Arba Minch University

School of Post Graduate

Institute of Water Technology

Embankment Dam-(HE-621)

Elias Gebeyehu (Dr.Eng.)

eliasg2000@gmail.com

2021
 Introduction
1

2 Earth Fill Dam Design and Analysis

CONTENTS
3 Rock Fill Dams

Embankment Dam Construction, Performance & Remedial

4 Measures
 Introduction
Chapter One
 Introduction
Water Resources Potential in Ethiopia

01 River Basin
12
02 Surface Water
 122 BCM

03 Ground Water
 2.6 BCM
 Cont…
Potential and Status of Water Resources Development in Ethiopia

Hydropower Irrigation Water Supply

Potential = 45,000 MW Potential = 2.7 Urban=75%

Developed  3,813 MW Million Ha Rural= 49%
(2016) Developed  Overall= 52%
<15% 290,000 ha National WASH inventory
10.8 % data in Ethiopia, 2011
 Cont….

■ Note:+other sources estimate the total number of dams in China, to

exceed 22,000.
 Cont…
■ Embankment dams are classified as non-rigid type of
dam.
■ Are constructed from fragmented natural materials;
– Excavated or obtained close to the dam site,
– Placed without the addition of any binding agent, and
– Compacted using high capacity mechanical plant.
■ Strength and stability derived from:
– Their weight [inertia],
– Internal friction, and
– Mutual attraction of particles.
 Cont….

■ For the construction of embankment dams the entire range of

soils from clays to boulders or quarried stones are used.
■ Embankment dams usually provide the most economical and
most satisfactory solution for sites at which suitable
foundation at reasonable depth may not be available for a
dam of concrete or masonry.
■ The main elements of embankment dam are
– core, shell, cutoff wall, transition filter, toe drain
Cont….
 Cont….
■ The main reasons due to which embankment dams have been
and still continue to be the most commonly used type.
1. It is constructed by local material. This aspect makes
these dams economical.
2. No specific type of foundation is required.
3. No skill of very high standard is required.
4. the science of soil mechanics has recently developed to
such stages that dams constructed from earth by adopting
the modern theories of soil mechanics (Terzaghi, Taylor,
Protctor,...), can be as equally relied upon as those of
gravity dams.
 Cont….
 Embankment Dam
■ Earth fill embankments: An embankment may be categorized as an earth
fill dam if compacted soils account for over 50% of the placed volume of
material.
■ Rock fill embankments: The designation „rock fill embankment‟ is
appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may be classified as rock
fill.
 Cont….
 Principal variants of earth fill
 Cont….
 Principal variants of rock fill embankment dams
 Cont….

■ Rock fill, transition-Previous zone, to have structural

strength.
■ Core, facing-Impervious zone, to keep water tight.
■ Filter-To prevent loss of soil particle.
■ Drain-To pass water from upstream to downstream (to
dissipate pore water pressure)
■ Core trench, grouting-To keep water tight in the
foundation.
Cont….
 1.1 Purposes

 Irrigation

 Hydropower

 Water Supply

 Flood Control

 Recreation

 Navigation and Fishing Source: ICOLD

 Others
 1.2 Merits & Demerits of Dams
■ Embankment Dams

 Can be adapted to a wide range of foundation conditions.

 Construction materials can be found locally.

 The construction process can be continuous.

 The design is extremely flexible in accommodating different fill materials.

– Disadvantages:

 They are sensitive to overtopping and leakage, and erosion in the dam

body and its foundation.

 Cont…
■ Concrete Dams
 They are suitable for most of topography that is for wide and narrow valleys, provided that

foundation conditions are stronger/tight.

 They are not very sensitive to overtopping.

 A spillway can be placed at the crest, and if required over the entire length of the dam.

 Chambers or galleries for drainage, tubing and ancillary works can readily be housed within the

dam body.

 Powerhouse can be placed right at the toe of the dam.

– Disadvantages:

 Require firm and strong foundation conditions.

 Requires huge quantity of construction materials. It involves discontinuous construction process,

leading to large unit costs.

 1.3 Types of Embankment Dam
■ Embankment dams may be classified into three main
types:

 Homogeneous type

 Zoned type

 Diaphragm type
 Cont….
■ Homogenous type
 A purely homogeneous type of dam is composed entirely of a single
type of material.
 The material must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate
water barrier.
 Fully homogeneous section might be found convenient where the
slopes are required to be flat because of a weak foundation.
 Piping at d/s slope
 Cont….
 Homogeneous dam with toe drain
 Cont….
■ Homogeneous dam with horizontal blanket
 Cont….
■ Homogeneous dam with chimney drain and horizontal
blanket
 Cont….
■ Zoned type
 A central impervious core is flanked by shells of materials
considerably more pervious
 The shells enclose and protect the core.
 The upstream shell affords stability against rapid drawdown and the
downstream shell acts as a drain that controls the line of seepage.
 The central core constructed by clay, silt, silty clay or clayey silt.
 Cont….

■ Zoned dam with central vertical core and toe drain

 Cont….
■ Zoned dam with central vertical core, chimney filter and
horizontal blanket
 Cont….

■ Zoned dam with inclined core, chimney filter and

horizontal blanket.
 Cont….
■ Diaphragm type
 This type the entire dam is composed of pervious material i.e. sand,
gravel or rock and thin diaphragm of impervious materials is provided
to retain water.
 The diaphragm may be of earth, Portland cement, or asphalt concrete,
or other material.
 If the base width of the core is less than the height of the embankment,
the dam is considered as diaphragm type.
 The difference between zoned earth dam and diaphragm-type earth
dam is only in the thickness of the core.
Oroville Dam (California)
 Cont….

■ For the rock fill embankment dams, the following variants are common:

 Central vertical clay core

 Inclined clay core with drains

 Decked with asphalt or concrete membrane on upstream face with

drains

■ All are provided with a chimney filter connected to a horizontal blanket.

 Cont….
■ Rock fill dam with Central vertical clay core, chimney filter and horizontal
blanket
 Cont….
■ Rock fill dam with Inclined clay core, chimney drain and horizontal blanket
 Cont….
■ Decked rock fill dam with U/S asphaltic or concrete membrane with
chimney drain and horizontal blanket. The phreatic line is for small amount
of water that leaks through the cracks of the U/S membrane
 Cont….
 Advantage of rock fill dam
■ It can be constructed in the site with little foundation
treatment.
■ It is made of locally available rock, it is cheaper and
economical.
■ Top width of this dam may be used as service road.
■ A provision of increasing the height is always there.
 Disadvantage of rock fill dam
■ Similar to earth dam separate spillway far from the dam is
required to construct.
■ Possibility of failure by piping or erosion is always there.
■ Maintenance cost is more.
■ Settlement and deformation of rock fill dam may take place
under loading on the top.
Shuibuya CFRD (China)
 1.4 Foundation Requirements of Earth Dams

■ Earth dam can be constructed on almost all types of

foundations.
■ Foundations may be classified into the following three
types:
1. Rock foundations.
2. Pervious soil foundations (Coarse sand and gravel,
and Loose fine sand or coarse silt).
3. Impervious soil foundations (fine silt and clay).
 Cont….
Foundation Grouting
■ The foundation of dams more than 15 m high built on
rock are treated by grouting.
■ Grouting consists of drilling a line or lines of holes from
the cutoff level of the dam into the dam foundation, and
forcing cement slurry or chemicals under pressure into
the rock defects.
 Grouting is carried out to:
■ Reduce seepage through dam foundation.
■ Reduce seepage erosion potential.
■ Reduce uplift pressure (under concrete dams).
■ Reduce settlement in the foundation.
 Most foundation grouting uses cement grout Portland
cement mixed with water.
 Cont….
Investigation Methods
■ Drilling and direct inspection to accurately locate and
determine local conditions.
■ Taking coring samples for laboratory tests.
■ Drilling with drilling data recording to locate fissured zones,
voids and the interface between structure and surrounding
ground.
■ Borehole logging.
■ Non-destructive geophysical investigation (seismic
resistivity)
■ Water testing
■ Underground flow and temperature measurement.
■ Pumping test to assessment of initial hydraulic conditions.
 Cont….
Classification of rock foundation grouting
 Curtain grouting
 Consolidation grouting and
 Contact grouting.

Note:
1-Consolidation grouting
2-Curtain grouting
3-Contact grouting
 Cont….
Curtain Grouting
■ Is located in the dam foundation which is close to the upstream of the
water, forming a continuous anti-seepage curtain wall.
■ A grout curtain usually consists of a row of vertically drilled holes filled
with pressurized grout, a process commonly known as pressure grouting.
■ Because of the big work quantity and the time conflict with dam body
construction, curtain grouting is usually arranged in the dam foundation
grouting gallery to construct.
■ It can achieve dam body lift and bedrock grouting rise synchronously.
Besides, it also ensure that grouting construction has a certain concrete
weight.
■ Purposes: Reduce the seepage flow of dam foundation, decrease the
seepage pressure for the bottom of dam, guarantee the seepage stability of
foundation.
 Cont….
Consolidation Grouting
■ Consolidation grouting is appropriate to be conducted when there is a
certain thickness of dam foundation concrete.
■ Purposes: Improve the bedrock integrity and strength, decrease the
bedrock permeability.
 Cont….

H-the height of reservoir above the top of the grout curtain in a specific location
 Cont….
Contact Grouting
■ Contact grouting should be arranged after dam concrete reached a stable
temperature.
■ It can prevent the shrinkage cracking of concrete.
■ Purposes: Strengthen the combination ability between dam concrete
and dam foundation or abutments. Improve the anti-sliding stability
property of the dam.
 Cont….
Cement grouting construction
1. Drill Hole
■ Drillings of curtain grouting should adopt rotary drilling rig
and diamond drill bit or carbide drill bit.
■ Consolidation grouting should adopt various appropriate
drilling rigs and drill bits.
■ The quality of drill hole has a big impact on the quality of
grouting to ensure the hole depth, hole direction and hole
location comply with the design requirements.
 Cont….
2. Drill Hole (crack) Washing
■ Wash out the rock powder remaining in the bottom of the hole
and the iron dust adhering to the hole wall.
■ Wash out the filling in rock stratum crack.
■ Generally it adopts the grouting pump to force water into the
circulation line of the hole to wash.
■ Rock stratum crack washing includes single-hole washing
and group-holes washing. When the rock is relatively
complete and the crack is fewer, it can use single hole
washing.
 Cont….

