3. Structural Failure of earthen dams

Structural failures can occur in

either the embankment or the
appurtenances. Structural failure
of a spillway, lake drain, or other
appurtenance may lead to failure
of the embankment. Cracking,
settlement, and slides are the more
common signs of structural failure
of embankments. Large cracks in
either an appurtenance or the
embankment, major settlement,
and major slides will require
emergency measures to ensure
safety, especially if these
problems occur suddenly. If this type of situation occurs, the lake level should be lowered, the
appropriate state and local authorities notified, and professional advice sought. If the observer is
uncertain as to the seriousness of the problem, the Division of Water should be contacted
immediately. The three types of failure previously described are often interrelated in a complex
manner. For example, uncontrolled seepage may weaken the soil and lead to a structural failure.
A structural failure may shorten the seepage path and lead to a piping failure. Surface erosion
may result in structural failure.

Not very common and not in use.

1.
1. Failure of downstream face during steady seepage conditions
2. Failure of upstream face during sudden draw down
3. Failure due to sliding of foundation
4. damage due to burrowing animals
5. Failure of dam due to earthquake
2. Usually upper part of the dam is dry and the lower is saturated with water which gives
rise to pore water pressure within the voids. Dam body is saturated - All pores / voids are
filled with water, pore water pressure is induced. Effective pressure reduces and shear
strength of soil decreases
3. When water is suddenly withdrawn or in other words if the level of water in the reservoir
reduces suddenly, the soil on the upstream face of the dam body may be highly saturated
and has pore water pressure that tries to destabilize the dam and if this force is high
enough, it can fail the dam.
4. If the shear strength of the soil on which the foundation is built is weak though the
foundation itself may be strong but due to weakness of the soil foundation may slide on
the sides and in some cases the foundation itself may be not able to resist the shear force
that may have increased from normal due to any reason.
5. Burrowing animals - Small animals living in the holes and pits may have dug their holes
anywhere in the dam body which may widen with the passage of time and can be
dangerous.
6. Earthquake

Minor defects such as cracks in the embankment may be the first visual sign of a major problem
which could lead to failure of the structure. The seriousness of all deficiencies should be
evaluated by someone experienced in dam design and construction. A qualified professional
engineer can recommend appropriate permanent remedial measures.

How HydroPower Plants Work

 
 

As people discovered centuries ago, the flow of water represents a huge supply of kinetic energy
that can be put to work. Water wheels are useful for generating motion energy to grind grain or
saw wood, but they are not practical for generating electricity. Water wheels are too bulky and
slow.

Hydroelectric plants are different. They use modern turbine generators to produce electricity, just
as thermal (coal, natural gas, nuclear) power plants do, except they do not produce heat to spin
the turbines.

Also See: Surge Tanks Functions

How a Hydropower Plant Works

A typical hydropower plant is a system with three parts:

 — a power plant where the electricity is produced;

 — a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and
 — a reservoir (artificial lake) where water can be stored.

To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates to allow water from the reservoir above to flow
down through large tubes called penstocks. At the bottom of the penstocks, the fast-moving
water spins the blades of turbines. The turbines are connected to generators to produce
electricity. The electricity is then transported via huge transmission lines to a local utility
company.
 1. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam flows through an intake screen, which
filters out large debris, but allows fish to pass through.
2. The water travels through a large pipe, called a penstock.
3. The force of the water spins a turbine at a low speed, allowing fish to pass through
unharmed.
4. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of magnets. This
creates an electric field, producing electricity.
5. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage, allowing it
to travel through the electric grid.
6. Water flows out of the penstock into the downstream river.

Head and Flow

The amount of electricity that can be generated at a hydro plant is determined by two factors:
head and flow. Head is how far the water drops. It is the distance from the highest level of the
dammed water to the point where it goes through the power-producing turbine.

Flow is how much water moves through the system—the more water that moves through a
system, the higher the flow. Generally, a highhead plant needs less water flow than a low-head
plant to produce the same amount of electricity.

Storing Energy
One of the biggest advantages of a hydropower plant is its ability to store energy. The water in a
reservoir is, after all, stored energy. Water can be stored in a reservoir and released when needed
for electricity production.

