1 Shor Small Scale Irrigation Project Finished End Last

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING
DESIGN OF SHOR SMALL SCALE IRRIGATION PROJECT
JUNE, 2017
NEKEMTE, ETHI0PIA
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that they have read the project work entitled Shor Small Scale
Irrigation Project and here by recommend for acceptance by Wollega University and
submitted by:-
Name of Groups ID No.
1. Otoma Orkaido………………………………Eng.R/12/953
2. Itenesh Mengesha……………………….......Eng.R/12/659
3. Menahim Tadesse……………………………Eng.R/12/483
4. Usmael Abdela………………………………Eng.R/12/1154
5. Alemayehu Taresa…………………………...Eng.R/12/111
I
DECLARATION
We here by speak out that, this work is original and not copied from other source, unless it is
acknowledged. Using this, report fully or partially for other purpose, without the permission of
author is prohibited. But, we have gotten the raw data through the department and we compare with
another document and text book etc. We assure that we agree with all written above with our
signature as follows.
Name of Groups Id No. Signature
1. Otoma Orkaido……………………………Eng.R/12/95…………………………………
2. Itenesh Mengesha………………………….Eng.R/12/659…………………………….……
3. Menahim Tadesse…………………………..Eng.R/12/483…………………………………
4. Usmael Abdela……………………………...Eng.R/12/1154…………………………..........
5. Alemayehu Taresa…………………………..Eng.R/12/111………………………………...
II
APPROVAL OF THE PROJECT
This project entitled with small scale irrigation which has been approved by the following
examiners in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Hydraulic and Water resource engineering in Wollega University.
Advisors’ name: Mr. HAILU KEBEDE (M.SC)
Signature: _____________
Date: ________________
Members of the Examining board:
Name of examiner’s Date Signature
1. Mr.________________________ _________________ ___________
2. Mr._________________________ _________________ ___________
3. Mr.________________________ _________________ ___________
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank the almighty God for giving us strength, patience, and guidance
to go through this project work and fulfill our wishes. Secondly, we would like to express our
sincerely gratitude and deepest hearted thanks to our advisors Mr. HAILU KEBEDE (M.SC), who
gave us sufficient information, guidance, supervision and for his support and encouragement which
contributed to the success of our project work and advice at the time of our need, his persistent
guidance during the project work and valuable comments on each parts of the project were
remarkable. We have really enjoyed working under his supervision to reach up to the points of our
goal. Thirdly, we appreciate Wollega University for giving the chance to prepare this design
document and also library workers for giving reference materials whenever we required without any
tiredness's. And our thanks are also for our department Hydraulic and water resources and
Engineering for the preparation of advisors to guide us on this journey. The group member would
like to express thank those who helped us materially, manually and financially for successful
completion of this project
Last but not the least our heartfelt and grand thanks give for our families and friends who have
supported us to prepare this design document reports both in their finical aid and in their guidance
of our life throughout our education from the beginning up to the end.
.
IV
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This document contains design of Shor small scale irrigation project. The project consists
of ten chapters and each chapter has its own content to deal with. The first chapter
discusses the back ground information on location, temperature, climate, soil and
socioeconomics of the town. The second chapter discusses about the hydrological data
such as test for outlier, return period, peak discharge determination. The third chapter
discusses irrigation water demand assessment that is proposed crop development plan &
crop selection, crop water requirement, determination of crop water requirement, evapo-
transpiration process and crop pattern etc.The fourth chapter discuss about diversion head
work design such as design of weir, design of weir wall, design of under sluice portion etc.
The fifth chapter discuss about the design of canal and canal structure which includes,
general consideration of canal alignment, hydraulic design of canal network, and design of
irrigation canal structures. And sixth chapter deals about design of drainage system,
requirement of drainage, method of field drainage system, design of drainage canals,
design of tertiary drain and design of collector drain. The seventh chapter deals about
design of irrigation method, irrigation method selection, furrow irrigation method and
design of furrow irrigation system. .The eighth chapter discuss about the Environmental
impact assessment, justification of EIA.Scoping and stakeholder involvement, impact
prediction and evaluation, impact mitigation and monitoring, health problem, increased
hazard of water disease, reduction of water quantity and quality, negative impact of the
project, positive impact of the project etc. The ninth chapters deals about economic
analysis of the project. Finally the tenth chapter discuss about the general conclusion and
recommendations of the project.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... I
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... II
APPROVAL OF THE PROJECT ............................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... IV
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY....................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... VI
LIST OF FIGURE .................................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF TABLE .................................................................................................................... XII
ABBREVIATION ................................................................................................................. XIII
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Back Ground of Project ............................................................................................... 1
1.3 Project Location .......................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Topography ................................................................................................................. 1
1.4.1 Climate ................................................................................................................. 2
1.4.2 Rainfall ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.3 Temperature ......................................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Soil ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Socioeconomics ........................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1 Land Use .............................................................................................................. 4
1.5.2 Land Degradation ................................................................................................. 4
1.5.3 Constraint ............................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Objective of Project ..................................................................................................... 4
1.6.1 General Objective................................................................................................. 4
1.6.2 Specific Objective ................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 6
2 HYDROLOGICAL DATA................................................................................................. 6
2.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Availability of Data ..................................................................................................... 6
VI
2.3 Test of outliers ............................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Return period ............................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Selection Criteria for Return Period..................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Design life ............................................................................................................ 9
2.5 Peak Discharge Determination .................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................. 15
3 IRRIGATION WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT ....................................................... 15
3.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Proposed Crop Development Plan & Crop selection ................................................ 15
3.3 Optimization .............................................................................................................. 16
3.4 Crop water requirement ............................................................................................. 16
3.4.1 Determination of crop water requirement (ETcrop) .......................................... 17
3.4.2 Evapo‐transpiration process ............................................................................... 18
3.4.3 Determination of Reference Crop Evapo-transpiration (ETo) ........................... 19
3.5 Crop Selection ........................................................................................................... 22
3.5.1 Crop coefficient (Kc) ......................................................................................... 22
3.5.2 Cropping Patterns ............................................................................................... 24
3.6 Calculation procedure for ETc .................................................................................. 25
3.7 Irrigation Requirement .............................................................................................. 25
3.7.1 Net irrigation requirement (NIR) ....................................................................... 27
3.7.2 Irrigation Efficiency (E) ..................................................................................... 27
3.7.3 Field irrigation Requirement (FIR) .................................................................... 28
3.7.4 Gross Irrigation Requirement............................................................................. 28
3.7.5 Irrigation Scheduling.......................................................................................... 29
3.7.6 Depth of irrigation .............................................................................................. 29
3.7.7 Irrigation Interval (I) .......................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 32
4 DIVERSION HEAD WORK DESIGN ............................................................................ 32
4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 32
4.2 Purpose of diversion weir .......................................................................................... 32
4.3 Site selection or location of diversion head work ..................................................... 32
VII
4.4 Type and Shape of the Weir ...................................................................................... 33
4.5 Consideration of forces acting on the diversion weir ................................................ 33
4.6 Estimation of Water depth on the Crest .................................................................... 34
4.6.1 Determination of the Crest Level ....................................................................... 34
4.6.2 Weir Height Determination ................................................................................ 34
4.6.3 Upstream and downstream TEL......................................................................... 36
4.7 Section of the weir ..................................................................................................... 36
4.8 Design of weir wall ................................................................................................... 36
4.9 Protection Work ........................................................................................................ 38
4.9.1 Downstream protection work ............................................................................. 38
4.9.2 Upstream Protection Work................................................................................. 39
4.9.3 Design of under sluice portion ........................................................................... 41
4.10 Stilling Basin Design ................................................................................................. 42
4.10.1 Conventional Method ......................................................................................... 42
4.11 Stability analysis of weir ........................................................................................... 43
4.12 Design of head regulator ........................................................................................... 45
4.13 Design of retaining wall (Guide wall) ....................................................................... 46
4.13.1 Upstream retaining wall ..................................................................................... 47
4.13.2 Downstream retaining wall ................................................................................ 48
CHAPTER FIVE...................................................................................................................... 51
5 DESIGN OF CANAL AND CANAL STRUCTURES .................................................... 51
5.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 51
5.2 Canal Alignment........................................................................................................ 51
5.2.1 General Consideration of Canal Alignment ....................................................... 51
5.2.2 Horizontal Alignment of Canals ........................................................................ 52