Group-holes washing
(a)Before washing (b)after washing
1- crack 2-filling 3-drill hole
 Cont….
■ Cement grouting is the most common rock foundation
grouting. It should pay attention to the varieties of cement,
the fineness of cement particles, types and dosage of
admixture.
■ The varieties of cement for cement grouting should be
determined according to grouting purpose and environment
water erosion. In general, it can adopt ordinary Portland
cement or Portland cement for dam that the grade is not lower
than C45.
■ The fineness of cement particles has great influence on the
grouting effect. The more fine cement particles is, the better it
can be poured into microscopic cracks, and the more
completed the hydration of the cement can be.
 Cont….
■ Adding some admixtures in cement slurry can adjust or
improve the performance of the cement slurry, meet the
projects‟ specific requirements for the cement slurry, and
improve the effect of grouting.

■ For large grouting quantity and the stone strength requirement

is not high, cement slurry can be mixed with clay, sand, or fly
ash. It can save cement and reduce cost. Besides, for some
special geological conditions, it can adopt chemical grouting.
 Cont….

Grouting ways
(a)pure pressure grouting (b) circular-type grouting
1- water 2-slurry mining tank 3-grout pump 4-pressure gage
5-grout pipe 6-grout plug 7-return pipe
Cont….
 Leakage in Tendaho Dam

 This leakage is through the right abutment after the raining season
in 2010.
 The leakage wasn‟t through the dam body.
 Leakage water from right abutment has a temperature of 40oC,
and from left abutment 33oC; while the reservoir water is 31oC.
Proposed grouting profile for Tendaho
Dam
 1.5 Causes of Failures of Earth Dams
■ Earth dam failures are mainly caused by improper
design, lack of thorough investigations, and inadequate
care in construction and poor maintenance.
■ The Causes of failure of earth dam may be divided into
three categories as follows:
1. Hydraulic failures
2. Seepage failures
3. Structural failures
 Hydraulic failure

■ This type of failure occurs by the surface erosion of the

dam by water. This may happen due to the following
reasons:
 Cont….
1. Overtopping of the dam which might have been caused by a flood that
exceeded the design flood for the spillway

 Overtopping may also be caused insufficient freeboard.

 Cont….
2. Erosion of upstream face and shoulder by the action of continuous wave
action
 Cont….
3. Erosion of downstream slope by rain wash

Cuts due to rain wash

 Cont….
4. Erosion of downstream toe of dam by tail water

Tail water affecting toe of embankment

 Cont….
 Seepage failure

1. Piping through dam and its foundation

 Piping is the progressive erosion which develops through the
dam or within its foundation by the water seeping from
upstream to the downstream.

 If forces resisting erosion i.e. cohesion, inter-locking effect,

weight of soil particles, action of downstream filter etc. are less
than those‟ which tend to cause, the soil particles are washed
away causing piping failure.
Cont….

Internal
erosion and
piping
through
dam body
and
foundation
 Cont….

 Seepage through previous foundation-Uplift pressure acts

vertically on downstream side, so that counterweight fill or
relief well are recommended to prevent having and local
slide.
 Cont….

 Seepage through hydraulic fracture-Concentration of flow

lines at downstream toe leads to the increase in hydraulic
gradient. Upward seepage force causes reduction of
effective stresses in foundation, and quick sand and piping
take place when counterweight loading is not enough.
 Cont….
2. Conduit leakage
 Caused due to seepage taking place by the surface of a
conduit due to cracks enclosed within an embankment dam.
 Cracks that might have developed due to unequal settlement
of dam or by overloading from the dam.
 Cont….
3. Sloughing of downstream face
 Failure due to sloughing takes place where downstream
portion of the dam becomes saturated either due to choking
of filter toe drain, or due to the presence of highly pervious
layer in the body of the dam.
 Cont….
 Structural failure
1. Sliding due to weak foundation
 Due to the presence of faults and seams of weathered
rocks, shales, soft clay strata, the foundation may not be
able to withstand the pressure of the embankment dam.
 The lower slope moves outwards along with a part of the
foundation and the top of the embankment subsides
causing large mud waves to form beyond the toe.
 Cont….
Instability of upstream or downstream slopes caused by failure of
weak foundation
 Cont….
2. Sliding of upstream face due to sudden drawdown
 If the reservoir water is suddenly depleted, the pore
pressure cannot get released, which causes the upstream
face of the dam to slump.
 Cont….
3. Sliding of the downstream face due to slopes being
too steep
 Slope being too high and / or too steep in relation to the
shear strength of the shoulder material and causes a sliding
failure of the downstream face of the dam.

Downstream face too steep unable to be resisted by soil shear strength

 Cont….
4. Embankment and foundation settlement
 Excess settlement of the embankment and/or the foundation
causes loss of free board
Teton Dam, USA1976
Dam-breach failure of an earth dam (Algodões Dam - Brazil,
2009)
Spitskop Dam, South Africa 1988
 Embankment seepage control

o The conventional types of seepage control and drainage

features generally adopted for the embankment dam are:
a. Impervious core
b. Inclined/vertical filter with horizontal filter
c. Network of inner longitudinal drain and cross drains
d. Horizontal filter
e. Transition zones/transition filters
f. Intermediate filters
g. Rock toe
h. Toe drain
 1.6 Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dams
■ The dam should be safe and stable during construction
and throughout its life.
■ For the safe design of earth dam, the following basic
criteria should be satisfied.
 No overtopping
• Appropriate design flood
• Adequate free board and spillway.
 No seepage failure
• Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely
without sloughing downstream face.
• The dam and foundation should be safe against piping
failure.
• There should be no opportunity for free passage of water
from U/S to D/S both through the dam and foundation.
 Cont…..
 No structural failure
• Šafe U/S & D/S slope during construction.
S
• Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
• Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition.
• Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
• Earth quake resistant dam.
 Proper slope protection
• U/s and D/s slope should be protected against erosion.
 Proper drainage
 Economic section
 1.6.1 A suitable Preliminary Section
■ The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of past
experience and on the basis of the performance of the dams built in the
past.
■ Empirical rues are frequently used in this design.
1. Free Board
■ FB=1.5hw+Additional Safety provision
For F<32Km=> hw  0.032 V .F  0.763  0.271(F) 3 4
For F>32Km=> hw  0.032 V .F
■ Recommended by U.S.B.R are given in the following table.

Spillway Type Height of Dam Minimum free Board over MWL

Uncontrolled Spillway Any height 2 m to 3 m

Controlled Spillway <60m 2.5 m above top of gate

Controlled Spillway >60m 3 m above top of gate

 Cont…..
2. Top width
■ Should not be less than 3m for any height of the dam.
For very low dams=> B  0.2H  3
For dams <30m=> B  0.55 H  0.2 H
0.5

1
For dams >30m=> B  1.65( H  1.5) 3

■ The height of the dam is the most important factor to be considered for
fixing width of the dam.
3. U/s and D/s slopes
■ The U/s and D/s slopes of the dam depends upon following factors
 Type of soil used
 Foundation condition
 Height of the dam
 Cont…..

 The recommended value of side slopes as given by Terzaghi is as follow.

Type of Material U/s Slope (H:V) D/s Slope (H:V)

Well graded homogeneous soil 2.5:1 2:1

Homogeneous course silt 3:1 2.5:1

Homogeneous silty clay or clay

a) Height less than 15m 2.5:1 2:1
b) Height more than 15m 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or sand and gravel with clay core 3:1 2.5:1

Sand or sand and gravel with RCC core wall 2.5:1 2:1
 Cont…..
 The dimensions fixed by Strange for earth dam are as follow.
Height of dam Min. F.B (m) Min. Top width (m) U/s Slope D/s Slope
Up to 4.5m 1.2 to 1.5 1.85 2:1 1.5:1

4.5 to 7.5m 1.5 to 1.8 1.85 2.5:1 1.75:1

7.5 to 15m 1.85 2.5 3:1 2:1

15m to 22.5m 2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1

4. Central impervious core of the dam

■ The thickness depends upon
– Rate of seepage through the core
– Type of material
– Minimum width
– Design of proposed filter
■ Width of the core at the top should be minimum 3m.
 Cont…..
 Slope protection
■ Dam slopes are protected with linings which have to be resistant to
– wave effects and
– the washout owing to the external water
■ In general, the protective lining consists of the following elements
– Lining layer
– Drainage layer
– Filter layer
– Protective layer
 Cont…..

Drainage layer

Filter layer-constructed of
material that is finer than that
of the drainage.

Lining Layer-protects
the slope against Protective layer- constructed
external mechanical of sand or coarser earth
effects. material.
 Cont…..
 Slope protection mechanism
1. Rock fill Protection
2. Concrete and reinforced concrete slabs.
3. Asphalt lining.
1. Rock fill Protection
o Is simple
o Very effective and
o Safe because it cannot be damaged during deformation of the dam’s
body.
o This type of lining consists of a layer of rock fill placed over one or
more filter layers.
o Thickness of the filter should not be less than 15 cm.
o Rock fill linings are used for a height of waves up to 2.5 m.
o compressive strength of 50 MPa,
o and have a unit weight of γ>24kN/m
 Cont…..
 Mathematical computation
o In order to be stable during wave action
 Individual pieces of rock should have a certain minimum weight
 For slope inclinations m=1–3,

where Q- is the weight of stones.