During the day when people use more electricity, water can flow through a plant to generate
electricity. Then, during the night when people use less electricity, water can be held back in the
reservoir. Storage also makes it possible to save water from winter rains for generating power
during the summer, or to save water from wet years for generating electricity during dry years

Requirements Of Small Hydro Power Project

 
 

1.0 General Requirements Of Small hydro Power projects

1. Durability

All civil works must be durable and maintainable to 15 years, except in cases of specific
components where rebuild is explicitly included and costed in the management plan.

2. Optimization

Civil works must be designed for adequate and safe performance at minimum expense.

3. Flow closure

Reliable methods of diverting flow from the silt basin, canal, forebay, and from the penstock, so
that these components can be quickly emptied whenever required, must be included in the
design, and must be tamper-proof. There must be at least two flow diversion devices if there is
a canal included in the design.

4. Maintenance and materials

The use of high quality materials and construction techniques will result in less maintenance and
repair work through the life of the scheme, whereas low-cost construction will require
considerable maintenance. Both approaches are acceptable, though the first approach is
recommended for most schemes of larger capacity. The hydropower plant management plan
must make provision for high maintenance activity and cost in cases of low-cost civil works.

In all schemes concrete is recommended for the turbine base and for penstock anchor blocks; it
can be used in medium-cost headworks, canals, and forebays to provide strength and erosion
resistance in vulnerable areas such as the floor of the canal and forebay/silt basins, and the intake
mouth.

When visiting verify the above and in addition:

6.

Check for leaks from all civil constructions. These can quickly give rise to expensive damage
and must be fully repaired before the scheme is put to use. Also repair cracks or any faulty work
which could give rise to problems at a later date.

7.

A reliable and rapid shut-down or emptying method must be demonstrated for the silt basin,
canal, forebay, and penstock. Close all gates, then progressively open each one to check that
overflows work safely.

2.0 Weir and intake Requirements Of micro hydro Power

systems
1. Natural weirs
Particular attention must be paid to the choice of site for the intake. The river bed must not be in
danger of deepening (due to scouring action) or in danger of changing course, such that an intake
built to function with a natural weir would cease to function.

2.

During low river flow conditions (such as the 5-year drought), the intake must continue to draw
water in accordance with consumer expectations for power supply. In schemes where seasonal
drying out of the intake is a possibility, the management of the scheme must be planned to allow
for this, and contracts with consumers and tariff agreements must allow for periods of power
shut-down.

3.

The intake must be of a passive design; that is, it must function in 5- year flood conditions
without any need for operators to make adjustments or work close to flooded area.

4. If the weir and intake are a temporary structure, designed to be swept away high flow
conditions, the seasonal replacement of this structure should be costed into the management
plan, and provision made in consumer agreements for power shut down during the rebuild
period.

5.

Intakes must be designed to operate reliably without clogging with sediment and debris. If a
very low-cost design is adopted which is prone to clogging, provision must be made in the
management plan to replace and upgrade as necessary. (An example is the use of a submerged
pipe as an intake, which occasionally can work in some conditions, but will more often present
problems and need to be replaced with a more reliable design).

When visiting verify the above and in addition:

6.

Check that the intake is not in danger of clogging. If it is, upgrade the design.

7.

If a natural weir used, check for signs of bed scouring and changes of course. If gabions are
used to define the river course, check that a natural bank is developing around them to provide
stability as the gabion mesh disintegrates over time.

3.0 Schemes without open canals

1. If the penstock starts at the intake, the headrace should follow spillway and forebay tank
design principles with respect to deflection of flood waters and prevention of stones/debris
entering penstock and air entrainment. Desilting may be necessary as detailed. The penstock
entry section must be secure against flood water and boulders/trees etc carried by flood water.
The requirement for a reliable method of penstock closure and emptying, which can be
activated during flood conditions, is particularly important.