5.2.3 Vertical Alignment of Canals............................................................................. 52
5.3 Hydraulic Design of Canal Net Work ....................................................................... 52
5.3.1 Determination of Roughness coefficient (n) ...................................................... 52
5.3.2 Longitudinal slope, s determination ................................................................... 53
5.3.3 Permissible velocity ........................................................................................... 53
5.3.4 Design Discharge ............................................................................................... 54
VIII
5.3.5 Free Board .......................................................................................................... 54
5.3.6 Design of Main Canal ........................................................................................ 55
5.3.7 Design of secondary canal (branch canal) ......................................................... 57
5.3.8 Design of Tertiary Canals .................................................................................. 58
5.4 Design of Irrigation Canal Structures ........................................................................ 59
5.4.1 Design of Drop Structure ................................................................................... 59
5.4.2 Division Box ...................................................................................................... 61
5.4.3 Culverts .............................................................................................................. 62
5.4.4 Flow Control Structure (Gates) .......................................................................... 63
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................ 64
6 DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN ..................................................................................... 64
6.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 64
6.2 Requirement of Drainage .......................................................................................... 64
6.3 Methods of Field Drainage Systems ......................................................................... 64
6.3.1 Surface Drainage System ................................................................................... 65
6.3.2 Subsurface Drainage System.............................................................................. 65
6.4 Selection of Drains System ....................................................................................... 65
6.5 Design of Drainage Canals ........................................................................................ 66
6.6 Mean Annual Rain fall (MAR) ................................................................................. 66
6.6.1 Drainage Coefficient (DC) ................................................................................. 66
6.6.2 Velocity for Drainage Design ............................................................................ 66
6.7 Design of Tertiary Drain ........................................................................................... 67
6.8 Design of Collector Drain ......................................................................................... 69
CHAPTER SEVEN.................................................................................................................. 71
7 IRRIGATION METHOD DESIGN ................................................................................. 71
7.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 71
7.2 Irrigation Method selection ....................................................................................... 71
7.3 Furrow irrigation method .......................................................................................... 72
7.4 Design of Furrow irrigation System .......................................................................... 72
7.4.1 Furrow spacing ................................................................................................... 72
7.4.2 Furrow Length (L).............................................................................................. 73
IX
7.4.3 Furrow Slope(S) ................................................................................................. 74
CHAPTER EIGHT .................................................................................................................. 80
8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................................. 80
8.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 80
8.2 Justification for the EIA ............................................................................................ 80
8.3 Scoping and Stakeholder Involvement ...................................................................... 81
8.4 Impact prediction and evaluation .............................................................................. 81
8.5 Impact mitigation and monitoring ............................................................................. 81
8.6 Health Problem .......................................................................................................... 82
8.7 Increased hazard of water related diseases ................................................................ 82
8.8 Reduction of water quantity and quality ................................................................... 82
8.9 The Negative Impact of the Project ........................................................................... 82
8.10 The Positive Impact of the Project ............................................................................ 83
8.11 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................. 83
8.12 Socio Economic Impact of the Project ...................................................................... 84
8.13 Monitoring ................................................................................................................. 85
CHAPTER NINE ..................................................................................................................... 86
9 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 86
9.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 86
9.2 Project Cost ............................................................................................................... 86
CHAPTER TEN ....................................................................................................................... 87
10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATION ............................................................... 87
10.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 87
10.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 88
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................... 90
X
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 4.1 Discharge over the weir crest ................................................................................. 35
Figure 4.2 Weir Profile ............................................................................................................ 41
Figure 4.3 Force on the weir body ........................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.4 Retaining wall stability analysis ............................................................................. 47
Figure 4.5 Forces acting on d/s retaining wall ......................................................................... 49
Figure 5.1 Cross-section section of the rectangular main canal .............................................. 56
Figure 5.2 Cross-section of trapezoidal main canal ................................................................. 57
Figure 5.3 Canal Drop Structure .............................................................................................. 61
Figure 5.4 Division box ........................................................................................................... 62
Figure 6.1 Typical cross section of tertiary drain canal ........................................................... 69
Figure 6.2 Cross-section of collector drain .............................................................................. 70
XI
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1.1 The slope class and area coverage of Shor survey area ............................................. 2
Table 1.2 Monthly mean, maximum and minimum Temperature Project area ......................... 3
Table 2.1 Guidelines for selecting design flood ........................................................................ 9
Table 2.2 Calculated maximum rainfall of the four methods .................................................. 12
Table 3.1 Crop water requirement ........................................................................................... 18
Table 3.2 ETo determination by using pen-man montieth method.......................................... 22
Table 3.3 Period of growing station of proposed crops ........................................................... 24
Table 3.4 Crop coefficient for proposed crops......................................................................... 24
Table 3.5 Computation of water requirement in different method .......................................... 27
Table 3.6 Irrigation Intervals of Irrigation for Recommended Crops ...................................... 31
Table 4.1 Forces and moments acting on the weir body .......................................................... 44
Table 4.2 Forces and moments acting on u/s retaining wall .................................................... 48
Table 4.3 Forces and moments acting on d/s retaining wall .................................................... 49
Table 5.1 Roughness coefficient for unlined canal .................................................................. 53
Table 5.2 Values of design calculations of secondary canal .................................................... 58
Table 5.3 Design calculation of tertiary canals ........................................................................ 59
Table 6.1 Possible values of Manning coefficient for different value of Hydraulic ................ 66
Table 6.2 Maximum side slope for drain canals for different soil type ................................... 67
Table 6.3 Maximum permissible velocity for different soil type ............................................ 67
Table 7.1 Furrow infiltration and infiltration rate .................................................................... 73
Table 7.2 Spacing and rows between plants (Michael 1994) .................................................. 73
Table 7.3 Suggested maximum length of cultivated furrow (m) ............................................. 74
Table 8.1 Negative impact with mitigation measures .............................................................. 84
XII
ABBREVIATION
FAO……………………...Food and agricultural organization
CWR………………………Crop water requirement
ER…………………………Effective rainfall
GW………………………..Ground water
IR…………………………Irrigation requirement
USDA……………………..United state development agriculture
NIR………………………..Net irrigation requirement
GIR………………………..Gross irrigation requirement
PET………………………..Potential evapo-transpiration
KC…………………………Crop coefficient
PWP……………………….Permanent welting point
HFL……………………….Highest flood level
MC………………………...Main canal
SC…………………………Secondary canal
TC…………………………Tertiary canal
EIA………………………..Environmental impact assessment
UTM………………………Universal Transverses Marca
ET…………………………Evapo‐transpiration
XIII
Design Of Shor Small Scale Irrigation Project 2017
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Irrigation plays an important role in the development of agricultural sector and contributes
much in economic development of the country. It ensures production of high value of crop,
protection of crop failures due to drought, cultivation of suitable multi cropping practices in a
season, maximize the value of land and farmers and increase their living standards, create job
opportunity and generation of additional income.
Ethiopia is one of the developing countries and around 85% of the total population
depends on agriculture. However, due to the back ward method farming, unreliable
rainfall, including population and drought, the nation faced series food shortage. These
food shortages were followed by sever famines that resulted in the loss of the lives of
millions of citizens.
The purpose of the agricultural component of the feasibility study of Shor small-scale
irrigation scheme has been to investigate the present state of agriculture and to make an
assessment of the prospect of irrigated agriculture in the area. Shor Small Scale Irrigation is
designed for the development of catchment area of 33.49km2 irrigable land and catchment
length of 12.213km has been selected as potential water source.
1.2 Back Ground of Project
1.3 Project Location
The Shor watershed is located in Baro-AkoboRiver Basin. It falls within four Kebeles (Sayitu,
Gedu, Amakel and Gawule), South BenchWereda and Bench Maji Zone of the SNNPRS.
Geographically the study area lies between 782649 to 788770 E longitudes and 756665 to
766996 N latitudes and comprised a total study area of 3295 ha of land.
ShorSSIP site is located in South Bench Woreda in Bench Maji Zone of SNNP region. It is
accessed through MizanAman–Shor Project Site (30km). Geographical the head work site,
which is the source of water for Irrigation purpose, is located at a projected coordinates of
Easting (X) =783822m, Northing (Y) =756790m Adindan UTM Zone 36 projection.
1.4 Topography
Topography is often a major factor in irrigation evaluation as it influences the choice of
irrigation method, drainage, erosion, irrigation efficiency, costs of land development, size and
WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 1