μ -is the coefficient which is 0.025 for rock fill, μ = 0.021for concrete
block
hw, λw- are the height and length of waves respectively.
γr, γw- are unit weight of stone and water respectively.
■ Transition from weight of the stone pieces to the diameter D may be
performed by
 Cont…..
■ Transition from weight of the stone pieces to the diameter D may be
performed by

■ The coefficient ε=0.25–0.35, in which the greater value relates to a

relatively small unit weight of stone (up to 25 kN/m2).
■ The thickness of the lining should be minimally (2.5-3.0)D.
■ Protective layer for a wave height up to 1m may also be constructed in the
form of stone paving.
– with a layer thickness of 20–25 cm
– weight of individual stones 20–40 kg.
 Cont…..
2. Concrete and reinforced concrete slabs
■ These are constructed as monolithic or prefabricated slabs.
■ Concreting directly upon the slope is done using monolithic concrete
slabs, 15 to 50 cm thick.
■ During their execution, they are divided into bays with dimensions of 5×5
up to 20×20m
 Cont…..
■ The thickness of the monolithic slabs δp

where:- B- is the length of slab along the normal of the contact of water and
dam slope
ks- is the coefficient of safety, equal to 1.25 to 1.5
■ Prefabricated slabs as slope protection
– at a thickness of 8–20 cm
– with dimensions of 1.5×1.5m up to 5×5 m,
■ During placement, the slabs can be connected, into larger units (10×10m
up to 20×20 m)
– by concreting of the joints,
– So that prefabricated monolithic slabs are obtained
■ Monolithic slabs have a wider application
 Cont…..
3. Asphalt lining
■ Asphalt protective linings find more and more expanding application
■ Owing to their suitable deformation characteristics,
■ Complete mechanization of the construction process,
■ Absence of joints, etc.
■ They are used for waves up to 3.0m high.
■ Thickness of asphalt layers ranges from 5–10 cm.
 Cont…..
 D/s Slope Protection
■ The downstream slope is mainly protected by
– Construction of berm
– Means of grassing, where a layer of topsoil 20–30 cm thick is put into
position across the surface.
– Sometimes protection is achieved with a layer of gravel (10 cm)
■ If berms are constructed the width b should not be less than 1.5 m,
 Earth Fill Dam Design and Analysis
Chapter Two
 Factors For Dam Selection
Topography
■ A narrow V-Shaped valley with sound rock in abutments=>A concrete
arch dam.
■ A relatively narrow valley with rock walls=>A rock fill or concrete
gravity dam.
■ A wide valley with deep overburden=> An earth dam.
■ Topography may also influence the selection of appurtenant structures eg.
Natural saddles may provide a spillway location.
Geology and Foundation Conditions
■ Competent rock foundations with relatively high shear strength and
resistant to erosion can be used for all types of dam.
■ Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earth or rock fill
dams with provisions for adequate seepage control.
■ Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete (RCC) and
earth fill dams but are not suitable for rock fill dams.
 Cont…
■ Non dispersive clay foundations may be used for earth dams but require flat
embankment slopes.
Materials available
■ If suitable soils for an earth fill dam can be found in nearby, an earth dam
may prove to be more economical.
■ The availability of suitable rock may favor a rock fill dam.
■ The availability of suitable sand and gravel for concrete at a reasonable cost
locally or onsite is favorable to use for a concrete (RCC) dam.
Spillway
■ The size, type and restrictions on location of spillway are often controlling
factors in the choice of the dam type.
■ When a large spillway is to be constructed, it may be desirable to combine
the spillway and dam into one structure, indicating a concrete overflow dam.
■ In some cases where required excavation from the spillway channel can be
utilized in the dam embankment, an earth or rock fill dam may be
advantageous.
 Cont…
Climate
■ The construction difficulty during wet weather should be taken into
consideration.
 Cont…
Economic
■ The final selection of the type of dam should be made only after carefully
analysis and comparison of possible alternatives, and after through
economic analyses that include costs of all appurtenant structures, power
and control structures, and foundation treatment.
Environmental
■ The need to consider protection of the environment affects the type of
dam, its dimensions, and location of the spillway and appurtenant
structures.
 Cont…
Geotechnical Investigations
■ Two types of questions in dam projects
1. Engineering questions, which relate essentially to the design, construction and
operation of any structure of the type proposed, and
2. Geological questions, which arise from understanding of the site geological
environment and its likely influence on the design, construction and operation of
the project.
■ Most dam failures occurred due to failure to fully understand and define the right
geotechnical questions.
■ Checklist of Geotechnical questions for dam projects:
1. Source of Materials
■ Source of materials for the following purposes:
 Earth fill, for the core or other zones;
 Filters;
 Rock fill;
 Rip rap
 Concrete aggregate;
 Road pavements;
 Cont…
■ For each material: Location of alternative sources, qualities/suitability,
quantities, methods for winning and processing, overburden and waste
materials and quantities, possible use of materials from required
excavations, e.g. spillway, outlet works and dam foundations.
2. Reservoir
 Water tightness;
 Effect on regional groundwater-levels or quality;
 Stability of slopes inside and outside of reservoir rim;
 Erodibility of soils-Possibility of turbidity problems;
 Siltation rates and likely location of deposits.
3. Dam
 Location- To suit topographic and geological situations;
 Alternative sites, for comparison of costs and of geotechnical and other issues;
 Type(s) of dam suited to site(s);
 Depths to suitable foundations for concrete dam; earth fill; rock fill; core; filters;
plinth or grout cap;
 Cont…
 Nature of materials to be excavated, excavation methods, and possible uses of
materials;
 Stability of excavations, support and dewatering requirements;
 Permeability, compressibility and erodibility of foundations;
 Foundations treatments required: grouting; drainage; slurry concrete; dental
treatment; filter blanket; other;
 Embankment zones; methods of placement, and of control of quality, moisture
and compaction;
 Stability of dam, and dam plus foundation in all situations;
 Monitoring systems: types, siting.

4. Appurtenant Structures
 Location and type;
 Excavation methods, possible use for excavated materials;
 Stability of excavations, need for temporary/permanent support;
 Channel, need for lining/drainage;
 Need for protection of the discharge area, or for excavation of a stilling basin.
 Cont…
5. Seismicity of the Region
 Design earthquake, annual exceedance probability versus ground motion;
 Maximum credible earthquake.

 Specific geological questions to be answered during investigations of this

site would include the following:
 What are the cementing agents in the sandstone?
 How much reduction in strength and stiffness will occur in the
sandstone when saturated for long periods?
 Could solution effects during dam operations result in increase in
permeability of the foundation?
 Could solution/strength reduction or water table rise result in
instability in the foundation or the reservoir sides?
 Cont…
■ Checklist of Engineering questions for dam projects:
1. Design
■ Stability of dam body
 Stability against sliding failure of embankment
o Evaluation of pore water pressure during and after construction
o Shear strength characteristics of fill materials
o Deformation characteristics of fill materials
o Settlements and internal cracking of dam materials
 Seismic stability
o Seismic coefficient method
o Liquefaction
o Dynamic deformation characteristics of dam materials
o Dynamic response analysis
o Earthquake resistant design
 Cont…
 Stability at the contact face of dam body and base foundation
o Contact clay, compaction, relative displacement
o Arching, cracking
o Limiting strength of dam body and base foundation
■ Seepage through embankment and foundation
 Seepage analysis
o Discharge, pore water pressure
o Leakage through foundation
o Piping, critical hydraulic gradient, hydraulic fracture
■ Foundation treatment
 Stability
 Seepage
 Cont…
2. Construction
■ Planning for construction
 Construction equipment
o Roller, carrier, bulldozer,..
 Foundation treatment
o Grouting, drainage
 Placement
o Excavation management, field and laboratory testing
 Observation
o Pore water pressure, settlement, earth pressure, deformation
■ Maintenance and repair
 Cont…
Dam site investigation techniques
■ Topographic mapping and survey
■ Satellite images and Arial photographs
■ Geological and geotechnical maps
■ Geophysical methods
■ Test pits and trenches
■ Drill holes
■ Sampling
■ In situ tests (permeability, grouting, bearing capacity, compressibility)
 Cont…
Topography mapping and survey
■ Accurate location and level of all relevant data
■ Topographic maps at several scales are required
 Regional maps, 1:250,000 with 20-50m contours to 1:25,000 with 10m
contours;
 Catchment area, 1:25,000 with 10m contours to 1:2,000 with 2m
contours;
 Project area, 1:1,000 with 2m contours to 1:200 with 1m contours;
 Individual engineering structures, 1:500 with 1m contours to 1:200 with
0.5m contours
Satellite image and Arial photographs
■ Thematic map production by using GIS (For computing the plan area, surface
area, and volume of the reservoir)
■ For investigations of existing dams, photographs taken during construction
area an individual aid to assessing the geology and construction of the dam.
■ Provides and indication of relationship between the regional geology and
landforms, drainage, soils, vegetation and land use.
 Cont…
Geomorphological mapping
■ Can provide and indication of the distribution of subsurface materials,
their structure and areas of possible mass movement, e.g. landslides.
Geotechnical mapping
■ Involves the location and plotting on suitable scales of all data which
assists in understanding the geotechnical conditions at the site.
■ Regional mapping
o Able to provide the regional geological understanding required for a
dam project
– Geotechnical mapping at and near the site
– The maps show the following
 Ground surface contours
 Geomorphic features
 Geological surface features
 Groundwater features, etc
 Cont…
Geophysical methods
■ Provide information on site conditions between data points.
■ Performed quickly and cover a relatively large area.
■ Computer analysis and presentation of results has assisted interpretation.
 Cont…
Foundation design
■ Includes both the valley floor and the abutments.
■ Provide stable support for the embankment under all conditions of
saturation and loading.
■ Provide sufficient resistant to seepage to prevent excessive loss of water.
■ Three main classes of foundation according to their predominant
characteristics:
1. Foundations of rock
2. Foundations of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel)
3. Foundations of fine-grained material (silt and clay)
 Cont…
Rock Foundations
■ Generally considered to be the more competent type of foundation and
usually do not present any problem for small dams.
■ Various types of weak geological features/defects that can be encountered
are:
 Weathered rock profile
 Faults
 Thin shear zones
 Shattered/high jointed rock master joints
 Folds
 Buried channel
 Jointing pattern of rock mass
 Caverns/cavities or karstic limestone
 Springs etc.
 Cont…
Methods of Treating Rock Foundations
■ Removal and replacement of upper fractured rock
■ Grouting
■ Impervious upstream blanket
Factors affecting degree of foundation treatment
■ Type of dam
■ Height of dam
■ Topography of the dam site
■ Erodibility, strength, permeability of foundation material
■ Groundwater inflows
■ Climate and river flows
 Cont…
Sand Gravel Foundations
■ Gravel/sand foundation has enough bearing/shear strength to support
small to medium earth fill and rock fill dams.
■ However, these foundations are very conducive to seepage and need
suitable treatment for seepage and uplift pressure control.
■ The design criteria require control of seepage flow through the
foundation and abutments.
■ The pervious foundation may be either exposed or covered at the surface.
Silt and Clay Foundations
■ Foundation of fine grained soil (silt, clay) are sufficiently impermeable
and thus no danger of under seepage and piping.
■ Main problem is stability against consolidation and shear failure due to
low bearing/shear strength.
■ Weak soils need to be treated for improving strength.
 Seepage Analysis
■ For homogeneous material dam seepage will pass through the dam and
appear D/s face regardless the tightness of the material.
■ A line in the body of the dam below which there are positive hydrostatic
pressure is called phreatic line or seepage line.
■ Seepage analysis is used
■ To determine the quantity of water passing through the body of the
dam and foundation.
■ To obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.
■ The two steps to define the flow and pressure distribution, and total flow
through embankment dam are determination of
1. The line of seepage boundary
2. The length of seepage exit face
 Cont…
Assumptions to be made in seepage analysis
■ The saturated porous medium is compressible. The size of the pore space
doesn‟t change with time, regardless of water pressure.
■ The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only to
gravity head loss, or Darcy‟s law for flow through porous medium is
valid.
■ There is no change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through
which water seeps and quantity of water flowing into any element of
volume is equal to the quantity which flows out in the same length of
time.
■ The hydraulic boundary conditions of any entry and exit are known.
■ Water is incompressible
 Cont…
Laplace equation for two dimensional flows
 Cont…
■ Let vx be the velocity of flow at the entry in the X-direction and vz the
velocity of flow at entry in the Z-direction.
■ Then the velocity at the exit in the X-direction will be: vx + (∂/∂x)(vx).dx
■ and the velocity at the exit in the Z-direction will be: vz + (∂/∂z)(vz).dz
■ According to assumption 3 The quantity of water entering in to the
element is equal to the quantity of water leaving the element.
■ Quantity of water entering the element in the X-direction is given by :
qix = vx.(dz.1) = vx.dz
■ Quantity of water entering the element in the Z-direction is given by :
qiz = vz.(dx.1) = vz. dx
■ Similarly, quantity of water leaving the soil element in the X-direction is
 Cont…
■ Quantity of water leaving the soil element in the Z-direction is