2. Air-traps

If a closed canal or headrace is used, such as a pipe, it is required that:

1. Either the pipe is laid without high points or low points

2. or if there are high points (or potential high points resulting from settling), then these
must be protected from air traps either by vent pipes rising to above static head level or
by air release valves
3. If there are low points these should be fitted with flush valves to allow removal of debris
blocking the water flow
4. Water will start to flow through by itself when it is diverted toward the system, without
any need for priming

How to Design Dams

1. The construction of dam should be economical
2. Dam should be feasible to construct e.g availability of labor, material, experienced and
skilled personnel etc.
3. Dam should be durable and safety against erosion should be provided i.e it should have a
longer lifetime.
4. It should be stable.
5. Saturation line of the dam should be in the downstream face.
6. Dam body as well as foundation of the dam should be safe from piping
7. Environmental disturbance should be minimum

Tunnels in Dams - Advantages and

Application
 
 

The type of intake structure depends on its location and function and on the various
appurtenances, such as fish-screens, trashracks, stoplog arrangements, or operating platforms that
must be furnished.

A means for dissipating the energy of flow before returning the discharge to the river should
normally be provided. This can be accomplished by a flip bucket, a stilling basin, a baffled apron
drop, a stilling well, or a similar dissipation device. Gate chambers, control platforms, or
enclosures may be required to provide operating space and protective housing for the control
devices. An outlet works may also require an outlet channel to return releases to the river and an
entrance channel to lead diversion flows or low-reservoir flows to the intake structure.

Because of inherent advantages, a tunnel outlet works is preferred where abutment and
foundation conditions permit its use and it is more economical than the other types of outlet
works.

A tunnel is not in direct contact with the dam embankment and, therefore, provides a much safer
and more durable layout than can be achieved with a cut-and-cover conduit. Little foundation
settlement, differential movement, and structural displacement is experienced with a tunnel that
has been bored through competent abutment material, and seepage along the outer surfaces of the
tunnel lining or leakage into the material surrounding the tunnel is less serious.
Furthermore, it is less likely that failure of some portion of a tunnel would cause failure of the
dam than the failure of a cut-and cover conduit that passes under or through the dam. Ordinarily,
pressure tunnels in competent rock do not require lining reinforced to withstand full internal
hydrostatic pressures because the surrounding rock can normally assume such stresses.

If the rock cover has sufficient weight and enough side resistance to prevent blowouts, only an
un reinforced lining is necessary to provide water tightness in seamy rock and smoother surfaces
for better hydraulic flow.

Where pressure tunnels are placed through less competent foundations, such as jointed or
yielding rock, the tunnel lining must be designed to withstand external hydrostatic and rock
loadings in addition to internal hydrostatic pressures. At the extreme upstream end of an outlet
works tunnel, where external hydrostatic pressures may nearly balance the internal pressures, the
lining must be reinforced to withstand rock loads only. However, if provision is made for
unwatering the tunnel by use of intake gates,' bulkheads, or stoplogs, an unbalanced hydrostatic
condition will exist. At the downstream portions of the tunnel where outside water pressures
diminish, the design of the tunnel lining must consider both external loads from the rock and
internal water pressures.

For free flow tunnels in competent rock, a lining may be needed only along the sides and bottom
to form a smooth waterway. In less competent material, lining the complete cross section may be
necessary to prevent caving. For that portion of a free flow tunnel immediately adjacent to the
reservoir or just downstream from a pressure tunnel, the possibility of hydrostatic pressure
buildup behind the lining caused by leakage through the walls of the pressure tunnel or by
seepage from the reservoir must be considered. Ordinarily, such external water pressure can be
reduced by grouting and by providing drain holes through the lining of the free flow tunnel.

A tunnel in which an independent pipe is installed should be lined with concrete, even if the rock
is competent enough to stand unsupported. Because such a tunnel houses the pressure pipe and
provides access to an upstream gate, the lining is needed to protect the pipe and operating
personnel against rockfall. It also minimizes seepage and protects the pipe, lighting installations,
and electrical conduits from seepage water. Site-specific conditions, economy of installation,
safety of personnel, and maintenance costs should be carefully considered before deciding to
leave such a tunnel unlined. For a pressure tunnel, a circular cross-sectional shape is the most
efficient, both hydraulically and structurally. For a free flow tunnel, a horseshoe shaped, or flat-
bottomed, tunnel provides better hydraulic flow, but is not as efficient as the circular shape for
carrying external loads. For small tunnels under only moderate heads, the horseshoe-shaped
pressure tunnel and either the horseshoe or the flat bottomed free flow tunnel may be
appropriate, depending on the foundation conditions.

