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1. EMBANKMENT DAM
3.1 Introduction
Embankment dams are built of soil or rock‐fill or both. As soil and rock‐fill are non‐rigid materials,
the embankment dams are called non‐rigid dams. The embankment dams are broadly classified as:
1. Earth dams (mainly constructed from earth or soil)
2. Rock fill dams (mainly constructed from rock fill or pieces of rocks)
3. Composite dams (these are constructed from both soil and rock fill)

Earth dams can be constructed on almost all type of foundations, provided suitable measures are taken.
They are more suitable than gravity dams if strong foundation at a reasonable depth is not available at the
site for the construction of gravity dams. It is cheaper than gravity dams if the soil in abundant quantity is
available near the site. Rock fill dams require somewhat stronger foundation as compared to earth dams,
but need not to be strong as gravity dams.

3.2 Classification of Earth Dams

The bulk of mass in an earth fill dam consists of soils while in the rock fill dam it consists of rock
materials. Depending upon the method of construction, earth dam can be divided in two categories:

(i) Rolled fill Dam

(ii) Hydraulic fill Dam

In the Rolled fill Dam, the embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically compacted layers. The
suitable materials are transported from borrow pits to the construction site by suitable earth moving
machineries. It is then spread by Bulldozers, and sprinkled to form layers of limited thickness having
proper water content. They are then thoroughly compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by means
of power operated rollers of proper design and weight.

In the case of Hydraulic fill dam the materials are excavated, transported and placed by Hydraulic fill
method. In this method the flumes are laid at a suitable falling gradient along the outer edge of the
embankment. The material mixed with water at borrow pits, is pumped into these flumes. The slush is
discharged through the outlets in the flume, at suitable interval along their length. The slush thus flows
towards the center of the bank. The course material of the slush settles at the outer edge while finer
material settles at the center. No compaction is done. At present the method is not in general use.
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Embankment Dam

Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Type

Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion

Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type

Rolled fill earth dams can be divided into the three types based on the selection of the materials:
a. Homogenous Earth dams: ‐ usually composed only one material which is either semi‐
impervious or impervious to limit seepage.
Modified Homogenous section: as pure homogenous section has the problem of sliding and
piping, the base is quite wide. Hence, it is usual practice to include an internal drainage system in
the form of horizontal drainage blanket, rock toe or a combination. The internal drainage system
keeps the phreatic line (saturation line) within the body of the dam and reduces the pore water
pressure.

Figure 3‐1: ‐ Earth Dams (a) homogenous section (b) with horizontal drainage blanket and (C) with rock
toe

b. Zoned earth dam: ‐ it composes more than one type of soil. It has a central impervious core
flanked by shells of pervious material u/s and d/s side. A transition filter is usually required b/n
core and shell to prevent piping. The central core is used to check seepage and is constructed
from clay, silty clay or clayey silt. The pervious shell is used for stability and is constructed from
sand, gravel, or mixture of these. The transition filter is used to prevent the migration of materials
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from the core to the shell. The d/s transition filter is useful during steady seepage conditions and
the u/s filter is useful during sudden drawdown conditions.

Figure 3‐2: ‐ Zoned earth dams

c. Diaphragm‐type earth dam: ‐ it consist thin impervious core, called diaphragm surrounded by
pervious shell. The difference b/n zoned and diaphragm dam is the thickness of the core. If the
thickness of the core at any elevation is less than the height of the embankment above that
elevation, the dam is generally considered to be diaphragm type.

Selection of the optimum type of embankments for a specific location is determined largely by the nature
and availability of different fill materials in sufficient quantity.

3.3 Cause of Failures of Embankment Dams

Embankment dams, may fail due to improper design, faulty constructions, lack of maintenance, etc.
Generally, causes of failure are grouped into three classes: Hydraulic failure, Seepage failure, and
Structural failure.

A. Hydraulic failures: About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these causes due to;
1. Overtopping: ‐ It is the most common cause of failure of an embankment dam. This kind of
dams doesn’t withstand overtopping. Overtopping of earth dam occurs if:
a. The design flood is undermined;
b. The spillway capacity is not adequate;
c. The spillway gates are not properly operated;
d. The free board is not sufficient; and
e. Excessive settlement of the foundation and dam occur.