■ Assuming that the flow is steady and incompressible, the quantity of water
entering the soil element is equal to the quantity of water leaving the soil
element:

■ Dividing throughout with dz.dx, we have

 Cont…
■ Let h be the total head at any point. Then the component of hydraulic
gradient in the X-direction will be:
ix = – ∂h/∂x
■ The negative sign is to indicate that the head decreases in the direction of
flow. Similarly, the component of hydraulic gradient in the Z-direction
will be:
iz = ∂h/∂z
■ By Darcy‟s law, we know that –
vx = kx .ix = – kx . ∂h/∂x
■ Similarly
vz = kz .iz = – kz . ∂h/∂x
■ Substituting these values in Eq. , we have
 Cont…
■ Assuming that the soil mass is homogeneous, permeability will be same
throughout in a given direction. Hence:

■ If the soil is isotropic, then kx = kz = k. Then, we have:

The two dimensional flow of fluid
through soil can be expressed by
Laplace‟s eqn.
This is the Laplace equation for two-dimensional flow.
 Cont…
Velocity Potential:
■ Velocity potential is a scalar function of space and time such that its
derivative in any direction gives the component of velocity in that
direction. Thus:
ɸ = kh
∂ɸ = ∂x = vx
∂ɸ = ∂z = vz
■ Substituting these in Eq. , we have:

■ This is the Laplace equation in terms of velocity potential.

 Cont…
Stream Function:
■ Stream function is a scalar function of space and time such that its
derivative in any direction gives the component of velocity in the
perpendicular direction clockwise. Thus a positive stream function when
derived would give negative velocity and vice versa, as shown bellow.

∂Ψ/∂x = – vz
∂Ψ/∂z = vx

Definition of stream function

 Cont…
Flow rate calculation using a flow net
■ Consider groundwater flow through a single flow element.
■ The flow rate through this element, q, is given by:
∆ℎ
𝑞 = 𝐾. 𝑖. 𝐴 = 𝐾 𝑙
.b
■ If the element is a curvilinear square, i.e. b=l, the above equation
𝑞 = 𝐾. 𝑖. 𝐴 = 𝐾. ∆ℎ
■ For Nf the total number of flow channels, Nd the total number of potential drops and an
overall head drop of H;
𝐻
𝑞𝑇 = 𝑞. 𝑁𝑓 and ∆ℎ =
𝑁𝑑

■ Therefore, the expression for flow rate per unit length, qT, can be obtained as:
𝑁𝑓
𝑞𝑇 = 𝐾. 𝐻. ( )
𝑁𝑑
The total flow rate, QT, is given by:
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑞 𝑇 . 𝐿
L-is the length perpendicular to the 2-D seepage plane.
 Cont…
■ The nomenclature and formulas for drawing the line of seepage and exit
face and determining the quantity of seepage per unit length of
embankment, q.
 Cont…
 Phreatic line for dam without filter

Cassagrande has found that

a
■ From Table a  a

■ From figure a  a  KF
 Cont…
a
 The various values of a  a have been given by Cassagrande , as
shown below

α a
a  a
30o 0.36

60o 0.32

90o 0.26

120o 0.18

135o 0.14

150o 0.10

180o 0.0
 Cont…
Analytical Solution
 For α< 300
■ Schaffernak and Van Iterson have derived an equation for determining the
value of “a” in terms of h, b and α.
■ The equation is derived on the assumption that the hydraulic gradient is
equal to the slope of the phreatic line.

dy
i  tan 
dx
dy
qK y
dx
y  JJ '  a sin 
dy
qK y  K ( a sin  )(tan  )
dx
a (sin  )(tan  )dx  ydy
 Cont…
■ Integrating both sides between limits

x  a (cos  ) to xb
y  a(sin  ) to yh
b h
asin  tan    dx    ydy
a cos a sin

h 2  a 2 sin 2 
a sin  tan  (b  a cos  ) 
2
b b2 h2
a   2
cos  cos  sin 
2
 Cont…
 When α lies between 30o & 60o
■ Cassagrande has suggested the use of sinα in place of tanα

■ The hydraulic gradient (i) is given by

dy
i  sin 
ds
dy
q  kiA  K A
ds
@ J , a  s and y  a sin  then, qK
dy
y  K (sin  )(a sin  )  K (a sin 2  )
ds
a(sin 2  )ds  ydy
 Cont…
■ Integrating between two limits
sa to s  S and y  a sin  to y  h
a (sin 2  )ds  ydy
S h
a sin 2   ds    ydy
a a sin

h 2  a 2 sin 2 
a sin  ( S  a) 
2

2
h2
a  2aS 
2
0
sin 
2

or
h2
aS S  2

sin 2 
S  b2  h2
h2
a  b h  b h 
2 2 2 2

sin 2 
 1 
a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2  2  1
 sin  
a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2 cot 2 
 Cont…
Pavlovsky’s solution
 Pavlovsky analyzed the embankment by dividing it into three zones.

o Pavlovsky assumed horizontal flow in each zone and wrote the basic equation
q = kiA for each zone.
o The equations for each zone are:
o Zone-I

qI  K I
 hw  h1  ln  hd  (i)
 
cot   d
h  h1 
 Cont…
 Zone-II

K  h12   ao  ho  
2

qII    (ii)
2b  2  hd   ao  ho   cot 

 Zone-III
For ho>0
Kao   ao  ho  (iii)
qIII  1  ln  
cot    ao  
For ho=0

Kao
qIII 
cot  (iv)

From equation (i) and (iv)

cot   hd 
ao   hw  h1  ln  
cot   d
h  h1 
(v)
 Cont…
From equation (ii) and (iv)

2
b  b 
ao   hd    hd   h1
2
(vi)
cot   cot  

o Then a plot of ao versus h1 may be made of equations (v) and (vi)

o The intersection of the two curves representing (v) and (vi) is the value
of ao and h1 for solution. Equation (iv) will then provide q.
Example-1
■ Determine the quantity of seepage, q, ao, and h1, using Pavlovsky's
solution for the dam shown below. Compare with Schaffernak-Van
Iterson Method.
 Cont…
Solution
a. Pavlovsky's solution
■ For this case: cot α= cot β= 3, b = 20 ft, hd= 80 ft, hw= 70 ft, h0= 0, k =
0.002 ft/min.
■ For assumed values of h1 in equations (v) and (Vi) the resulting values for
ao are given in the following tabulation and plotted in the accompanying
graph.
 Cont…
 From equation (iv)

0.002 ft *18.3 ft
 0.0122 ft 3 / min per ft length of the dam
Kao min
q 
cot  3

b. Schaffernak-Van Iterson solution:

Since m = 3(70 ft) = 210 ft
b = 0.3(210 ft) + 3(10 ft) + 20 ft + 3(80 ft) = 353 ft
hW = 70 ft

b b2 h2
a   2  73 ft
cos  cos  sin 
2

q  K (a sin  )(tan  )
 0.002 * 73* (sin18o 26' ) * (tan18o 26' )
 0.015 ft 3 / min per ft length of the dam
 Cont…
o Graphical method
o This method was suggested by Cassagrande.
o CD will be equal to CA
o For parabola AP=QH (distance of point from focus is equal to distance from
directrix)
o But, AP  x 2  y 2  QH
o If focal distance AH is taken as yo then
o QH = QA+AH = x+yo

x 2  y 2  x  yo
x 2  y 2  x 2  2 xyo  yo2
y 2  yo2
x
2 yo

Or y 2  2 xyo  yo2
 This is the equation of base parabola.
 Cont…
 The value of yo can be determined either graphically or analytically by
considering co-ordinates of point C as follows

yo  x2  y 2  x

@point C x=b and y=h (the depth of water)

yo  b2  h2  b
 Cont…
■ Pore pressure: The hydrostatic head or pore water pressure at any point
can be expressed as
hw w
■ Seepage force:
– The seepage force per unit volume of the soil is
Fs  i w
– Through foundation
Fs  i w  (1  n)(   1) w
– Through the body of dam
h
ie w  w
l

■ Where: ie is the exit gradient and l is the average dimension of the last field
in the flow net
 Measures to control seepage through the dam
■ To reducing seepage a core of impervious material (silty clay or clayey silt) generally
provided.
■ The type of core is selected depending on availability of materials, topography of the site,
foundation conditions, etc.
■ There are two types of core according to inclination of the axis of the core.
1. Vertical core, and
-Provides high pressure at the contact plane b/n the core &
foundation & It is more effective in reducing seepage.
2. Inclined core

 Control of Seepage through foundations

■ If the foundation consists of:-

– Impervious stratum, generally no specific measures are required to reduce the seepage.
– Rock foundation, grouting and some surface treatment may be required
– Previous foundation, various under-seepage control measures are required
■ Seepage through foundations control methods inclde,
 Grouting & grout curtain
 Cut-off trenches
 Partial cut-off
 Sheet pile cut off
 Cont…

Positive cut-off up to impervious stratum

Sheet pile cut-off

 Cont…

Positive cut-off up to impervious stratum

Impervious upstream blanket

Relief wells
 Drainage of Earth Dams
■ Drainages are carried out in the body and foundation of earth fill dams to fulfill
– Acceptance and drainage of seepage water
– Reduction of the zone in which the seepage flow acts,
– Decline in the seepage line and, thus, elimination of the danger of freezing of
the earth material;
– Acceleration of the process of consolidation of clayey materials and reduction
of pore pressure
■ As a rule, drainages consist of an intake part and an offlet part.
■ The intake part usually consists of layers of
– sand,
– gravel, or
– a stone gritting material, set out according to the filter rules.