Parameters considered in Designing

Spillways
Many parameters need consideration in designing a spillway. These include:

1. The inflow design flood hydro-graph

2. The type of spillway to be provided and its capacity
3. The hydraulic and structural design of various components and
4. The energy dissipation downstream of the spillway.

The topography, hydrology, hydraulics, geology and economic considerations all have a bearing
on these decisions. For a given inflow flood hydro graph, the maximum rise in the reservoir level
depends on the discharge characteristics of the spillway crest and its size and can be obtained by
flood routing. Trial with different sizes can then help in getting the optimum combination.

Coffer Dam - Applications and Working

Mechanism
Definition:
A cofferdam can be defined as "A watertight construction designed to facilitate construction
projects in areas which are normally submerged", such as bridges and piers.

The multiple-stage method of diversion over the tops of alternate low construction blocks or
through diversion conduits in a concrete dam requires shifting of the coffer dam from one side of
the river to the other during construction. During the first stage, the flow is restricted to one
portion of the stream channel while the dam is constructed to a safe elevation in the remainder of
the channel.

In the second stage, the coffer dam is shifted and the stream is carried over low blocks or through
diversion conduits in the constructed section of the dam while work proceeds on the un-
constructed portion. The dam is then carried to its ultimate height, with diversion finally being
made through the spillway, penstock, or permanent outlets.
A cofferdam is installed
in the execution area and
the water is pumped out
in order to facilitate work
for workers and enable
them to work in dry
conditions and can
construct structural
supports, enact repairs, or
perform other types of
work in a dry
environment. In some
regions of the world, a
cofferdam is better
known as a caisson.
Working inside a
cofferdam can be
hazardous if it is installed improperly or not safely pressurized, but advances in engineering have
led to increased safety for workers using this unique work environment.

A coffer dam is a temporary dam or barrier used to divert a stream or to enclose an area during
construction. The design of an adequate cofferdam involves the problem of construction
economics. When the construction is timed so that the foundation work can be executed during
the low-water season, the use of cofferdams can be held to a minimum. However, where the
stream flow characteristics are such that this is not practical, the cofferdam must be so designed
that it is not only safe, but also of the optimum height.

Height Limitations for Cofferdam

The height to which a coffer dam should be constructed may involve an economic study of
cofferdam height versus diversion works capacity. This may include routing studies of the
diversion design flood, especially when the outlet works requirements are small. If outlet works
requirements dictate a relatively large outlet conduit or tunnel, diversion flows ordinarily may be
accommodated without a high cofferdam. It should be remembered that the floodwater
accumulated behind the cofferdam must be evacuated in time to accommodate another storm.

The maximum height to which it is feasible to construct the cofferdam without encroaching upon
the area to be occupied by the dam must also be considered. Furthermore, the design of the
cofferdam must take into consideration the effect that excavation and de-watering of the
foundation of the dam will have on its stability, and it must anticipate removal, salvage, and
other factors.

Coffer Dam Materials

Generally, coffer dams are constructed of materials available at the site. The two types normally
used in the construction of dams are

1. Earthfill cofferdams and

 2. Rockfill cofferdams

Design of Coffer Dams

Whose design considerations closely follow those for permanent dams of the same type. Other
less common coffer dam types are concrete cribs filled with earth or rock, and cellular-steel
cofferdams filled with earth or rock. In this case, the major portion of the cofferdam consists of
an earth and rock embankment, and steel sheet piling was used to affect final closure in swift
water. Cellular steel cofferdams and steel sheet piling are adaptable to confined areas where
currents are swift.

If the coffer dam can be designed so that it is permanent and adds to the structural stability of the
dam, it will have a decided economic advantage. In some embankment dams the cofferdam can
even be incorporated into the main embankment. In such instances, the saving is twofold-the
amount saved by reducing the embankment material required and the amount saved by not
having to remove the cofferdam when it is no longer needed.