Figure 3‐3: ‐ Overtopping failure

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2. Erosion of upstream faces: ‐ Wind waves of water developed due to wind near the top water
try to notch‐out the soil from u/s face and may even sometimes cause the slip of the u/s slope.
(To prevent this, upstream slope pitching or rip rap should be applied.)
3. Erosion of downstream face: ‐ Heavy rains falling directly over d/s face and the erosive
action of the moving water may lead to the formation of gullies on the d/s face, ultimately
leading to the dam failure. To avoid this, suitable berms with collection drains should be
provided to check the velocity of flowing water.
4. Erosion of d/s toe due to tail water: ‐ It may occur due to the following:
a. Cross currents that originate from the spillway bucket, if a spillway is provided
along the dam
b. Waves developed in the tail water.
To prevent this, pitching is provided up to the height slightly above normal tail water depth.

5. Cracking due to frost action: ‐ If the dam is located at a place where the temperature falls
below zero, frost may form in the pores of the soil in the earth dam. Where there is heaving,
the cracks may form in the soil and it may lead seepage and then failure.
To avoid failure by this action, the soil susceptible to frost formation should not be used.

B. Seepage failure: ‐ it may occur due to the following causes

a. Piping through the dam: ‐ If the seepage is uncontrolled and concentrated, it may lead to piping
and subsequent failure of earth dams. It is the progressive backward erosion starting from the exit
point and subsequent removal of the soil from the body of the dam and the formation of pipe‐like
conduit inside the dam. Piping occurs when the seepage force is very large and concentrated. It
starts at the point where the water emerges from the body of the dam (d/s face of the dam). It
occurs due to:
i. Poor construction: ‐ if the soil of the dam is not properly compacted (b/n foundation and
embankment material, successive layers)
ii. Differential settlement
iii. Burrowing animals
iv. Surface cracks
v. Presence of roots
b. Piping through the foundation: ‐ it occurs when the rate pressure drop resulting from seepage
through the foundation exceeds the resistance of the soil particles. The particle tends to move and
piping occurs due to removal of the finer particles from the region just downstream of the toe of
the embankment. It occurs when there are pockets of loose soil in the foundation.

Figure 3‐4: ‐ Piping failure through the dam and foundation

c. Conduit Leakage: ‐ cracks may develop in conduits provided for outlet due to foundation
settlement. Hence leakage may occur through this crack.
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d. Sloughing of d/s toe: ‐ sloughing is the process in which the soil mass fails down after saturation.
It occurs under reservoir full condition when the d/s portion of the dam becomes saturated and
continuously remains in the same state, causing softening and weakening of the soil mass. It
usually occurs when the phreatic line cuts the d/s dam face.

C. Structural failure: ‐ about 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural failures.
Structural failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing slides. It includes the following:
i. Slides in embankment iv. Foundation slides
ii. Liquefaction slides v. Failures by spreading
iii. Failures due to earthquakes vi. Holes caused by animals

3.4 Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam

An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of construction and operation of the reservoir.
The practical criteria for the design of earth dams may be stated briefly as follows.

1. No overtopping during occurrence of the inflow design flood.

a. appropriate design flood
b.Adequate spillway
c. Sufficient outlet works
d. Sufficient free board
2. No seepage failure
a. Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely without sloughing downstream
face.
b. Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and abutments should be controlled by
adapting suitable measures.
c. The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
d.There should be no opportunity for free passage of water from U/S to D/S both through the
dam and foundation.
3. No Structural failure
a) Safe U/S & D/S slope during construction
b) Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
c) Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition
d) Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
e) Earth quake resistant dam
4. Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.
5. Proper drainage
6. Economic section
3.5 Design Feature practices for earth dam

Fill material: - must be available within reasonable distance.

Spillway and its location: - sufficient spillway and outlet works must be provided to avoid overtopping
during flood. The spillway must be located separate from the dam body as a side channel, chute or shaft
spillway.

Free board: - sufficient free provision must be made for long- term settlement, wind set-up, wave action,
frost action and earth quake.
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Top width: - sufficient top width should be provided.