■ The offlet part is made of more water-permeable material

– Rock fill, drain pipes
 Cont…
■ The following types of drainages are constructed in the downstream
end:
– Drainage prism
– Retained drainage
– Pipe drainage
– Horizontal drainage
– Combined drainages
– Pressure-relief wells
 Cont…
 Drainage prism
■ is constructed of rock fill, with filter protection.
■ The top of the prism should have a freeboard value of d0 a minimum of
0.5–1.0 m.
■ Width at the top should not be less than 1.0 m.
■ The drainage prism should be designed seepage line should drop for a
value a below the downstream slope
 Cont…
 Retained drainage
o Is used when there is no suitable material for prism construction
o Retained drainage does not lower the water table line in the dam’s
body.
o Thickness of the retained drainage
 Cont…
 Pipe drainage
o Accomplished with perforated concrete , asbestos or plastic pipes,
o Pipe diameter is determined by hydraulic calculations, but is assumed
to be not less than 20 cm.
 Cont…
 Horizontal drainage
o Is accomplished in the form of a flat drainage layer, made of coarse-
grained material, protected with a filter.
 Cont…

 Combined drainages
o Represent a combination of the previously described drainage
constructions, which increases their efficiency.
 Cont…

 Combined drainages
o Represent a combination of the previously described drainage
constructions, which increases their efficiency.
 Design of filters
o Filters are usually identified in terms of their particle size distribution
o Basic purpose of filters and drains
o To intercept water flowing through cracks or openings in a base soil
and block the movement of eroding soil particles into the filter.
o To intercept water flowing through the pores of the base soil,
allowing passage of the water while preventing movement of base
soil particles.
o Basically filter material consist of sand, gravel, or a sand and gravel
mixture placed in embankments, foundations, and backfill of hydraulic
structures.
o Basic filter design method employs the following important steps.
Step 1
o Plot the gradation curve (grain-size distribution) of the base soil material.
Step 2
o Proceed to step 4 if the base soil contains no gravel (material larger than
No. 4 sieve)
 Cont…

Step 3
o Prepare adjusted gradation curves for base soils that have particles larger
than the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
o Obtain a correction factor by dividing 100 by the percent passing the
No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
o Multiply the percentage passing each sieve size of the base soil
smaller than No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve by the correction factor
determined above.
o Use the adjusted curve to determine the percentage passing the No.
200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
 Cont…

Step 4
o Place the base soil in a category determined by the percent passing the No.
200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
 Cont…

Step 5
o To satisfy filtration requirements, determine the maximum allowable D15
size for the filter in accordance with the following table.
 Cont…

Step 6
o Determine the minimum allowable D15 in accordance with the following
table.
 Cont…

Step 7
o The width of the allowable filter design band must be kept relatively
narrow to prevent the use of possibly gap-graded filters.
o First, calculate the ratio of the maximum D15 to the minimum D15
sizes determined in steps 5 and 6 If this ratio is greater than 5, adjust
the values
o Label the maximum D15 size as Control point 1 and the minimum
D15 size as Control point 2.
Step 8
o Both sides of the design filter band will have a coefficient of uniformity,
defined as:
D
CU  60  6
D10
 Cont…

Step 9
o Determine the minimum D5 and maximum D100 sizes of the filter
according to the following table
o Label as Control points 5 and 6, respectively.
 Cont…

Step 10
o To prevent segregation during construction Determine maximum D90 and
the minimum D10 from calculation and table

Step 11
o Connect all the control points
 Cont…
Example

o Given: The most important function of the filter being designed is to act as
a filter.
 2. Stability of Earth Dams
 Stability of Slopes
o The side slopes of an earth dam should be safe against shear failure.
o The Swedish circle method is one of the various methods of stability
analysis of slopes.
o In this method, the potential failure surface is assumed to be cylindrical
(i.e. circular in cross section).
Re sistingMoment Re sistingForce
FS  
ActuatingMoment ActuatingForce

 Procedure for analysis of slope stability

o The location of the center the possible failure arc is assumed.
o The earth mass is divided in to a number of vertical segments called
slices (Six to twelve slices are generally sufficient).
 Cont…

Fig. Stability analysis of slopes of earth dam by Swedish circle

method
 Cont…
o Consider the equilibrium of one slice shown hatched. This slice, No. 4, is
subjected to the following forces:
1. Weight, W4, acting vertically downwards through its center of gravity.
2. Cohesive force C4 acting along the curved surface, in the direction
opposite to the direction of probable movement of the wedge. C4 is equal
to cΔL, where c is the unit cohesion and ΔL the length of the base of the
strip.
3. Reaction R4 at the base of the slice, acting along a line inclined at an
angle Φ to the normal, where angle Φ is the angle of shearing resistance
of the soil. It is assumed that the slippage is imminent and the full shear
strength of the soil has been mobilized. Therefore, the inclination of the
reaction with the normal is equal to Φ.
4. The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice
exerted by the adjacent slices on the right and left sides, respectively.
5. The forces due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left
face, right face and at the base of the slice, respectively. The force UB acts
in the normal direction.
o In the conventional Swedish circle method, it is assumed that the reactions ER
and EL are equal and opposite and cancel each other and do not affect the
equilibrium. Thus there are only four forces considered, viz. W4, C4,R4and UB
 Cont…
o From Figure, after resolving W into its normal and tangential components

N  W cos ………………………………………………………...(1)
T  W sin  ………………………………………………………...(2)
o Resolving all the forces in the normal (or radial) direction,
N  U B  R cos ……………………………………………..………(3)
o Resolving all the forces in the tangential direction,
T  C  R sin  …………………………………………...……..(4)
o Substituting the value of R from equation (3) into equation (4),
 N UB  
T C    sin 
 Cos 

or T  C   N  U B  tan 

or T   N  U B  tan   cL ………………………………………(5)

o Equation (5) indicates that the tangential component T of the weight .

 Cont…

o Forces are computed for all the slices above the assumed slip surface and the
corresponding actuating and resisting moments can be computed.
  N  U  tan   cL  ……………………………………..(6)
FS 
T

o For a homogeneous section, Φis constant and therefore

tan    N  U   cLa ………………………………….(7)
FS 
T
Where:- Lais the length of the entire arc of the slip circle.
o Equation (6) can also be written as,
tan   W cos   U L    cL
o FS 
W sin …………………………………
(8)

where:- u is the pore water pressure at the base of the slice.

 Cont…
 Location of the most critical slip circle
o For location of the most critical slip circle, a number of trial slip surfaces are
assumed and the factors of safety are found.
o The circle, which gives the minimum factor of safety, is the most critical circle.
o To reduce the number of trials, the Fellenius line is usually drawn.
o Fellenius has shown that for a homogeneous slope, the center of most critical
circle lies on line AB, called the Fellenius Line.

Fig. Location of the most critical slip circle, Fellenius method

 Cont…

o For a purely cohesive soil (Φ= 0), the point A itself represents the center of
the most critical circle.
o The Swedish circle method is used for checking the stability of the earth dam
for the following critical conditions.
1. Stability of d/s slope during steady seepage condition
2. Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown condition
3. Stability of both slopes during construction.
 Cont…
 Stability of earth dam against headwater pressure (or overall stability)
o The overall sliding stability of the earth dam is determined considering it
as a solid body.
o The factor of safety against sliding is defined as the ratio of the force
resisting sliding of the dam to the force tending to cause sliding

Fig. Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear

 Cont…
o The resisting force is taken as the shear resistance developed at the base
of the dam, given by
Re sistingForce  W tan 
Where: W is the effective weight of the entire dam per unit length, and Φis
the angle of internal friction of the soil of which the dam is composed of.
o For computing the effective weight of the dam, the phreatic line is first
located, and the weighted average of the unit weight is taken considering
the soil above the phreatic line as moist and that below the phreatic line
as submerged. Thus,
W=Cross-sectional area of dam*average unit weight
o The force tending to cause sliding of the dam is given by

PH 
  w h2 
2
o Thus, the factor of safety is given by
W tan 
FS 
o  wh2 not be less than 2.
2
 Cont…
 Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear (i.e. stability of d/s portion of the
earth dam)

o The total horizontal force is given by

Hd 
SH2
2 
tan 45 
2  o
2
 
 w h12
2

o The weighted unit weight γs of the soil mass is given by

 h   2  H  h1 
S  1 1
H

where:- γ1is the submerged unit weight of the soil below the phreatic line and γ2is
the moist unit weight of the soil above the phreatic line.
 Cont…
o The resisting force against sliding is developed due to internal friction
and cohesion of the soil mass in the downstream portion of the dam, and
is given by
Rd  Wd tan   cbd

where:- Wd- Is the total effective weight of the d/s portion of the dam above
the base,
c -Is the unit cohesion and
bd -Is the width of the base of the d/s portion.
o The average factor of safety Fs against shear is given by
Wd tan   cbd
FS 
 sH 2
2
2

tan 45   o
2
 
 w h12
2 should be at least 2
 Cont…
 Factor of safety against maximum shear (d/s slope)
o According to the theory of elasticity, the maximum shear (ηmax) is twice the
average shear (ηa). Thus
 Hd 
 max  2 a  2  
 bd 

Or
 max 
 
 S H 2 tan 2 45o   2   w h12
bd

o The factor of safety at the point of maximum shear stress is determined as

o The shear strength is determined by the Mohr-Coulomb shear equation as

S   tan   c or S   S h  tan   c
where:- ζ-is the vertical stress
h- is the vertical distance from the d/s slope of the dam down to the
point of maximum shear stress (=height of soil column)
 Cont…
( s h tan   c) b d
FS 
 
 S H 2 tan 2 45o   2   w h12 should be at least 1.5

 Stability of upstream slope against horizontal shear

■ The same procedure applies as that used for d/s slope discussed above.

■ The horizontal force acting on the upstream portion of the dam is given
by
H 
SH2
u tan 45 
2

2
o 


 w h12
2  2

■ If bu is the width of the base of the u/s portion of the dam, the average
shear stress at the base is given by
a 
Hu 1   S H 2
bu
 
bu  2
tan 45 
2 o 
2

2  
 w h12 

 Cont…
■ The maximum shear stress is taken as twice the average shear stress.
Thus
 max  2 a
■ A resisting force develops against the horizontal shear force, which is
given by
Ru  Wu' tan   cbu

where:- W´u-is the total effective weight of the u/s portion of the dam
above the base.