shape of fields, labour requirements, range of possible crops etc. There are four aspects of
topography on which information is required when assessing its impact on soils namely,
slope, macro and micro relief and position in relation to survey area. The altitudinal range of
the survey area is 1511-1597 meters above sea level.
The dominant slope is the most important differentiating criterion followed by relief intensity.
The main land form of the project area is moderately steep (42%) with slopes ranges from 15-
30% and followed by Rolling, strongly slopping (25%). Slope is an integral part of the land
surface; it influences drainage, runoff, erosion and accessibility. The slope distribution within
the survey area is presented in the following table.
Table 1.1 The slope class and area coverage of Shor survey area
Areas
Slope in (%) Descriptions/topography
Ha %
0-5 Flat to gently undulated, gently slopping 31 7
5-8 Undulating, slopping 37 8
8-12 Rolling, strongly slopping 63 14
12-15 Rolling, strongly slopping 50 11
15-20 Moderately steep 85 19
20-30 Moderately steep 111 23
>30 Steep 80 18
Total area 457 100
1.4.1 Climate
Climate is a controlling physical factor in irrigated agricultural land use. It is the main agent
determining the water balance in geo-hydrology and hydrology. Any irrigation project has to
consider the existing climatic and hydrologic parameters prevalent in its surrounding area. In
this case temperature, rainfall and other climatic features has to be studied for selection and
determination that fit to the purpose of agronomic practices.
As it was true to the other parts of Ethiopia, rainfall and temperature conditions depend on
altitude. In reference to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD)
(2005), the agro-ecology of the study area is warm humid lowlands (H2).

1.4.2 Rainfall
The area is characterized by long mono-modal rainfall pattern, with rainfall uniformly
distributed over the growing season, which extends from 4-5 months and increases gradually
its frequency to reach the maximum in July and decline rapidly after peak starting in August.
The average annual rainfall recorded was 1874.4 mm, with minimum of 47 mm in January
and maximum of 267 mm in August.
1.4.3 Temperature
Temperature is greatly influenced by the rapidly changing altitudes in Ethiopia. The mean
minimum temperature varies from 13.1OC in October and November to 14.1OC in January
and February, and the mean maximum temperature ranges from 27.8OC in September and
November to 30.3OC in March. The average mean monthly temperature varies from 20.5 OC –
22.2OC. Air temperature regulates the growth and development of many plants by regulating
the rate of biochemical processes.
The growth of many crops ceases below a critical temperature of 5OC or above 35OC,
adversely affecting the yield. The temporal and spatial variability of rainfall and temperature
in the study area are not as such variable to create climatic and other associated environmental
disparities. Thus, it does not limit irrigated agricultural activities.
Table 1.2 Monthly mean, maximum and minimum Temperature Project area
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Tmin (oc) 17.21 18.24 18.13 17.09 16.19 15.27 14.59 14.98 15.73 15.91 16.20 16.47
Tmax (oc) 23.05 24.14 24.09 22.75 21.78 20.47 19.48 19.98 21.02 21.42 21.95 22.23
Tmean (oc) 20.14 21.23 21.10 19.82 18.82 17.73 16.96 17.41 18.20 18.41 18.87 19.27
1.4.4 Soil
The dominant soil types of the study area were identified based on the field morphological
and physicochemical properties of the soil profiles used to classify soils as per the FAO-WRB
(2006) system for practical effective soil and land resource planning. At first level of
classification 4 reference soils (Fluvisols, Cambisols, Nitisols and Leptosols) groups (level 1)
were identified based on their diagnostic horizon, materials and properties.
1.5 Socioeconomics
Socio-economic information helps to prioritize the main problems of the community in
proposing acceptable and technically sound watershed management interventions. Sometimes

the top priority of the community may be beyond the objectives of the project. In such cases,
integrated and multi-disciplinary approach would be a good solution.
The Socio-Economic situations of the study area were collected from the respective Woreda
Office of Agriculture with predefined format, discussion with experts and development agents
Moreover; site observations were carried out in the watershed across the watershed to get
clear picture on the socio-economic aspects of the study area.
1.5.1 Land Use
Plants, their rooting system and land use types play vital role in soil formation, which
eventually develop soil types. Accordingly, these factors determine the properties and local
variation of soil characteristics. The land use/cover description includes the structural
description of the natural vegetation as well as the cultivated lands. Land cover includes the
different features covering the earth surface such as water, cultivated land, forest and other
vegetation. Land use refers to the use that is made of the various land covers e.g. agriculture,
grazing, timber production, recreation, fishing and the likes. Generally the dominant land
cover types in the project area are cultivated lands, coffee plantation area, grass land, open
bush land and settlement area.
1.5.2 Land Degradation
The problem of land degradation and decline of food production potential in poor rural
economies with fast growing populations has received increasing attention in recent years.
Among several causes for this, improper and unwise utilization of watershed resources
without any conservation work has the leading role in this respect.
1.5.3 Constraint
The major problems on the site are land degradation as a result of soil erosion. All problems
are related to each other; one is the cause for the other problems.
1.6 Objective of Project
1.6.1 General Objective
The general objective of Shor small scale irrigation based development study is to prepare the
required design for utilizing the available water and land resources in the project area. The
design focused on utilizing these resources for dry period and supplementing the rain fed
agriculture during moisture stress in wet seasons. It is also used to increase agricultural

production through the introduction of irrigated agriculture and thereby attain food self-
sufficiency and food security for the population of the area.
1.6.2 Specific Objective
The specific objective of irrigation is related with their benefits and summarized as follows.
 To increase food production : irrigation helps in increasing crop yields and hence ,to
attain self-sufficiency in food
 Optimum benefits: optimum utilization of water is made possible by irrigation by
optimum utilization
 To utilize existing resources in a better way and reduce the wastage of materials and
human dependency on rainfall.

CHAPTER TWO
2 HYDROLOGICAL DATA
2.1 General
Hydrology is defined as the science that deals with the processes governing the depletion and
replenishment of water resource of the land areas of the earth. Hydrological data is used for
designing and planning of dams, spillways reservoirs and other hydraulic structures. All
planning in hydrology terms is predicted on the assumption that the past history of water
occurrence will be repeated in the future. It helps for the design and operation of hydraulic
structures. Hydrologic design is important for safety, economy and proper functioning
of hydraulic structures. The hydrologic design estimates the maximum, minimum or average
flood which the structure is expected to handle. This estimate has to be made quite accurately
in order that the project can function properly. All water resources system must be planned
for future hydrological events for which the time of occurrence can be forecasted. In order to
forecast the hydrological events, data is necessary. In the design of water resources projects,
like irrigation project, the peak magnitude of the flood are of great importance to design
economic structures with less probability of failure. (Subramanian, 2005)
2.2 Availability of Data
The available data are monthly total rainfall of 31 years. For the determination of design
discharge and rainfall data are necessary. Generally, most of Ethiopian rivers do not have
sufficient hydrological data, because of their being un-gauged. The project under
consideration was planned on a stream, which does not have river flow data. Thus for such
case, it is unavoidable to use the rainfall and other meteorological data from other nearby
stations provided that stations are in the same agro climatic conditions.
There is peak daily rainfall from the nearby station, because of existence of gauged flow
data. Since our attention is determining runoff discharge, it is possible to convert peak daily
rainfall data to runoff through different methods. The rainfall data in MizanAman metrology
is given in the annex 1
2.3 Test of outliers
Outliers are data points which depart significantly from the trend of the remaining data. In
experimental statistics, outliers are often a mischief observation which may result from