Seepage control: - there should be no possibility of flow from u/s face. The phreatic line should remain
well within the upstream face of the dam to control sloughing. The portion of the dam, downstream of the
impervious core, should be properly drained by using chimney drain, etc. the foundation seepage flows
and pressure within the foundation are controlled by cut-offs and by drainage.
Some of the seepage controlling mechanisms are:-
 Open trench cut-off( to moderate depth only)
 Ground cut-off( need not to penetrate to impervious horizons)
 Diaphragm cut-off( need not to penetrate to impervious horizons)
 U/S blanket (may employ under-drain with relief wells)

U/S face protection: - appropriate u/s face protection against wave erosion should be made by stone
pitching with grouted joints, concrete slabs, concrete block work, rock and riprap.

U/S and D/S face stability: - the slope should be designed under worst condition of loading so that the
slopes will be stable enough.
Outlet works/tunnels and culverts/:- outlet works should be constructed as driven tunnel through the
natural ground of the dam abutment. Where this is difficult, it can be founded on rock with proper care
such as provision of collars or plates to prevent preferential seepage and possible erosion at
interface. The culvert cross-section should also be logical with transverse joint of 10-16m and an
external slip coating to assist settlement of the fill without cracks.
3.6 Earth Dam Design features
The preliminary section of an earth dam should be selected to prevent failures that can be caused by
Hydraulic, Seepage and Structural. If it fails by one of them, the section should be revised.
In the preliminary section, the following parameters should be decided:
1. Embankments crest width: the top width of larger earthen dam should be sufficient to keep the
seepage line well within the dam, when reservoir is full. The crest should have a width of not less
than4m, and should carry a surfaced and well‐drained access road. The top width (W) of the earth
dam can be selected as per the following recommendation:
W = 0.2 *H + 3 , for very low dams (H<10m)
W = 0.55 H + 0.2H , For (10<H<30m)
W = 1.65(H +1.5)1/ 2 , for high dams (H> 30m)
Where: H is the height of the dam.
2. Freeboard: is the difference between maximum reservoir level and top of crest level. Free board
should be adequate so that there is no possibility of dam being overtopped. When wind blows
over water, a horizontal force develops on the water surface in the direction of the wind. This
results in the water piling up at the downwind boundary of the reservoir. This phenomenon is
referred to as wind tide or setup, S, where S represents the rise in water level above the normal
horizontal reservoir surface at the downwind boundary. Hence, the free board should be adequate
against the wave action and wind set‐up. The free board is calculated based on Steven Son
formula, which is modified by Monitor:
Fb = hw + R + S; Where: Fb = Free board (m)

The wave height can be estimated from:

1
h w =0.032 √VF+ 0.76−0.24 F 4 ( )
The Zuider Zee formula is commonly used to calculate wind setup.
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S = (V 2F cosα ) /(63,000D) ;

Where F (fetch length, the maximum distance b/n reservoir remote to the dam face) [km], V (wind
velocity of the area) [km/hr], D (average reservoir depth) [m], α (angle of the wind to the fetch) [degree],
and S (wind setup) [m]
R = Wave run‐up: it can be taken as 50% of wave height

Figure 3‐5: ‐Definition Sketch for wind Setup (S) and fetch length (F)

3. U/S and D/S slopes of the dam: ‐ The slopes depend on the type of the material, foundation
condition, height of the dam, and others. There is general rule for slopes but stability determines
its final value.

Table 3‐1: ‐Tentative value of slopes recommended by Terzaghi for preliminary section

Type of section Type of material u/s slope D/S slope

Well-graded material 2.5:1 2:1
Homogenous Coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
section Silty clay or Clay 2.5:1 2:1
Silty clay or Clay 3:1 2.5 :1
Zoned Sand or gravel shells with clay core 3:1 2.5:1
section Sand or gravel shells with RCC core 2.5:1 2:1