■ The average factor of safety Fs against shear is given by

Ru Wu' tan   cbu
Fs  
Hu  sH 2
2 
tan 45 
2 o 
2 

 w h12
2
 Cont…
 Factor of safety against maximum shear (u/s portion)
■ The maximum shear stress occurs at a point at a distance of 0.4bu

■ The shear strength at that point is obtained as

Smax   s' h tan   c

F 
Smax


bu  s' h tan   c 
 
'

 s H 2 tan 2 452   2   w h12

s
 max should be at least 1.5
 Cont…
 Stability of foundation against horizontal shear
a. Stability of foundation below upstream slope

Fig. Foundation stability against horizontal shear

■ A horizontal shear force S acts on the vertical plane AB, which is given
by  h12  h22  2  o 1 
S  m   tan  45 
 2 
 2 

where:- γm-is the mean unit weight of the soil mass of the dam and
foundation, which is weighted in proportion of the thickness of each.
 D  h1  h2    F h2
m 
h1
 Cont…
■ Ф1is the equivalent angle of internal friction of purely cohesionless soil,
given by
 m h1 tan 1   m h1 tan   c
 m h1 tan   c
tan 1 
 m h1

where:- Φ and c are, respectively, the angle of internal friction and cohesion
of the foundation soil.
■ The average shear stress is given by
 m  h12  h22  tan 2  45o  1 2 
a 
S
  
bu bu

■ The point of maximum shear stress (ηmax)occurs at the rigid boundary at a

horizontal distance 0.4bu from the shoulder and is equal to 1.4 times the
average shear stress.
■ The factor of safety against average shear stress is given by
 Cont…
■ The shear strength below the heel is given by

S1  c   F' h2 tan  
Where:- γ´F- Is the submerged unit weight of the soil mass of the foundation.
■ The shear strength below the shoulder is given by
S2  c   m' h1  tan 

where:- γ´m-is the mean submerged unit weight of soil mass of the dam and
the foundation, given by
 D'  h1  h2    F' h2
 
'
m
h1

■ Therefore the factor of safety average shear is expressed as

2
1 S1  S2 
FS  should at least be 1.50
a
 Cont…
■ The factor of safety against maximum shear is also necessary.
■ The shear strength at point D where the maximum shear stress occurs is
given by
Smax  c   m h tan 
'

Where:- γ´m-is the mean effective unit weight of the soil mass along a
vertical line passing through point D, and is given by
 D'  h  h2    F' h2
 
'
m
h
■ The factor of safety against maximum shear is given by
Smax
FS'  should be greater than unity
 max

b. Stability of foundation below downstream slope

 The same procedure can be used for the stability analysis of the
foundation below the d/s slope for steady seepage conditions.
 Example
1. Check the stability of the upstream face slope of the dam for the assumed
surface shown. The properties of the shell, core and foundation materials
are as follows (by Swedish circle method ).
Cont…
 Cont…

Solution:
o The soil column above the slip surface is divided into7 slices. The slices
have been taken such that the base of each slice is in one type of material.
The entire soil mass has been assumed to be saturated. Actually, a small
portion above the phreatic line under steady seepage conditions will not
be saturated. The computations for the stability analysis are shown in the
table below. The weight of each slice is computed from its area and the
corresponding unit weight. The values of Φ and c are taken
corresponding to the material through which the base of that slice passes.
The value of the angle θ, which the vertical lines make with the normal,
are measured and written in Col. (7).
 Cont…

Taking full pore pressure, the factor of safety is computed as

 Cont…

2. For the dam shown in the figure below (height 100 ft), the maximum
headwater is at an elevation of 90ft above the base. The position of the
seepage line results in 65% of the cross section being saturated and
submerged. Determine the safety against headwater pressure (overall
stability)
 Cont…
Solution:
■ From the given data, the average unit weight may be computed as:
65% of material submerged = 0.65 x 74.5 = 48.5 lb
35% of material moist = 0.35 x 122 = 42.6 lb
 Average unit effective weight of cross-section = 91.1 lb/cu.ft
o The area of the cross-section=
o The effective weight of a section of the dam 1 ft wide will be

o Assuming that tan Φ of the material of which the dam is composed is 0.3 and
neglecting cohesion, the shear resistance is 1002.1 tons x 0.3 = 300.6 tons.
o The headwater pressure will be perpendicular to the upstream slope, but
horizontal component of this pressure will be

o Thus, the overall factor of safety against horizontal shear due to headwater
pressure
o ≥ 2.0 (Satisfactory)
 Cont…
3. Refer to the following figure of a dam cross section of homogeneous
material consisting of a medium silt placed in 6-inch rolled layers.
Slopes are u/s and d/s, 3:1 and 2.5:1, respectively. The dam is founded on
a firm and relatively impervious foundation. Determine the safety against
downstream horizontal shear.
 Cont…
o Solution:
o Assumptions:
 Void ratio, material in dam, e = 0.43
 or per cent voids (or porosity) = e/(1+e) = 0.30
 Specific gravity = 2.65 Hence, dry unit weight = 62.5 x 2.65 x(1 – 0.30)
= 116 lb/cu. ft
 Water contained in pores when saturated = 0.30 x 62.5 = 18.8 lb/cu.ft
 Saturated unit weight = 116+18.8=134.8 lb/cu.ft
 Submerged unit weight = 134.8 – 62.5 = 72.3 lb/cu.ft
 Moist unit weight will be assumed as 120 lb/cu.ft
 Angle of internal friction, Φ= 26°, unit cohesion, c = 0
 Mean (weighted average) unit weight: Up to elevation 60 the material is
below seepage line and will have submerged unit weight of 72.3 lb/cu.ft
and above and beyond the seepage line unit weight will be taken as
moist or 120 lb/cu.ft
 Cont…

o which is the total horizontal shear per foot of width tending to move the
downstream section of the dam downstream.
 Next, determine the resisting forces downstream.

o Total area of downstream portion of dam is and under the

seepage line =60x100x0.67 = 4030 sq. ft of submerged material, leaving 8470

sq. ft of moist material. Thus per foot width there will be

8470 x 120 lb = 1,017,000 lb and 4030 x 72.3 lb = 291,600 lb
o Total 1,308,600 lb = 654.3 tons
 Cont…
o The total resisting force against downstream movement is

o Thus the average factor of safety against downstream shear is

 Factor of safety at the point of maximum shear:

o The maximum unit shear will be computed from,

o The point of maximum unit shear is approximately 0.4x250 ft from top of

downstream slope (see figure).
o Unit shear strength at point of maximum shear is
S = 120x60x0.488 +0= 3520 lb = 1.76 tons/sq. ft
o Factor of safety at the point of maximum shear,
 Cont…
4. Refer to figure for example 3. Determine the factor of safety of the upstream
portion of the dam against sudden drawdown of the water in the reservoir.
Assumptions on weights of materials will be as in example 2, above.
 Solution:
■ Saturated unit weight = 134.8 lb/cu. ft
■ The horizontal force acting on the upstream portion of the dam is given by

 Note that complete saturation is assumed, whereas top 10 ft of slope is not

actually saturated. This, of course, is on the safe side.
o The resisting force to the above shear is

o Effective unit weight under sudden drawdown conditions = 72.3 lb/cu. ft

which is the submerged unit weight of the material.
Total effective weight = 17,500 x 72.3 = 1,265,000 lb = 632.5 tons
Total shear strength,
 Cont…
■ Average factor of safety against sudden drawdown,

 Maximum unit shear in the u/s portion:

 Hu 
 max  2 a  2  
 bu 

=2*(187.5/350)=1.07ton/sq.ft.
■ At the point of maximum shear the unit shear resistance will be
S=72.3*60*0.488+0=2120=1.060tons/sq.ft.
■ Factor of safety at the point of maximum shear=1.06/1.07=0.99 (Not
satisfactory)
 Cont…
5. Refer to the following figure and find the Approximate shear stress in the
foundation and Approximate factor of safety against foundation shear.

Data:
Height of dam = 100 ft
h1= 160 ft, h2= 60 ft, b = 400 ft, γ= 120 lb/cu. ft, Φ= 17°, c = 400 lb/sq. ft = 0.20 tons/sq ft
Equivalent angle of internal friction, Φ1, is determined from
from which, Φ1= 18°.
 Cont…
■ Equivalent liquid unit weight (Rankine‟s formula)

■ Total horizontal shear down to the rigid boundary is found from

■ and the average unit shear in the foundation

 The maximum unit shear will be 1.4xSa= 1.4x0.875 = 1.23 tons/sq. ft.
 Approximate factor of safety against foundation shear
■ Unit shear strength of foundation below toe = c + γ1h2tan Φ, where γ1is the effective
unit weight of the material.
■ Assuming that ground water level is at ground surface in this case, the submerged
unit weight
= 120 – 62.5 = 57.5 lb/cu. ft.
■ Unit shear strength below toe = 400 +(57.5x60xtan 17°) = 1455 lb = 0.73 tons/sq. ft.
 Cont…
■ At point in foundation under upper shoulder of slope

■ Shear strength at this point = 400 + (96.5 x 160 x tan 17°) = 5140 lb = 2.57
tons /sq. ft
■ Average unit shear strength = (0.73 + 2.57)/2 = 1.65 tons/sq. ft
■ Overall average factor of safety against foundation shear = 1.65/0.875 = 1.9
(Satisfactory)
 Factor of safety against shear in the foundation at the point of maximum shear:

■ The mean effective unit weight, γ1, will be (57.5 + 120)/2 = 88.8 lb/cu.ft.
– This is because at this point there is 60 ft below and 60 ft of material above the
ground water level.