Unusual conditions or observational or recording error; such observations are often rejected.
The overall calculations are in annex 2
The relations used to determine outliers are:-
Y = log(Qmax) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.1
The threshold used to define high and low outliers in log space are:
Qmax=10( ∗ ) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------2.2
Qmin=10( ∗ )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------2.3
Where: Ȳ And S are the mean and standard deviations of the logarithms of the flood peaks,
excluding outliers previously detected and KN is a critical value for sample size N.
(Subramanya, 2005)For N=31 then KN=2.577
= =1.77213
(log Q  y )^ 2
SD=  N 1
= (0.4566/30 =0.12336
Lower outlier YL = Ym – KN * SD = 1.77213-2.577*0.12336 =1.45423

Antilog (1.45423) = 28.46mm
The lowest record daily heaviest rainfall data is 35.17mm in the 2009 which is greater than
the threshold value of lower outliers. Hence the daily heaviest rainfall data recorded with
respect to lower outlier is within reasonable range. Thus, there is no lower outlier.
Higher outlier determination
To detect the outlier the following frequency equations are applied.
Higher outlier YH =Ym +KN * SD
YH= 1.77213+2.577*0.12336 = 2.08756
Antilog (2.08756) = 122.34mm
The highest record daily heaviest rainfall data is 111.78mm in the 2007 which is lower than
the threshold value of higher outliers. Hence the daily heaviest rainfall data recorded with
respect to higher outlier is within reasonable range. Hence, there is no higher outlier.
To analyze the maximum discharge expected in T years we can use the frequency
distribution function listed below, but the data in hand may fit to only one of them.
Therefore, before employing the methods it have to be checked for the fittest one. The
commonly used frequency distribution functions for the prediction of extreme
maximum values are as follows

I. Normal distribution method

II. Gumbel distribution method
III. Log-Pearson type III distribution method
IV. Log-normal distribution method
2.4 Return period
2.4.1 Selection Criteria for Return Period
Return period is the average interval in year between events where equal or exceeded to a
given magnitude. It may how ever be clearly understood the concept of return period does not
imply that the event of any given magnitude will occur at a constant or even approximately
constant interval of n years. It only indicates the average frequency of occurrence of an event
over a long period of time.
Selecting higher return period means the corresponding flood magnitude will be high. Such a
very high flood may never occur during the life time of the structure. On the other
hand, if a very low discharge corresponding to lower return period is chosen for the design
and if it is exceeded it will result in the failure of the structure causing more damage than
would have been caused in the absence of the structure. The following table shows guidelines
for selection of return period.

Table 2.1 Guidelines for selecting design flood

№ Structure Return period
1 Spillway for projects with storage of more 1000
than
6*102m3/sec
2 Barrage and minor dams with storage less 100
than
60*106 m3/sec
3 Spill way of small reservoirs dams in the 10-20
country sides ,not endangering urban resident
4 As above (3) but located so as endanger other 50-100
structure Or urban residences in case of
failure
5 Diversion weir 50-100
6 Small bridges on main highways 50-100
Source (Subramanian, 1994)
Take return period of 50 years.
2.4.2 Design life
Design life of a structure is a period during which this structure could function properly or the
benefit obtained is greater than cost. The selection of design life for diversion works depends
on the risk that one is prepared to take and component of useful life structure. For our project,
we adopt a design life of 50 years based on the above recommended component of useful life
structure. (PUMNIA, 1995).
The design rainfall for the project area can be determined as follows;
I. Normal distribution method
XT =Xmean+K* ∂n-1
Where; XT = annual mean maximum flow of T year return period
Xmean = mean of annual maximum flow
∂n-1 = standard deviation of the sample size
KT = frequency factor expressed as,

KT=W ((2.51557+0.8O285W+0.01033W2)/(1+1.143279W+0.1992W2+0.00135W3))
W = √ln (1/pr) 2
But pr=1/T =1/50= 0.02
W =√ln (1/0.02)2= 2.797
KT=1.9603
Detail calculation for Normal Distribution method see annex 2.
Xmean= ∑Xi /N=61.5423mm
∂n-1 =√∑ (Xi-X mean) 2/N-1 =√ (309.914)/30=10.33mm
XT=X mean +KT*∂n-1=61.5423+1.9603*10.33=81.79mm
II. Gumbel distribution method
It is one of the widely used probability distribution function for estimation of
peak maximum rain falls, wind speed etc. and expressed by the equation,
XT=Xmean+K*∂n-1
Where XT = annual maximum of mean flow of T year return period
KT = frequency factor and expressed as,
KT= (YT-Yn)/Sn
∂n-1 = standard deviation of the sample size.
YT- is a reduced variety, a function of T and is given by,
YT=-ln (ln T/T-1)
Yn= reduced mean, it is a function of sample size.
Sn= reduced standard deviation which is also a function of the sample.
Yn and Sn are obtained from table given in the annexes (annex 3and 4) respectively.
These equations are used under the following procedure to estimate the peak
flood magnitude corresponding to a given return period based on the mean flow series.
Assemble the maximum daily rainfall data and note the sample size N.
Here the rainfall data is variety R.
Find X and ∂x-1 for the given data
Find YT for a given T by equation, YT=-ln (ln T/T-1), T=50year
YT=-ln (ln (50/49)) =3.9
Find KT by equation, KT= (YT-Yn)/Sn; Yn=0.5485 Sn=1.1607 for return period 50
years.

KT= (3.9-0.5485)/1.1607=2.887
Determine the required XT by equation; XT=Xmean+K*∂n-1
XT=61.5423+2.887*10.33=91.36mm
III. Log-Pearson type III distribution method
In this method the flow data is first transformed in to logarithmic form (base ten) and
the transformed data is then analyzed.
If X is the variety of random flow series then the series of Z varieties where, Z are
obtained for this series for any recurrence interval T.
Z=LogXT
ZT=Z mean+Kz∂z
Where:- kz = a frequency factor which is a function of T and the coefficient
of skewness, Cs
Z mean= standard deviation of Z variety sample. From Consistency check by outlier
test from annex 1 we have Z= ∑logRF(X) =54.9359
Z mean=∑Z/N-1=54.9359/30=1.831
∂z = √ (Z-Z mean) 2/N-1
∂z=√ (0.4566)/30=0.12336
CS = N ((Z-Z mean) 3/ (N-1) (N-2) (∂z) 3)
CS=31((0.0464497)/ (30*29*0.12336^3)) =0.88
Then Kz=f (cs, T) =f (0.88, 50) =2.489
Then ZT =Zmean+Kz∂z=1.831+2.489*0.12336=2.14
XT=10ZT=102.14=138.04mm
IV. Log-normal distribution method
Log-normal distribution is a special type of Pearson type III distribution with Cs =0,
i.e.
From table for Cs =0 and T= 50year, Kz= 2.054
ZT=Zmean+Kz∂z
ZT=1.831+2.054*0.12336=2.084
XT=10ZT=102.084=121.44mm

As we can see from the above four methods the maximum rainfall obtained by Log
Pearson Type III method is the highest (138.04mm) and the lowest rainfall is
given by Normal Distribution method (81.79mm).
We adopted the design storm (maximum monthly rainfall) obtained by Log Pearson
Type III method (138.04mm), because it gives a bit larger amount rain fall value than
other distribution methods. Taking the conservative value of flood for design of
structure will make the structure safe and stable. Here adopting the higher storm
magnitude will not affect the economy of the structure as the difference is very less
when compared.
Table 2.2 Calculated maximum rainfall of the four methods
METHODS Maximum RF (mm) calculated

(for return period of 50 years)
Log Pearson Type Three Method 138.04
Normal Distribution Method 81.79
Log normal Distribution Method 121.44
Gumbel Method 91.36
2.5 Peak Discharge Determination

Maximum design discharge is the peak river discharge that corresponds to a certain
return period .The maximum design discharge Q max is used in the design to
determine the back water curve results from constructing the weir. Predict the highest
water level that occur average once every T years, where T is the selected return
period of the discharge. The maximum discharge determines the water afflux on the
weir and hence the height of the weir, wing walls and the cross bridge is estimated.
The following methods can be used to estimate the magnitude of peak discharge.
1. Rational Method
2. Empirical formula Method
3. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Technique (Snyder’s method)
4. Flood Frequency Analysis Method
5. USSCS (United States Soil Conservation Service) Method