4. Core thickness: ‐ The thickness of the core should be enough to keep the phreatic line within it.
It may have a top width of not less than 4m for easy of construction. The side slopes of the core
in any case should not be greater than (x‐0.5:1) on the upstream and (y‐0.5:1) on the downstream,
where x: 1 is the upstream slope of the shell and y: 1 is the d/s slope of the shell. The minimum
u/s and d/s slopes of the core are usually 1.5:1 and 1:1 respectively.
5. Foundation seepage control: ‐ seepage flows and pressure within the foundation are controlled
by cut‐offs and by drainage. Cut‐offs is impervious barriers which function as extensions of the
embankments core into foundation. The cut‐offs are generally two types:
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a. Fully penetrating cut‐off: penetrate to impervious strata
b. Partially penetrating cut‐off: terminate where the head loss across the cut‐off is sufficient
to effect the required degree of control

Figure 3‐6:‐ Cut‐offs and control of under seepage

6. Downstream Drainage: ‐ it is required for all types of earth dams. The drainage system consists
of materials more pervious than the embankment material so that the water seeping through the
embankment is easily drained out. The type of drainage systems includes the following:
a) Drainage of the dam
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I. Horizontal drainage blanket
II. Rock toe
III. Chimney drain
b) Drainage of the foundation
I. Toe drain
II. Relief walls
III. Vertical sand drains
7. Upstream face protection: several options are available for protection of the upstream face
against wave erosion, ranging from traditional stone pitching with grouted joints through concrete
facing slabs to the use of concrete block work, rock armoring and riprap.
III.7 Seepage analysis
Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also through their pervious foundation. The
phreatic surface of the seepage regime, i.e. line within the dam section below which there is positive
hydrostatic pressure, must be kept away from the downstream face to avoid high pore water pressure
which may promote slope instability.

Assumptions:
1. Water is incompressible,
2. The rolled embankment and natural soil foundations are incompressible and porous. The size
of the pore space through which the water seeps remains the same, regardless of the water
pressure.
3. The seepage water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only gravity head loss.
4. The quantity of flow (water) entering the soil in a given time is the same as the quantity
flowing out of soil.
5. The hydraulic boundary conditions are known (exit and entry).

Let us consider an element of soil of the size Δx by Δy and unity thickness.

Consider an element of soil is size Dx, Dy and of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Let, Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in x and y direction.

∂V x ∂V y
Then (V ¿¿ x +
∂x (
∆ x)∧ V y +
∂y )
∆ y ¿ will be the corresponding velocity components at the exit of

the element. According to assumption 4 stated above

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∂V x ∂V y
(
V x ( ∆ y .1 ) +V x ( ∆ x .1 ) = V x +
∂x ) (
∆ x ( ∆ y .1 )+ V y +
∂y )
∆ y ( ∆ x .1 )

∂V x ∂ V y
From which + =0 ----------------------------------- (i); this is the continuity equation.
∂x ∂y
Let h be the hydraulic head under which water flows through the element. Then, according to Darcy’s law
∂V y
V x =K x ∗i x =K x ( ∂∂ hx )∧V =K ∗i =K ( ∂ y ) , Where K and K are the coefficient of
y y y y x y

permeability in x and y directions.

According to assumption 3:
V x =K x ∗i x =K x ( ∂∂ hx )……………………………………… (ii)
∂V y
And V y =K y∗i y =K y ( )
∂y
……………………………………… (iii)

The amount of seepage can be easily computed from the flow net, which consists of two sets of curves,
known as ‘Equipotential line’ and ‘stream lines’, mutually perpendicular to each other. For
homogeneous embankments dam, discharge per unit width (q) of the dam passing through a flow net is
described as:
K∗H∗N f
q=
Nd

Where: H is the head differential.