■ Unit shear strength at the point of maximum shear = c + γ1h tan Φ= 400 +
(88.8x120x0.306) =3670 lb = 1.84 ton.
■ Factor of safety against shear at point of maximum shear = 1.84/1.23 = 1.5
which is satisfactory.
 Rock Fill Dam Dams
Chapter Three
 Rock Fill Dams
■ Dam that contains more than 50% of compacted or dumped previous fill.
■ Stability mainly developed by the fraction and interaction of the particles.
 Rock fill dam sections
o Dam with inclined impervious zone
 Cont…
o Dam with central core
 Cont…
o Dam with upstream membrane
 Cont…

Foundation Design
■ Foundation requirements
 More severe than earth fill dam but less serve than concrete gravity dam.
 Hard erosion resistant bed rock is most suitable.
 Rock fill dams are not suitable in soft foundation of sand, silt and clay.
 Foundation with river gravel + rock fragments is acceptable.
■ Foundation treatment must be sufficient to satisfy the following criteria:
 Minimize leakage.
 Prevent internal erosion.
 Prevent settlement.
 Sufficient friction development between abutments and foundation to
ensure sliding stability.
 Cont…

Membrane Design
■ Seepage membrane is required to stop the seepage through the dam
embankment.
 Central core
 U/s membrane
■ Materials for the membrane
 Reinforced cement concrete
 Steel
 Timber
 Stone/rubble or masonry
 Asphalt concrete for u/s face membrane and
 Earth/clay
 Cont…

Internal Membrane
■ Shorter grout curtain length because of straighter alignment.
■ Protection from the effects of weathering and external damage.
■ If the core is centrally located, any future remedial grouting can be
accomplished from the crest; this is also true for cores that slope only slightly
upstream.
■ More easily adapted to less favorable foundation conditions, especially if the
core is centrally located.
■ Typically would not require specialized construction that may be needed for
upstream membrane.
 Cont…
Earth core
a. Impervious Central Core
■ Enough quantity of earth fill available for core.
■ Used when u/s abutments are widely apart in comparison to dam axis length.
■ Or show highly weathered rock to great depth and require adequate
grouting/cutoff.
■ Design same as for earth fill dam, seepage and stability analysis required.
■ Core material to have enough plasticity to allow it to deform without cracking on
dam deflection.
■ Filter zones provided (one or multiple zone of 8-15ft thick)
■ Foundations and abutments opposite to core be treated to prevent piping.
■ Bottom width 0.5 h to 2.5 h.
■ U/s and d/s slopes symmetrical (0.3H:1V 1.5H:1V), or u/s flatter than d/s face.
■ Dam slopes as x+1H:1V (minimum 2:1). x-core slope
Cont…
 Cont…

b. Inclined Earth Core

■ Located closer to u/s face, almost parallel to the u/s face.
■ Filter zones on u/s and d/s of core.
■ Usually thin width, width decreases at top.
■ Bottom width 30 to 50ft.
■ Top width 15 to 20ft.
■ Foundation grouting can be carried out while the embankment is being placed.
■ U/s face 2:1 and d/s face 1.4:1 or u/s face flatter than d/s face.
■ Core can be placed after initial settlement of rock fill (less subsequent
cracking risk.
 Cont…
U/s Membranes
■ Can be constructed after completion of the rock fill section.
■ Readily available for inspection and repair if reservoir can be drawn down.
■ Foundation grouting can be performed simultaneously with rock fill
placement.
■ More adaptable for construction in wet or cold climates because membrane
and filters do not have to be placed simultaneously with the rock fill as they
do for internal impervious core dams.
■ Can be used as slope protection.
■ Easier to raise this type of dam later.
■ It is recommended that it be constructed of concrete or asphalt.
 Cont…
U/s Face Membrane
1. Concrete Faced Rock Fill Dam
■ RCC slabs placed at face over bedding layer.
■ Slab thickness and reinforcement requirements by experience, standard and
judgment.
■ Best suited for compacted rock fill dams due to lesser chance of settlement
and deflection.
■ Well compacting bedding layer reduce birding requirements and provide more
uniform support to the face layer.
■ Slab placed in blocks 20 to 60ft square.
■ Horizontal and vertical expansion joints and construction joints are provided.
Gaps filled with flexible bitumen.
■ Water stops in joints by metal or rubber.
 Cont…

Fig. Concrete face sealing. Junction of the concrete face sealing and the plinth
(perimetric joint)
A. Face slab; B. Perimetric joint; C. Plinth; 1. Hypalon band; 2. Mastic filler;
3. Compressible wood filler; 4. PVC water stop; 5. Copper water stop; 6.
Neoprene cylinder; 7. Styrofoam filler; 8. Sand asphalt mixture; 9. Zone 2; 10.
Steel reinforcement; 11. Steel reinforcement to protect concrete against
crushing and to protect water stop: (ICOLD, 1989a)
 Cont…
Membrane Cutoffs
■ To prevent seepage beneath the dam, foundations are usually grouted.
■ Provides leakage control in the upper few meters of the foundation.
■ Facilitate grouting operation (as grout cap).
■ A minimum width and depth of 3ft is recommended for cutoff walls in sound
rock.
 Cont…
2. Asphaltic Concrete
■ Provides more flexibility and tolerates larger settlement.
■ U/s slope 1.7:1 or flatter for easy placement.
■ Good bedding layer to eliminate uplift pressures and piping if cracks.
■ Penetration coat cover leveling layer to bind and stabilize it.
■ Membrane thickness 20 to 25cm. Asphalt 8.5% by weight of dry aggregates.
■ Standard road paver used and asphalt placed in 3 layers.
■ Seal coat on the finished surface (for water proofing and increased durability.
 Cont…
.
 Cont…
3. Steel Face
■ Used on few dams.
■ Performance satisfactory.
■ Can be rapidly constructed.
■ Can tolerate greater embankment reverts.
■ Proper maintenance can be made facing as permanent.
■ D/s slopes 1.3 to 1.7.
■ Probability of corrosion- Disadvantage.
 Cont…
■ Steeper slopes construction difficulties:
 Plate anchored to embankment by steel anchor rods grouted in bedding
material.
 Plate raised on scaffolding, grid, bedding material placed after or during
plate construction.
 Plate thickness ¼ to 2/8 inch.
 Jointed by bolts or continuous fillet weld.
 Expansion joint provided are regular interval.
 Coping walls can be used to retard over splash.
 Cont…
Rock Material
■ Hard, durable and able to withstand disintegration due to weathering.
■ Free unstable materials.
■ Resist excessive breakage due to quarrying, loading, hauling and placing
operations.
■ Individual rocks of uniform size for good rock-to-rock contact.
■ Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks all used successively.
■ Each dam site a unique problem, thus general guidelines only.
■ Rock quality determined by lab tests and/or in-situ inspections of weathering
marks at the rock quarry site.
■ Test embankment to answer:
 Use of marginal materials
 Performance of materials during compaction operation.
 Correct compaction equipment
 Correct lift for each material
 Cont…
Rock Sources
■ Excavation for foundations, structures, spillway, stilling basin, tunnels,
underground power house etc.
■ Quarry site near dam site.
■ Angular rock fragments can be obtained from the river bed.
Rock Size
■ Use rock specific gravity2.67 to 2.94 and weight not less than
160lb/cft=2560kg/m3.
U/s, d/s face slopes and zoning
■ Slopes depend on type and location of membrane. Slopes evolved from steep 0.5:1
to flat 1.3 to 1.7:1.
■ Steep slopes used to minimize rock volume and cost.
■ Steep slopes possible with u/s face membrane.
■ For fast design the steep slopes were stabilized by thick crane-placed dry rubble
masonry (and which provide as support zone for the bedding layer for u/s
membrane. No derrick/crane placed rock work required for present design.
 Cont…
■ Central sloping core 2:1 to 4:1 both u/s and d/s.
■ U/s face membrane
 Concrete u/s 1.3 to 1.7:1, d/s 1.3 to 1.4:1
 Asphalt concrete face 1.6 to 1.7:1
 Steel u/s 1.3 to 1.4:1
Crest Width
■ Should be determined by the type of membrane used and by its use after
construction.
■ The crest should, however, be wide enough to accommodate construction of
u/s membrane.
■ A minimum width of 15 to 20 feet is recommended.
Freeboard
■ Freeboard requirements depend on maximum wind velocity, fetch length,
reservoir operation conditions, spillway capacity and weather coping walls are
used.
 Embankment Dam Construction, Performance &
Remedial Measures
Chapter Four
 General Considerations
■ Embankment dams are the most widespread kind of water retaining
structures.
■ They can be defined as dams constructed of natural material obtained
from borrow pits located in the vicinity of the dam site.
■ Material obtained from excavation of foundations and appurtenant
structures is also very often used.
■ Owing to the complexity of problems that have to be solved during their
design, construction, and service, embankment dams fall within the most
complex engineering structures.
 Cont…

Rogun Dam is an embankment dam under construction on the Vakhsh River in

southern Tajikistan. Rogun was listed as the highest dam in the world 335 m high
but this is a projected height. Construction of the dam began in the Soviet era, in
1976.
 Cont…

The Nurek Dam is an earth-fill embankment dam on the Vakhsh River in

Tajikistan. Its primary purpose is hydroelectric power generation and its power
station has an installed capacity of 3,015 MW. At 300 m it is currently the second
tallest man-made dam in the world.
 Cont…

Nuozhadu is an embankment dam on the Lancang (Mekong) River in Yunnan

Province, southwest China. The dam is 261.5 m (858 ft) tall, and creates a reservoir
with a normal capacity of 21,749,000,000 m3. The total generating capacity of the
power station is 5,850 MW.
 Cont…

The Shuibuya Dam is a concrete-face rock-fill embankment dam on the Qingjiang

River in Badong County, Enshi, Hubei Province, China. The purpose of the dam is
mainly hydroelectricity but it also promotes flood control, navigation, tourism and
fishery. At 233m tall and containing 15,640,000 m3 of material, it is the tallest
concrete face rock-fill dam in the world.
 Cont…
Materials for embankment dams
■ Conditions that should be fulfilled by local materials for the construction
of embankment dams depend on the type of dam, its location, and the role
of the material in the cross-section of the dam, as well as on the method of
dam execution.