1. Rational Method
The rational formula is found to be suitable for peak flow prediction in small
catchment area up to 50km2.
The basic equation of rational method is given by
QP=1/3.6(C*Itc, p*A)
Where QP is peak discharge (m^3/s)
C -runoff coefficient
(Itc, p)-The mean intensity of precipitation (mm/Hr) for a duration equal
to tc and an exceedence probability p.
A- Drainage area in km2
Therefore, in our case the Rational method is convenient for the determination of peak flood
of Shor because of the following reasons; our catchment area is 33.49km2 which is less than
50km2 and it true for rational method of peak rainfall determination, since the major soil of
Shor are Cambisols. They are developed mainly on moderately steep to steep and
comprised196 ha. The soils are moderately deep to deep, sand clay loam to clay textured in
most cases. Well drained in most cases and excessively drained in some cases. Clay loam
type, the national weather service of 1991 uses the rainfall intensity I=7.6mm/hr for 24hr
duration and 50 return period clay loam soil. (Source; Engineering Hydrology hand out by
Habtamu Ketsele)
Since the envisaged command area of ShorSSIP is almost moderately steep terrain,
mostly cultivated land and the soil texture is clay and clay loam, the runoff coefficient
C is in the interval of (0.05-0.5), take 0.5, source (Subramanian, 1994)
Therefore by taking rainfall intensity (I) =7.66mm/hr, catchment area (A) =33.49km2
and run off coefficient (C) =0.5 we can determine our design discharge for Shor small
scale irrigation project using the rational method formula as follows.
QP = 1/3.6 C*I*A where-A in km2 and I in mm/hr.
QP= (0.5*7.66*33.49)/3.6=35.63m3/s
II. Empirical formula Method
The empirical used for estimation of flood peak are essentially regional formula based on
statistical correlation of the observed peak and observed catchments parameters.
Generally, this method is given as a function of catchments area.

QP=f (A)
For example Admassu developed an empirical formula through regression analysis of 42
catchments in Ethiopia with area ranging from 200-9980km^2.
QP=Q (1+kt*Cv) ---------------------------general formula
Q=.87*A^.7---------------------------------Dr.Admassu’s relation
Where A-Catchments area (km2)
Kt-frequency factor
 6 T
Kt = [.57721  ln(ln[ ])]
x T 1
T=return period
CV=the average Coefficient of variation (=.38 for most cases)
The formula is safely adopted for most Ethiopia basins under the given area range, however;
the basin area under our consideration is not in the domain and hence we can’t use this
method to estimate the peak discharge.
III. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Technique (Snyder’s method)
To developed unit hydrographs for catchments, detailed information about the rain fall is
needed. Then the resulting flood hydrograph are obtained. However, such information would-
be available only at few locations and in majority of catchments the data would normally be
scanty .In order to construct unit hydrograph for such areas, empirical equations of regional
validity that relate the salient hydrograph characteristics to the basin catchments are available
.Unit hydrographs derived from such relationships are known as Synthetic Unit Hydrographs.

CHAPTER THREE
3 IRRIGATION WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT
3.1 General
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means for the
purpose of cultivation. Ordinarily water is supplied to land by natural means through rain but
generally it is not enough for the proper growth of the plants. As such the basic objective of
irrigation is to supplement the natural supply of water to land so as to obtain an optimum yield
from the crop grown on the land.
The irrigation water supplies moisture, which is essential for the chemical action, which is
within the plant leading to its growth and it, is essential for the life of bacteria, which are
beneficiary for plant growth. Water acts as an active reagent in photosynthesis and hydrolysis.
Every crop requires a certain quantity of water after a certain field interval throughout its
period growth. The water requirement of crops may be contributed from different sources
such as irrigation requirement, effective rainfall, soil moisture storage and ground water
contributions. There is no vital requirement other than water for crops. It has a number of
functions in the process of growth.
To design properly an irrigation scheme it is necessary to know the crop water requirements.
The function of water with respect of growth of plant and its yield are:
 Solvent for gaseous, minerals and other soluble food.
 Conduct and translocation of solutions in cell and tissues.
 As an active reagent in photosynthesis and hydrolysis.
Factors that affect the water requirements of a plant are;
 Type of soil
 Type of plant
 Metrological variants like;
 Sunshine
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Rainfall and wind.
3.2 Proposed Crop Development Plan & Crop selection

Project areas, which comprises clay loam textured soils and mean monthly minimum &
maximum temperature of 13.1OC - 30.3OC is suitable for wide ranges of crops production.
Hence, crops for Shor diversion weir irrigation project are selected based on soils and agro-
climatic suitability, food habit of the population, to alleviate the food insecurity problems in
the woreda as well as in the Keble’s, the intrinsic ability of the surrounding farmers to grow
the crops in conjunction with the existing management, technical skills available at present,
marketability and productivity of the crops as well as the national and regional priorities and
other socio-economic and environmental. The consideration with preference of farmers. On
the basis of the above criteria and the atypical situation of the area, the following cereals,
pulses, root and vegetable crops are selected.
3.3 Optimization
Optimization is the technique of finding the condition that gives the maximum Profit
or minimum cost under a given circumstance in design, construction and Maintenance
of any irrigation system. This method has a wide range application in many
engineering problems. The optimization technique in our case is needed to allocate the
selected crops over the total irrigable land to satisfy farmers need in other words, the
technique helps to decide what amount of area out of the total irrigable land certain
should occupy so as to give maximum benefits.
3.4 Crop water requirement
Crop water requirement is defined as the depth of water needed to meet the water loss
through evapotranspiration (ETcrop) of a disease free, growing in large fields, under
non restricting conditions including soil water and fertility and achieving full
production crops may be contributed from different sources such as irrigation
requirement, effective rainfall, soil moisture storage and ground water contributions.
CWR = IR + ER + S + GW
Where, CWR = crop water requirement
IR = irrigation requirement
ER = effective rainfall
S = carry over soil moisture in the root zone
GW = ground water contribution

Factors affecting crop water requirement

 Amount of precipitation
 Temperature
 Day light hour
 Stage of growth
 Humidity
 Wind velocity
 Quality of water
 Soil characteristics etc.
3.4.1 Determination of crop water requirement (ETcrop)
Crop water requirements are defined as the depth of water needed to meet the water
loss through evapo-transpiration (ETcrop) of disease free crop, growing in large field
under non restricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility and achieving
full production potential under the given growing environment. (FAO24, 1994) In
order to calculate crop evapo-transpiration (ETcrop), three stage procedures are
recommended.
I. The effect of climate on Crop water requirement
This is given by reference crop. There are several methods of estimation the reference
evapo-transpiration (ETO) depending on the available climatology to field data.
II. The effect of the crop characteristics on crop water requirement: ‐ this is generally
given by the crop coefficient (Kc) which present the relationship between the
reference evapo-transpiration (ETO) and crop evapo-transpiration (ETcrop) or
ETcrop= Kc* ETO
III. The effect of local condition and agricultural practices on crop water requirement:
this includes;
 the local effect of variation in climate over time,
 distance and altitude,
 size of fields,
 soil water availability,
 Irrigation water quality, etc.

Table 3.1Crop water requirement

Crop Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Maize 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Pepper 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cabbage 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 7.7 2.4 0.0 0.0
Banana 59.1 56.2 20.8 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.6
Net irr, req
Mm/day 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Mm/month 17.7 16.9 6.2 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.8 0.2 0.0 7.7
l/s/ha 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03
Irr.reg.for 0.22 0.23 0.08 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.0 0.1
actual
area(l/s/ha)
The peak crop water requirement period from the above table is during February Therefore,
the amount of water diverted at the field level is 0.23l/s/ha. From annex 16
Depend upon the calculated duty we can obtain command area.
i.e.; Command area = discharge/duty
25l/s/0.23l/s/ha = 108ha
3.4.2 Evapo‐transpiration process
The combination of two separate processes where by water is lost on the one hand from the
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to
as Evapo-transpiration (ET).All methods for computing crop evapo transpiration involves the
following equation;
ET=Kc*ETO, Where, ET=evapo‐transpiration for a specific crop.