Nf is number of stream lines.
Nd is number of equipotential lines
III.7.1 Determination of Phreatic Lines
It is absolutely essential to determine the position of the phreatic line, as its position will enable to
determine the following:
I. The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged soil.
II. The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing the flow net.
III. To ensure that the phreatic line doesn’t cut the downstream face of the dam, which is
extremely necessary for preventing softening of the dam.
A. Homogeneous dam section with horizontal filter
It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by the filter and it is very nearly parabolic except
near its junction with u/s face. Since the u/s face of the dam (i.e. GB) becomes an equipotential line when
fully covered with water, the seepage line shall be perpendicular to the face near its junction point B.
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Figure 3‐7:‐ phreatic line for homogenous dam section with horizontal filter

Equation of the base parabola

Let a base parabola with focus at F is drawn and produced so as to intersect the water surface at a point A
as shown in Figure 2‐5. X is positive in the direction of u/s and y is positive for upward. From the basic
property of the parabola, the distance of the point P from the focus is equal to that from the directrix:
Distance PF= Distance PR

Taking the focus (F) as the origin, equation of the parabola p(x, y) can be written as:
√ x 2+ y 2 =x+ FD
Where; FD is the distance of the focus from the directrix, called focal distance and is represented by S.
Hence the equation of the parabola of the seepage line becomes:
√ x 2+ y 2 =x+ S (a)

Location of A is approximately 0.3HB horizontal distance upstream from point B according to

Cassagrande. Where, H is the projection of the point G on the water surface.

If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus (F) is taken as say b, then
(b, H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the parabola. And hence the distance of the focus from
the directrix, s can be easily computed as below:
√ b2 + H 2=b +S , h ence : S= √b 2+ H 2−b
Substituting the above value of S in equation (a), the complete equation of the parabola is obtained:
x2 + y2 = x2 + S 2 + 2xS ⇒ y2 = S 2 + 2xS
⇒ y = √ S 2+2 xS (b)
Using different values of X from equation (b), it is possible to determine the value of y for the parabola.

The center point (C) of FD will then be the vertex of the parabola. From equation (a): when x = 0, y= S.
Hence the vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S. Knowing the points A, C, and J and working out a
few more points from the equation, the parabola can be easily drawn and corrected for the curve BI, so as
to get the seepage line BIJC. The surface FC at which the seepage flow emerges is known as the
discharge face and it always remains wet.
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The amount of seepage can also be calculated easily from the equation of the seepage line as derived
below. Darcy’s law is defined as, q = KiA. When steady conditions have reached, the discharge crossing
any vertical plane across the dam section (unit width) will be the same. Hence, the value i and A can be
taken for any point on the seepage line

B. Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter

In this case, the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the toe. Cassagrande has shown that the
phreatic line concides with the base parabola provided the slope of the d/s face is flat. The focus (F) of the
parabola is located at the toe of the dam. The base parabola BIJC will cut the downstream slope at J and
extend beyond the dam toe up to the point C i.e. the vertex of the parabola.

Figure 3‐8:‐ phreatic line for homogeneous dam section without filter

The seepage line will, however, emerge out at K, meeting the downstream face tangentially. The portion
KF is known as discharge face and always saturated. Because the phreatic line cannot go outside the limit
of the dam, the base parabola needs an exit correction. The correction JK (say Δa) by which the parabola
is to be shifted downward can be determined as follows from the table below. Casagrande has shown that
the exit correction Δa depends up on the slope α of the discharge face:

∆a ∆a
α1 in degrees a+ ∆ a α in degrees a+ ∆ a
300 0.36 13500 0.14
600 0.32 1500 0.10
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900 0.26 1800 0.0
1200 0.18

S
The value ofa+ ∆ a can be obtained from the following equation: a+ ∆ a=
1−COSα
α will be equal to 1800 for a horizontal filter case and it will be less than 90 0 when no drainage is
provided.

Analytical Solution of Schaffernak and Van Iterson for < 300 (Fig.3.9)

In order to find the value of a analytically, Schaffernak and Van Iterson assumed that the energy gradient
dy
i= tan α= .
dx This means that the gradient is equal to the slope of the line of seepage, which is
approximately true so long as the slope is gentle (i.e. <30 0).