Use of local materials for embankment dams

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■ Rock fill material must be well graded, and excellent material for dam
construction has the following grain size distribution:
 Not more than 5% below 5 mm;
 Not more than 30% below 20 mm;
 Maximum particle size 600 to 1000 mm, depending on the rock
strength and the tendency towards particle breakage; the maximum
dimensions of the grains depend also on the methods of construction,
as well as the available plant and equipment.
 Earth-excavation and Transportation
Bulldozers and Angledozers
■ Bulldozer is a tractor with an attached blade for pushing earth and
building debris for coarse preliminary surface grading, demolishing
building structures, etc.
■ While angledozer is a kind of bulldozer whose blade can be tilted at an
angle.
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Scrapers
■ Is a form of heavy equipment used for earthmoving.
■ Its rear bed has a vertically moveable hopper with a sharp horizontal front
edge that cuts into the soil like a carpenter's plane and fills the hopper.
■ When full the hopper is raised, closed, and the scraper transports its load
to the fill area for dumping.
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Tractor Shovel -also called loading shovel
■ Its primary function is to scoop up loose materials in the front mounted
bucket, elevate the bucket and manoeuvre into a position to deposit the
loose material into an attendant transport vehicle.
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Skimmer
■ Skimmers are used for oversite excavation up to a depth of 300 mm where
great accuracy in level is required, and they can achieve an output of some
50 bucket loads per hour.
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Face Shovel
■ This type of machine can be used as a loading shovel or for excavating
into the face of an embankment or berm. Universal power unit or
hydraulic machines are available with a wide choice of bucket capacities,
achieving outputs in the region of 80 bucket loads per hour.
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Backacter
■ Outputs will vary from 30 to 60 bucket loads per hour, depending upon
how confined is the excavation area.
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Dragline
■ This type of excavator is essentially a crane with a long jib to which is
attached a drag bucket for excavating in loose and soft soils below the
level of the machine. Outputs of dragline excavators will vary according
to operating restrictions from 30 to 80 bucket loads per hour.
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Bucket wheel excavator
■ Is a large heavy equipment machine used in surface mining. The primary
function of BWEs is to act as a continuous digging machine in large-scale
open-pit mining operations, removing thousands of tons of overburden a
day.
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Loader
■ Is a type of tractor, usually wheeled, sometimes on tracks, that has a front
mounted square wide bucket connected to the end of two booms (arms) to
scoop up loose material from the ground, such as dirt, sand or gravel, and
move it from one place to another without pushing the material across the
ground.
■ A loader is commonly used to move a stockpiled material from ground
level and deposit it into an awaiting dump truck or into an open trench
excavation.
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Transportation Machine
■ Transportation of operatives, machines and materials between sites is
usually carried out by using suitably equipped or adapted lorries or trucks,
ranging from the small pickup vehicle weighing less than 800 kg to more
than 50 tones.
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Conveyor
■ Conveyors or endless belts are used mainly for transporting aggregates
and concrete and are generally considered economic only on large sites
where there may be a large concrete-mixing complex.
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Crane
■ A crane may be defined as a device or machine for lifting loads by means
of a rope.
■ The use of cranes has greatly increased in the construction industry,
mainly because of the need to raise the large and heavy prefabricated
components often used in modern structures.
■ The range of cranes available is very wide, and therefore actual choice
must be made on a basis of sound reasoning, overall economics,
capabilities of cranes under consideration, prevailing site conditions and
the anticipated utilization of the equipment.
 Mobile cranes;
 Static or stationary cranes;
 Tower cranes.
 Cont…
Mobile cranes
■ Mobile cranes come in a wide variety of designs and capacities, generally
with a 360° rotation or slewing circle, a low pivot and luffing jib, the main
exception being the mast crane. Mobile cranes can be classed into five
groups:
 Self-propelled cranes;
 Lorry-mounted cranes;
 Track-mounted cranes;
 Mast cranes;
 Gantry cranes.
 Cont…
Mobile cranes-Self propelled cranes
■ These are wheel-mounted mobile cranes that are generally of low lifting
capacities of up to 10 tones.
■ They can be distinguished from other mobile cranes by the fact that the
driver has only one cab position for both driving and operating the crane.
■ They are extremely mobile, but to be efficient they usually require a hard,
level surface from which to work.
■ Road speeds obtained are in the region of 30 km/h.
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Mobile cranes-Lorry mounted cranes
■ These consist of a crane mounted on a specially designed lorry or truck.
■ The operator drives the vehicle between sites from a conventional cab but
has to operate the crane engine and controls from a separate crane-
operating position.
■ The capacity of lorry-mounted cranes ranges from 5 to 20 tones in the
freestanding position, but this can be increased by using the jack
outriggers built into the chassis.
■ Mobile lorry cranes can travel between sites at speeds of up to 48 km/h.
Cont…
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Mobile cranes-Track mounted cranes
■ This form of mobile crane is usually based upon the standard power unit
capable of being rigged as an excavator.
■ These cranes can traverse around most sites without the need for
■ a firm level surface, and have capacity ranges similar to those of the lorry
mounted cranes.
■ The main disadvantage of this form of mobile crane is the general need for
a special low-loading lorry to transport the crane between sites.
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Mobile cranes-Mast cranes
■ These cranes are often confused with mobile tower cranes.
■ The main differences are:
 The mast is mounted on the jib pivots and held in the vertical
position by ties.
 Cranes are high-pivot machines with a luffing jib.
 Operation is usually from the chassis of the machine.
■ Mast cranes can be either lorry- or track mounted machines.
■ The main advantages of the high-pivot mast crane are that it is less likely
to foul the side of a building under construction, and it can approach
closer to the structure than a low-pivot machine of equivalent capacity and
reach. This can be of paramount importance on congested sites.
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Mobile cranes-Gantry cranes
■ The gantry or portal crane is a rail-mounted crane consisting of a
horizontal transverse beam that carries a combined driver‟s cab and hook-
supporting saddle.
■ The beam is supported by rail-mounted „A‟ frames on powered bogies
situated on both sides of the building under construction.
■ This is a particularly safe form of crane as it requires no ballast, gives the
driver an excellent all-round view, and allows the hook three-way
movement in vertical, horizontal and transverse directions.
■ Although limited in application, this special form of mobile crane can be
very usefully and economically employed on repetitive and partially
prefabricated blocks of medium-rise dwellings.
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Static Cranes-Guyed derrick
■ These cranes are fixed at their working position and are used primarily for
lifting heavy loads such as structural steelwork.
■ Although more common on hydraulic engineering contracts they can be
successfully and economically employed by building contractors.
 Cont…
Static Cranes-Tower cranes
■ Since their introduction in 1950 by the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research the tower crane has been universally accepted by the
building industry as a standard piece of plant required for construction of
medium- to high-rise structures.
■ These cranes are available in several forms with a horizontal jib carrying a
saddle or a trolley, or alternatively with a luffing or derricking jib with a
lifting hook at its extreme end.
■ Horizontal jibs can bring the load closer to the tower, whereas luffing jibs
can be raised to clear obstructions such as adjacent buildings, an
advantage on confined sites.
■ The basic types of tower crane available are:
 self-supporting static tower cranes;
 supported static tower cranes;
 travelling tower cranes;
 climbing cranes.
 Cont…
Static Cranes-Tower cranes
Topkit Tower Crane-QTZ900A-Max load 32 ton
 Cont…
Self-supporting static tower cranes
■ These cranes generally have a greater lifting capacity than other types of
crane.
■ The mast of the self-supporting tower crane must be firmly anchored at
ground level to a concrete base with holding-down bolts or alternatively to
a special mast base section cast into a foundation.
■ They are particularly suitable for confined sites, and should be positioned
in front or to one side of the proposed building with a jib of sufficient
length to give overall coverage of the new structure.
■ Generally these cranes have a static tower, but types with a rotating or
slewing tower and luffing jib are also available.
Cont…
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Supported static tower cranes
■ These are similar in construction to self-supporting tower cranes but are
used for lifting to a height in excess of that possible with self-supporting
or travelling tower cranes.
■ The tower or mast is fixed or tied to the structure using single or double
steel stays to provide the required stability.
■ This tying back will induce stresses in the supporting structure, which
must therefore be of adequate strength.
■ Supported tower cranes usually have horizontal jibs, because the rotation
of a luffing jib mast renders it unsuitable for this application.
Cont…
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Travelling tower cranes
■ To obtain better site coverage with a tower crane a rail-mounted or
travelling crane could be used.
■ The crane travels on heavy wheeled bogies mounted on a wide-gauge
(4.200 m) rail track with gradients not exceeding 1 in 200 and curves not
less than 11.000 m radius depending on mast height.
■ It is essential that the base for the railway track sleepers is accurately
prepared, well drained, regularly inspected and maintained if the stability
of the crane is to be ensured.
■ The motive power is electricity, the supply of which should be attached to
a spring-loaded drum, which will draw in the cable as the crane reverses
to reduce the risk of the cable becoming cut or trapped by the wheeled
bogies.
■ Travelling cranes can be supplied with similar lifting capacities and jib
arrangements as given for static cranes.
Cont…
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Climbing cranes
■ These are designed for tall buildings, being located within and supported
by the structure under construction.
■ The mast, which extends down through several storeys, requires only a
small (1.500 to 2.000 m square) opening in each floor.
■ Support is given at floor levels by special steel collars, frames and
wedges.
■ The raising of the static mast is carried out using a winch that is an
integral part of the system.
■ Generally, this form of crane requires a smaller horizontal or luffing jib to
cover the construction area than a static or similar tower crane.
■ The jib is made from small, easy-to-handle sections, which are lowered
down the face of the building, when the crane is no longer required, by
means of a special winch attached to one section of the crane.
■ The winch is finally lowered to ground level by hand when the crane has
been dismantled.
Cont…
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Crane skips and slings
■ Cranes are required to lift all kinds of materials, ranging from
prefabricated components to loose and fluid materials.
■ Various skips or containers have been designed to carry loose or fluid
materials .
■ Skips should be of sound construction, easy to attach to the crane hook,
easily cleaned, easy to load and unload and of a suitable capacity.
■ Prefabricated components are usually hoisted from predetermined lifting
points by using wire or chain slings
 Cont…
Compaction Machinery
Sheep foot roller
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Vibration roller
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Pneumatic tired roller
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Rammer
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Rammer
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Materials for construction of Embankment Dams
 Instrumentation
■ Dams are expected to safely withstand all loading conditions for the
design life of the project and beyond.
■ Any sudden or unplanned release of stored water can result in loss of life
and property.
■ Potential loss of life, property damage, and the public welfare require a
means to evaluate the performance and safety of a dam during
construction, during reservoir filling and during project operation.
■ Reasons for installing instrumentation in dams and their foundations
include:
 Diagnostic, including
 Verifying design assumptions,
 Verifying suitability of new construction techniques,
 Understanding the specific nature of an adverse event, and
 Verifying continued satisfactory performance.
 Cont…
 Predictive reasons include the ability to make informed and valid
predictions of the future behavior of the dam based upon the
collected data.
 Legal reasons include availability of valid instrumented data for use
in evaluating damage claims arising from dam construction or
project operation.
 Research, including
 Using available instrumentation and performance data to
improve future design features and concepts,
 Developing advances in construction techniques, and
 Assisting in a better understanding of failure mechanisms.
 Cont…
Instruments and measurements
Property Measured Measurement Location Typical Instruments

Alignment Crest, slope or other location of Surface moment, Total

interest station, Laser, GPS,
Geodimeter.
Deformation or Internal All points of interest within the Strain gage, Inclinometer,
Movement dam, foundation, and abutments Settlement cell, Electro-level,
Extensometers
Opening of Crack Joints of concrete surface Joint meter, Crack meter

Water Pressure
Rate of Leakage Flow
Quality of Leakage
Within the dam, foundation, and
abutments.
Within the galleries, toe of the
dam and any other location of
interest.
Any location of interest.
Piezometer, Observation well
Weir, flume, flow meter or
calibrated container.
Turbidity meter.

Earthquake Response Dam crest, toe of dam and Peak acceleration recorder,
abutments. Strong motion accelerometer,
Micro-seismic Station.
Cont…
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

2021