3.4.2.1 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour
(vaporization) and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water
evaporates from a variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet
vegetation. Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from
liquid to vapour. Direct solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature
of the air provide this energy. The driving force to remove water vapour from the soil

and wet vegetation is the difference between the water vapour pressure at the soil and
wet vegetation and that of the surrounding atmosphere.
3.4.2.2 Transpiration
Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and
the vapor removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through
stomata. These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water
vapor pass. The water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and
transported through the plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the
intercellular spaces, and the vapor exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the
stomata aperture.
Evapo‐transpiration (ETO)
The Evapo‐transpiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapo-transpiration or reference Evapo-transpiration and is denoted as
ETO. The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific
characteristics. The use of other denominations such as potential ET is strongly
discouraged due to ambiguities in their definitions. /FAO 56/ the concept of the
reference Evapo-transpiration was introduced to study the evaporative demand of the
atmosphere independently of crop type, crop development and management practices.
The only factors affecting ETO are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETO is a
climatic parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETO expresses the
evaporating power of the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and
does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors.
3.4.3 Determination of Reference Crop Evapo-transpiration (ETo)
There is a different method which is adapted to estimate ETO values of which need
specific data. The most widely used methods are: ‐
I. Radiation method
II. Penman method
III. Pan Evaporation method
IV. Blaney cradle method
V. Penman monthieth method

I) The Radiation methods: Show a good result in humid climates where the
aerodynamic term is relatively small, performance in arid conditions is erratic and
tends to under estimate evapo-transpiration. But, the climate of our project is dry agro-
ecological Zone.
II) The Penman methods: It may be calculated by Christiansen formula.
Ep=0.459*R*Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs*Ce
Where-
R-radiation
Ct-coefficient for temperature
Ct-coefficient for wind
Ch-relative humidity factor
Ce-coefficient of elevation.
Because of the absence of these variables penman method is not applicable.
III) The Pan Evaporation methods: Clearly reflect the short comings of predicting
crop evapo-transpiration from open water evaporation. The methods are susceptible to
the micro climatic conditions under which the pans are operating and the rigor of
station maintenance.
IV) Blaney-criddle method; formula requires the air temperature as an input data and
does not consider in to account the other climatic parameters such as humidity, wind
speed, etc. Its application is widely recommended if temperature and the day time
hours are the only data available, which is not used for our project area.
V) The penman Montheith; equation includes almost all the dominant climate
variables besides study by Jensen, Burman and Allen (1990) comparing a range of 20
different ETo estimation methods including the above four demonstrated clearly the
superior performance of the procedures introduced by Monteith (1965) in the Penman
equation. The FAO Penman‐Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for
determining ETO.
Penman equation has been adopted to estimate evapo-transpiration in mm/day as follows;
C sR N  Cp a e s  e d  / ra
ETo  *
L s   1  rc / ra 

Where, ETo= reference evapo-transpiration in mm/day

C=constant to convert units from kg/m 2 /s to mm/day
2
R N =net radiation at the earth’s surface in kg/m = (1-r) Rs-Rnl
Where, r=albedo=0.23(grass)Rs=(.25+.5n/N)Ra ,
Ra= extra teresterial radiaciónRs=short wave radiation
Rnl=long wave radiation
Rnl = 
273  T min .4  273  T max .4 .34  .139 
ed .1  .9n / N 
2
n actualhoursofsunshine

N possiblehoursofsunshine
L=latent heat of vaporization=2.45*10 6 J/kg

4098e s
S=slope of the temperature-saturation vapor pressure curve S=
273.3  Tmean 2
Cp=specific heat of air at constant temperature=1004.6J/kg.k
3
 a =density of air=1.2047kg/m at sea level
e d =actual vapor pressure of the air at 2m height in kpa
e s =saturation vapor pressure for the air temperature at 2m height in kpa

 17 .27 Tmean 
 
 273 .3  Tmean 
e s  0.6108 e And e d  e s * RH / 100
 =psychometric constant=0.067kpa/k at sea level
r a =aerodynamic resistance in s/m
245
ra 
0.54U 2  0.5
Because of Blaney-criddle and Thornthwaite methods use temperature data only so that the
other climatic conditions are ignored.
Hardgrave’s and Modified penman methods are over estimated.
We use penman monteith method .this method offer the best result than any other method
these are used where temp, humidity, wind speed and sunshine hour data are available, and
we use computer software cropwat 8.0 as follows for available climatic data to determine ETo

Table 3.2ETo determination by using pen-man montieth method

Month MinTemp MaxTemp Humidity Wind Sun Rad ETo
O O
C C % Km/day hours MJ/m2/day mm/day
January 17.2 23.1 85 173 3.7 13.6 2.63
February 18.2 24.1 85 173 3.8 14.6 2.91
March 18.1 24.1 85 173 3.9 15.4 3.10
April 17.1 22.8 85 173 3.7 15.2 2.98
May 16.2 21.8 85 173 3.7 14.8 2.83
June 15.3 20.5 85 173 3.4 14.0 2.60
July 14.6 19.5 85 173 3.1 13.7 2.46
August 15.0 20.0 85 173 3.2 14.1 2.54
September 15.7 21.0 85 173 3.4 14.6 2.69
October 15.9 21.4 85 173 3.6 14.3 2.67
November 16.2 21.9 85 173 3.7 13.7 2.59
December 16.5 22.2 85 173 3.7 13.2 2.52
Average 16.3 21.9 85 173 3.6 14.2 2.71
3.5 Crop Selection

Crop selections have been selected based on existing conditions, climate, and requirement of
individual crops for daily consumption and income generation for the community. The major
proposed crops are maize, pepper, Cabbage, and banana. (Sources feasibility study)
The selection of the crops depends mainly on;
 Climatic conditions of the particular area
 Availability of water and Type of soil
 The economic importance of the crop
 Stable food for the local people
 Method of irrigation
 Labor requirements and Markets among others.
3.5.1 Crop coefficient (Kc)
The (Kc) value relates to evapotranspiration of a disease free crop grown in large fields under
optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full production potential under
given growing environment.

Etc = Kc*ETO
The selection of appropriate kc depends on information of the crop
I. Date of sowing
II.Length of the total growing season
During their growing stage crops vary in their water consumption. These variations have been
generally grouped in to four. Namely: initial stage, crop development stage, mid-season and
late season stages.
 The initial stage: is germination and early crop growth, where the ground cover is less
than 10%.
 Crop development stage: from end of initial stage to full ground cover usually between70
to 80% of the land surface.
 Mid-season stage: from attainment of full ground cover to the start of maturity indicated
by leaf senescence or loss.
 Late season stage: from the end of the mid-season stage until harvest.
The steps needed to arrive the Kc value for different growing stages are as follows:
I. Establish planting or sowing date from local information or from practice in climatic zones.
II. Determine total growing seasons and length of crop development stages from local
information or from literature.
III. Kc for initial stage: predict irrigation and/or rainfall frequency for predetermined ETO
values and obtain Kc value from table for known humidity and wind speed values (FAO 33)
IV. Kc for mid- season: for given climate (humidity and wind) select Kc values from table
and/or plot a straight line
V. Late season stage: for time of full maturing (harvest within few days) select Kc values
from tables as above. Assume a straight line between Kc values at the end of mid-season
period and at the end of growing season.
VI. Development stage: assume straight line between Kc values at end of initial to start of
mid- season stage.

Table 3.3Period of growing station of proposed crops

Development stage in days Total LGP
SN Crop
Initial Develop Mid-season Late season
Maize
1 20 35 55 35 145
grain
2 Pepper 30 35 40 20 125
3 Cabbage 20 40 35 35 110
4 Banana 90 165 45 30 330
(Source: various guidelines on irrigation agronomy)
Table 3.4 Crop coefficient for proposed crops
Crop development stage
SN Crop
Initial Mid-season Late season
1 Maize grain 0.3 1.20 0.35
2 Cabbage 0.7 1.05 0.95
3 Pepper 0.6 1.05 0.90
4 Banana 0.5 1.10 1.0
(Source: FAO guideline and CROPWAT software)
3.5.2 Cropping Patterns
The cropping system is based on rain fed and irrigated farming. The wet season
cropping extends from April/May to Jun/Jul and that of dry season from Jan/Feb to
March&Dec. Irrigation water will be supplemented to rain fed crops at times of early
withdrawal of the rains. In order to attain the suggested cropping intensities for the
first two to three years a lot of extension work may be required in order to raise
awareness among the beneficiaries to utilize the maximum possible area of the project.
One has to note that the purpose of irrigation is, ultimately, to intensify agricultural
production so long the resource, water and land, are adequately available. Cropping
pattern depends on the following factors: availability of water, type of soil, climatic
condition, value of crops, socio economic aspect.