For the vertical section JJ1

dy dy
q=K y =i=tan α
dx but dx

and y= JJ1= a sin 

Substituting in (i), we get

q = k (a sin) (tan)

This is the expression for discharge.

dy
q=k y=k(a sin α )( tan α)
dx
Again ∴ a( sin α ) ( tan α )dx= ydy

Integrating between the limits:

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x= a (Cos ) to x = b

y= a (sin  ) to y = h , we get

b h
a sin α tan α ∫ dx = ∫ ydy
a cos α a sin α

h 2−a2 sin 2 a
∴ a sin α tan α( b−acos α )=
and 2
From which, we obtain, after simplification,

b b2 h2
a=
cos α
−
√ −
cos 2 α sin 2 α
b. Analytical solution of Casagrande for 300< <600

It will be observed that the previous solution gives satisfactory results for slope < 30 0. For steeper slopes,
the deviation from correct values increases rapidly beyond tolerable limits. Casagrande suggested the use
of sin  instead of tan. In other words, it should be taken as (dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s is the
distance measured along the phreatic line.

dy
q=kiA =k A
Thus ds

dy
=sin α
At J, s= a and y = a sin  then, ds

Where s = distance measured along the curve.

Substituting in above, we get

q = k. (sin) (a sin ) = k(a sin2)

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This is the expression for the discharge.

dy
q=k y=ka sin2 α
Again ds

 a (sin2 ) ds = ydy

Integrating between the following limits (s = a to s =S)

Where S = total length of the parabola

And (y = a sin to y=h), we get

2 S h
a sin α ∫a ds=∫a sin α ydy
h2 −a2 sin 2 α
∴ a sin2 α .(S−a)=
2
h2
2
or a −2 aS+ 2 =0
sin α

h2
From which
a=S− S −
√ 2
Sin 2 α

Taking S (h2+b2)1/2 we get

h2
2
a= √ h +b − h +b −
2

√ 2 2
sin 2 α

a=√ b2 +h2− √ b 2−h2 cot 2 α

Phreatic line for homogenous Earth dam with rock toe
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C. Zoned earth dam with central core
As the ratio of the permeabilities of the materials of the shell and core is very large, the effect of the outer
shells on the phreatic line in the core is negligible. Hence, the u/s face of shell has no effect on the
position of the phreatic line and the d/s shell acts as a drain. The phreatic line starts at point B where the
water level cuts the core. The focus F of the base parabola is located at d/s toe of the core. As the
permeability of the shell is very high as compared with the core, the phreatic line will be drawn for the
core only by considering as a homogeneous section as discussed earlier.

Figure 3‐9:‐ phreatic line for Zoned earth dam

III.7.2 Construction of flow net

Some important properties of flow nets are discussed as below:
I. Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other
II. Equipotential lines intersect the phreatic line at right angles
III. The pressure at the phreatic line is zero, and the successive equipotential lines make equal
vertical intercepts on the phreatic lines
IV. The flow field obtained by the intersections of the equipotential lines and the flow lines are
approximately squares in shape.
V. The discharge b/n any two adjacent flow lines is constant
VI. The smaller the dimensions of the flow field, the greater the hydraulic gradient and the
velocity of flow through it.
VII. In a homogenous soil, every transition in the flow lines and equipotential lines is smooth and
gradual.
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Figure 2‐10:‐ Flow net for homogenous earth dam having horizontal drain

2.6 Slope Stability Analysis

After selecting the preliminary section, it should be checked against the following to satisfy the safety
criteria
a. Checking against seepage and pore water pressure
b. Checking the d/s slope for steady‐seepage condition
c. Checking u/s slope for sudden drawdown condition
d. Checking u/s and d/s slope during construction period.
Three considerations govern the design of an earth embankment:
1. Side slopes must be stable;
2. Dimensions must be sufficient to control seepage;
3. Base width must be long enough to distribute weight of dam over sufficient area to prevent overstress
in the foundation.

An earthen embankment usually fails because of the sliding of a large soil mass along a curved surface.
The method used for examining the stability of slopes of earthen embankments is called the Swedish Slip
Circle Method or Slice Method. It assumes the condition of plain strain with failure along a cylindrical
arc. The location of the centre of the possible failure arc is assumed. The earth mass is divided into a
number of vertical segments called slices as shown in Figure 3‐9, O is the center and R is the radius of the
possible failure.

Figure 3‐11:‐ Possible slip surface in Earth fill dam

Let us consider the equilibrium of one slice shown hatched, the following forces act on it;
1. Self weight, W acting downward through its center of gravity
2. Cohesive force, C along the curved surface in the direction opposite to the direction of movement of
the wedge. It is equal to cΔL, where c is the unit cohesion and ΔL is length of base strip.
3. Reaction R at the base of the strip, acting a line inclined at an angle φ to the normal, where φ is the
angle of shearing resistance of the soil.
4. The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice exerted by the adjacent slices on
the right and left. ER and EL are equal and opposite.
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5. Force due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left, right and base of the slices. UL
and UR are opposite in direction and balanced. UB acts in the normal direction.

Hence, for analysis using Swedish circle method, there are only four forces remain; W, C, R and UB. UB
is due to pore water pressure and will be zero, if the soil is dry. Let the weight, W be resolved in to
normal, N and tangential, T component. As the normal passes through the center, the direction of N is
first marked in the normal direction. A perpendicular is drawn from the tip of the vector W to the normal
direction to determine N and T. Thus,
N =W cos θ and T= W sin θ, where θ is the angle which the normal makes with the vertical
Resolving all the forces in the normal direction:
N‐UB =R cos φ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (a) where R is the reaction at the base of the slice
Resolving all the forces in the tangential direction:
T‐C =R sin φ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (b)
θ
Φ
Substituting the value of R from eqn (a) in to (b):
T‐C = [(N‐UB) /cos φ] sin φ
T‐C = (N‐UB) tan φ
T= (N‐UB) tan φ + cΔL
Hence, the tangent component of the force (actuating) is balanced by the frictional resistance and
cohesion resistance (resisting).
Thus the factor of safety is given by:
Fs= (Sum of the resisting moment)/ (sum of the actuating moment)
()
Σ
Σ − Δ +Σ Δ
=
θ
φθ
sin
tan cos
W
WuLcL
Fs , where u, the pore water pressure at the base of the slice
and ΔL is the arc of the slice (b secθ)
()
Σ
Σ − +Σ
=
θ
φθθθ
sin
tan cos sec sec
W
W ub cb
Fs
Procedure for the determination of the factor of safety of the trial slip surface
1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above the slip surface in to 8 to 15 vertical slices;
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2. Determine the weight of each slice, W=(b*Z)*γ, where: b=width of the slice, Z=middle ordinate of the
slice, and γ= unit weight of the soil;
3. Measure the angle θ which the normal makes with the vertical and compute the normal, N and
tangential, T component. N =W cos θ and T= W sin θ
4. Determine the pore water pressure (u) at the base of the slice from the flow net and compute the force
UB due to pore water pressure. UB= u*ΔL =u*b secθ
5. Determine the cohesive force, C=c* b secθ
6. Determine the factor of safety for the trail slip surface:
()
Σ
Σ − +Σ
=
θ
φθθθ
sin
tan cos sec sec
W
W ub cb
Fs
7. Repeat the above procedure for a number of trial surfaces. The trial surface which gives the minimum
factor of safety is the most critical circle. The minimum factor of safety should be greater than the
specified safe value of the soil.
2.6.1 Location of the Most Critical Circle
For determining the stability of the proposed side slope of an earth dam it is necessary to find the least
factor of safety which may occur on any of the possible surfaces of slippage or slip circles. Slip circle
which yields the least factor of safety is the most critical and hence it is known as critical surface
slippage or critical slip circle.
For locating the critical surface of slippage, it is necessary to try several different surfaces of slippage as
one trial are gives the value of factor of safety for that arc only. In order to reduce the number of trials,
Fellenius has suggested a method of drawing a line, representing the locus of the critical slip circle. The
determination of this line PQ is shown in Figure 2‐10. To draw Fellenius line PQ, point Q is located at a
depth H below the toe of slope and at a distance of 4.5H from it, where H is the total height of the dam.
The point P is obtained with the help of directional angles α1 and α2.

(a) (b)
Figure 3‐12:‐ Locus of critical circle (a) for d/s slope, (b) for u/s slope
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Slope of the face Directional angles

α1 in degrees α2 in degrees
1:1 28 37
1.5:1 26 35
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35
5:1 25 35
1. Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage (reservoir full)
The most critical condition for the d/s slope occurs when the reservoir is full and the seepage is taking
place at full rate. The seepage water below the phreatic line exerts a pore pressure on the soil mass which
lies below the phreatic line, see Figure 2‐11.