Availability of water: - The cropping pattern should be planned such that the crops
can be irrigated during the critical irrigation demand.
Type of soil:-Detail soil survey should be conducted to determine the suitable type of
crop for a particular land.
Climatic conditions:-Crops requiring more water should be grown in the when
rainfall is available.
Value of crop:- As far as possible, the crops which have high market value
should be grown.
Socio-economic aspects: - While deciding the cropping pattern, the socio-economic
aspects and specific requirements of the region should be considered.
3.6 Calculation procedure for ETc
In the crop coefficient approach the crop evapo-transpiration ETc is calculated by multiplying
the reference evapo-transpiration ETo by a crop coefficient Kc
ETc=Kc*ETO
Sample calculation forCrop; maize
Month: Jun
ETO = 2.6mm/day (from table of ETo determination by using pen-man montieth method
Kc = 1.1 (from annex)
ETc = 2.6*1.1 =2.86mm/day
3.7 Irrigation Requirement
It is defined as the part of water requirement of crops that should be fulfilled by irrigation. In
other words, it is the water requirement of crops excluding effective rain fall, carry over soil
moisture and ground water contribute
IR=CWR-(ER+S+GW)
Where; GW = ground water contribution.
S = Carry over soil moisture
ER = effective Rainfall
It includes the following
a. Effective rainfall(ER)
It is defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be utilized by crops. All the
rainfall that falls is net effective. As the total amount of rainfall various, so does the amount of

water effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal rainfall that fall will be as unnecessary deep
percolation; surface runoff and some ware may remain in the soil after the crop is harvested.
From the water requirement of crops point of view, this water, which is lost, is ineffective.
There are four methods used to calculate the effective rainfall from entered monthly total
rainfall data. These are described below.
1. Fixed percentage effective rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as affixed percentage of the monthly rainfall
ER=% of total rainfall
2. Dependable rainfall
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and sub-
humid climates. This formula is as follows
ER=0.6*total rainfall -10 ----------------for total rainfall<70mm
ER=0.8*total rainfall-24 ----------------for total rainfall>70mm
3. Empirical formula for effective rainfall
This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see dependable rainfall method above) with
some parameters left to the user to define.
The formula is as follows;
ER=a*total rainfall-b ----------------total rainfall<Z mm
ER=c*total rainfall-d ----------------total rainfall>Z mm
Where a, b, c, d and Z are variables to be defined by the user.
4. Method of USDA soil conservation service
The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by USDA soil
conservation service which is as follows.
ER=total rainfall*(125-o.2*total rain fall)/125-------total rainfall<250mm
ER=125+0.1*total rainfall-------total rainfall>250mm
We adopted effective rainfall calculated by using USDA (United States department of
agriculture) method. This is because USDA method gives conservative value of effective
rainfall data. In addition to this it estimates Peffbased on the intensity i.e. as high rainfall more
will be runoff and less will reach the root zone.

Table 3.5 Computation of water requirement in different method

Month Total rainfall mm Dependable( ER) USDA(ER) Fixed (80%)( ER)
Jan 24.04 4.4 23.1 19.2
Feb 24.55 4.7 23.6 19.6
Mar 60.45 26.3 54.6 48.4
Apr 174.93 115.9 125.9 139.9
May 196.29 133.0 134.6 157.0
Jun 134.26 83.4 105.4 107.4
Jul 111.19 64.9 91.4 88.9
Aug 77.85 38.3 68.2 62.3
Sep 82.29 41.8 71.5 65.8
Oct 135.01 84.0 105.8 108.0
Nov 100.66 56.5 84.4 80.5
Dec 54.63 22.8 49.9 43.7
b. Ground water contribution (GW)
The actual contribution from the ground water table is dependent on the depth of ground
water table below the root zone and capillary characteristics of soil
c. Carry over soil moisture (S)
This is the moisture retained in the root zone between cropping seasons or before the crop is
planted. The source of this moisture is either from rainfall that means according before
sowing or it may be the moisture that remained in the soil from past irrigation.
3.7.1 Net irrigation requirement (NIR)
The depth of water needed to bring the soil moisture level in the effective root zone to
field capacity from the soil moisture content. For planning irrigation all aspects of
crop water requirements have to be considered, including growing period, cultivation
programmed for each crop and any possible contribution from rain fall and percolation
losses from the soil (mm/day).
Net irrigation requirement (NIR) = ETcr - effective rain fall
3.7.2 Irrigation Efficiency (E)
The percentage of applied irrigation water stored in the soil and available for consumptive use
by the crop and when the water is measured at its entry to a farm, it is called farm irrigation

efficiency and if measured at the point of diversion it is called project efficiency. Field losses
consist of surface run off and deep percolation.
Calculation of project efficiency:
Project efficiency = Ea*Ebbs*Ec
Where Ea = ratio between water at in late to a block of fields and that released at the project
headwork
Eb = the ratio between water received at the field in late and that received at the in late of the
block
Ea = the ratio between water directly available to the crop and that received at the field in late
For this project, conveyance efficiency (Ec) will be 90% since there will be continuous supply
of irrigation water with no substantial change in flow.
Field canal efficiency (Eb) will be 95% as the blocks are larger than 20 hectares and pipes are
used. Thus water loss is negligible.
Distribution efficiency (Ed= Ec*Eb)
Ed=0.9*0.95=0.855
Field Application Efficiency (Ea)
Since the soil of the area is medium type, according to USDA classification, the field
application efficiency (Ea) will be 70 %.
Therefore, project efficiency EP = Ea*Eb*Ec
EP= 0.95*0.9*0.7=0.5985=59.85%=60%
3.7.3 Field irrigation Requirement (FIR)
FIR is the amount of water required to meet NIR, the water lost in the field water
courses & during field application of water.
FIR = NIR/Ea
NIR- net irrigation requirement
Ea-application efficiency
3.7.4 Gross Irrigation Requirement
It is the net irrigation requirement plus water application losses in the conveyance
system due to seepage, evaporation etc. This can be determined at the out let head or
canal head regulator for calculating the design discharge capacity of the main canal.

The losses generally depend up lined network or unlined network, the surface area and
the ground percolation.
The total amount of water applied through irrigation is termed as gross irrigation water
requirement In other words it is net irrigation requirement plus loss in water
application and other losses. The gross irrigation requirement can be determined for
field, for a farm, for an outlet, command area or for an irrigation project, depending on
the need, by considering the appropriate loss i.e.
GIR=NIR/Ep
Where; NIR = Net irrigation requirement
Ep = project efficiency
To estimate the gross irrigation requirement of the project it is important to know the
efficiency with which the project is to operate. The project efficiency is the product of
other efficiencies such as conveyance, application and field channel efficiency. It is
calculated by the formula, GIR=NIR/Ep.
3.7.5 Irrigation Scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is the practice of fixing irrigation depth and irrigation interval
based on water balance of the field. Scheduling is affected by a number of factors, for
example, during early stage of growth plants need less irrigation depth but frequently
application; whereas during late stage of growth they require more depth but can be
applied less frequently. This is mainly due to variation in rooting depth, evapo-
transpiration and other factors. Irrigation should be supplied as soon as the moisture
falls up to optimum level known as MAD or moment allowable deficit (hence, fixing
irrigation frequency) and its quantity should be just sufficient to bring the soil
moisture up to field capacity (hence, fixing irrigation depth). (Irrigation scheduling is
calculated by using CROPWAT 8.0 computer package and presented in appendix 2K
for maize as a sample calculation).
3.7.6 Depth of irrigation
It is the quantity of water that should be applied to bring the soil moisture to field
capacity. Hence it is the depth of water that can be stored in the root zone between the
allowable level of soil depletion for the given crop and the field capacity.