Figure 2‐13:‐ stability of Downstream slope during steady seepage

Consider slice number 4 in the above Figure, the weight of the slice is defined as:
4 41 42 W *V *V dry sat = γ +γ α4 read from the scaled drawing of the earth fill dam. And tangential
component of W4 is defined as, whish is shear stress developed at failure plane:
4 4 4 T =W sinα The pore pressure for slice 4 is represented by the piezometric head h4. Hence, pore
water pressure is:
44Uhww=γ
Shear strength developed for the slice is quantified from two soil parameters, apparent cohesion c and
angle
of shearing resistance ф. Shear strength at failure plane is defined as:
τ ( cosα γ )tanφ 4 4 4 4 4 4 cL W h L w = + −
Where; L4 is
4 cosα
b
The factor of safety of slide 4 is :
()
44
4444
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4
4
4 sin
cos tan
α
αγφ
τW
T cL W h L FS w + −
==
The factor of safety for the entire circle is then given by the equation:
()
Σ
Σ +Σ −
=
ii
iiiiwii
W
cLWhL
FS
α
αγφ

2.7 Design of Transition Filters

Properly designed graded filters are required between the drain system and the adjoining soil to prevent
the migration of the soil particles into the drains which may cause piping. Filters are graded so that the
finer layers are adjacent to the drains. Filters are also provided b/n the core of fine‐grained soils and the
shells of the coarse‐grained soils to prevent migration of particles from the impervious zone to the
pervious zone when the seepage flow takes place.
The two basic requirements of the filter that should be satisfied are:
1. The filter material should be fine enough to prevent the particles of the protected soil from being
washed into its voids. According to Terzaghi, this requirement will be satisfied, if D15 size of the filter
material is not more than 4 to 5 times D85 of the base (protected) material
2. The filter material should be coarse enough so that it acts as a drain for the protected material. Again,
according to Terzaghi, this requirement will be satisfied, if the D15 size of the filter material is at least 4
to 5 times the D15 size of the protected material.
Both the above criteria can be written as:
D15 of the filter material
D85 of the protected material
< 4 to 5 D15 of the filter material
D15 of the protected material

2.8 Dam Surface Protection

2.8.1 U/S face protection
The u/s face should be protected against erosive action due to the waves. The protective layer starts at the
top of the dam and extends some meter from the minimum water level. It may be stone, pre‐cast concrete
blocks, monolithic concrete pavements, and others. For earth dams, stone rip rap is mostly used.
2.8.2 D/S face protection
The d/s face of the dam should be protected against erosion due to wind and rain above the tail water
level and due to waves below that level. The rip rap is provided on the d/s face below the tail water level
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for protection against waves. In addition to surface protection, the d/s face of the dam should be provided
with suitable berms to minimize surface erosion due to rains. Generally, one berm is provided for each
10m height increase. The berms are usually serves for one or more of the following purposes:
a. To break the continuity of the d/s slope and hence to reduce the erosion due to rain water;
b. To provide a level surface for the construction and maintenance operation;
c. To prevent the undermining of the lower edge of the stone pitching provided on the d/s face; and
d. To help in preventing the sloughing of the d/s slope to some extent.
2.9 Rockfill Dams
It is a type of the dam in which rock fragments (rock fill) is the main construction material. The mass
stability of a rockfill dam is mainly developed by the friction and interaction of the particles. A rock dam
usually consists of two basic structural elements:
1. An embankment built of rockfill
2. An impervious element
The embankment provides the support and the stability, while the impervious element checks the seepage
through the dam.
There are basically two types of rockfill dams:
1. Impervious membrane type
2. Earth core type
2.9.1 Design consideration of Rockfill dam
The design and construction of a rockfill dam is governed by more or less the same principles as those
used in an earth dam. Rockfill dams require much strong foundation than earth dams but not strong as
concrete dams. More or less the design and construction of rockfill dams is almost similar to that of earth
dams.