The maximum net amount of water that can be supplied per irrigation is expressed by
taking account that only part of the soil is wetted.
Dnet = AMC*Drz*P
Where, Dnet = irrigation depth /irrigation requirement
AMC = Available soil moisture content
Drz = Maximum root zone depth in m
P = Depletion factor in mid-season stage
Because of application losses such as deep percolating & runoff losses, the total depth
of water to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
d (gross) = d (net)/ Ea
Ea is field application efficiency
3.7.7 Irrigation Interval (I)
It is the time gap between two successive or consecutive irrigations. Irrigation should
be applied on time because delayed irrigation could cause considerable reduction in
crop yield, particularly at stages when the crop is sensitive to water stress. Irrigation
interval should take into account the soil water depletion requirement of the crops
which vary with evaporative demand, rooting depth, soil type and other factors.
As * DFC  PWP  * P
I= d (gross)/ETc peak orI days 
ETCROP , PEAK
Where, I=irrigation interval

ETc peak=maximum consumptive use ratio of the crop during the growing season
(from CROPWAT 8.0 computer package).
Actually, the computed peak irrigation interval should be reduced by certain
magnitude, so as to allow for any needed farm operation
As = ϒd/ϒwϒd=14-21 for clay (source soil mechanics)
ϒw= 9.81KN/m3
As=21KN/m3/9.81KN/m3=2.14

Table 3.6 Irrigation Intervals of Irrigation for Recommended Crops

Type of Rooting Total Peak water requirement Allowable Irrigation
available moistur depletions(p) Interval(days)
Depth(m) (ETc)(mm/day)
e(Sa)(mm/m)
Maize 0.3-1.0 2.85 0.55 6
Pepper 0.25-0.8 46.6 2.49 0.3 3
Cabbage 0.25-0.5 2.64 0.45 5
Banana 0.3-0.9 2.88 0.45 9
However, taking account of the current soil laboratory result, irrigation interval will be
calculated as available soil water content (soil survey result) multiplied by rooting
depth of the crop divided by maximum ETc
Sample calculation for maize
As * DFC  PWP  * P . ∗ . ( . )∗ .
I days  = . ⁄
=5.77≈6days the same procedure
ETCROP , PEAK
for the other crops.

CHAPTER FOUR
4 DIVERSION HEAD WORK DESIGN
4.1 General
Diversion head work :- is a structure constructed a cross the river for the purpose of raising
water level in the river so that it can be diverted in to the off- taking canals ( main concrete
pipe) i.e. weir is an obstruction or a barrier constructed across a river. The difficulty is of
smaller in comparison with the dam. It raises the water level locally and supports the water
against its face.
Diversion head work is the work, which are constructed at the head of the canal, in order to
divert the river water towards the canal, so as to insure a regulated continuous supply of silt
free water with a contain minimum head in to the canal.
Generally, diversion head works are constructed on the perennial reveres which have adequate
flow throughout the year.
4.2 Purpose of diversion weir
Purpose of this diversion weir is designed to raise the water level on its upstream side to
create necessary head, so that the desired irrigation water will be diverted in to the canals
through the intakes, which are located at the upstream end of the weir. The weir crest is also
designed to function properly as a spillway for the flood flows.
A diversion head work serves the following function
 It raises the water level on its upstream side.
 It regulates the supply of water in to the canal.
 It controls the entry of silts in to the canal.
 It creates temporary storage up stream of the weir.
 It raise and keep the water level more or less constant (reduce the fluctuation of water
levels) at the head of the canal.
4.3 Site selection or location of diversion head work
The site selection or locations of diversion head works have its own principles. During the
feasibility study or before construction of the diversion head works across the river flows.
According to the point of views, on the site selection or location of diversion head work and
the principle of Shor small scale irrigation development project, there are seven peak points
regarding on act as:

1) The site, the river should be straight and narrow.

2) The river banks should be well defined.
3) The elevation of the site should be much higher than the area to be irrigated.
4) The valuable land should not be submitted when he weir is constructed
5) The site should be easily accessible by roads and there should be enough works
available in the vicinity of the project site
6) The materials of construction should be available in the vicinity of the project site.
7) The site should not be for away from the command area of the project, to avoid
transmission
4.4 Type and Shape of the Weir
The shape of the weir is decided based on the practice ability and economy of the structure. In
this scheme, Shor, masonry weir with broad crested is selected depending on ease of
construction which the local builders can easily construct. And also is economically safe type
of weir among others. This type of weir has vertical up stream and sloping downstream face.
4.5 Consideration of forces acting on the diversion weir
The main forces acting on the weir are:-
a. Hydrostatic pressure.
b. Weight of the water on the structure.
c. Dead weight of the weir.
d. Uplift pressure, etc.
Water balance
Source of water for this project is Shor stream/ River, which is a perennial river. According to
the hydrology study, the base flow of Shor River at the study site is about 25l/s the calculated
water duty is 0.23l/s/ha. The calculated design discharge is 35.63m3/s. therefore; to design the
weir, the existing base flow and calculated discharge should be added together. This is
0.025+35.63 =35.655≈35.66m3/s. With this duty, net irrigation area that can be developed is
108 ha. Therefore the proposed weir is only used for diverting water to command area not
for storage.

4.6 Estimation of Water depth on the Crest

4.6.1 Determination of the Crest Level
River bed elevation = 1509.99m (from topographic map)
Retrogression=0.5m (ARORA K.)
Slope of this canal = 1/1000=0.001
Working head =1m
Weir crest level =head regulator elevation plus working head
But head regulator elevation =RBE + retrogression
Which is, head regulator elevation =1509.99+0.5=1510.49m
Weir crest level =1510.49+1=1511.49m
(Source Garg 10-20m) L = Weir span = 10m
h = Height of the weir body above the upstream river bed = Weir crest level – River
bed elevation=1511.49-1509.99=1.5m
4.6.2 Weir Height Determination
The weir is designed to pass the maximum design flood flows safely. The weir will have one
under sluice gates. However, if incase all gates are closed, the weir should pass the entire
maximum flood safely without causing any damage to structures and as well as the land
located upstream of the river reach.
Discharge over the weir is generally expressed as
Q = CLHe3/2
Where,
Q= Maximum design discharge = 35.63m3/s
L =length of the weir = 10m
He= height of energy line above the crest = V2/2g + Hd
C = discharge coefficient, in practice a discharge coefficient of C =1.70 (for broad crested
weir) is used.

V2/2g
He
He = Hd +V2/2g
Hd
h
D1 D2
Zo Z1
Figure 4.1 Discharge over the weir crest
Height of energy line above the crest or head over the crest
 Lacey’s regime width, = 4.75 ∗ , = 4.75 ∗ √35.63 = 28.353 m.
 Actual river section width of the over flow section of the river is multiplied by factor
0.45 (boulder, gravel foundation) (Arora, 1996).
Hence, Le=0.45*28.353= 12.759m take13m then L= Le=13m
2/3 2/3
 Q   35.63 
He       0.374  0.4m
 CL   1.70 *13 
Approach velocity head is calculated as:
Q
Va  2g(He - H d ) 
(h  H d ) L
Where,
Q = Maximum Design discharge = 35.63m3/s
h = Height of the weir body above the upstream river bed = 1.5m
Hd = Over flow depth without velocity head
L = length of the weir = 10m
Q 35.63
From 2g(He - H d )   2 * 9.81(1.4 - H d )  by trial and error the
(h  H d ) L (1.5  H d )10
value of Hd= 0.237m=0.24m
In the same way:

Approach Velocity, Va  2 g ( He  H d )  2 * 9.81(0.4  0.24)  1.7m / s
V2 1.7 2
Head due to velocity, hd= ha    0.15m
2 * g 2  9.81
4.6.3 Upstream and downstream TEL
U/S HFL=River bed level+ weir height+ hd =1509.99+1.5+0.15=1511.64m
U/S TEL=U/S HFL+ ha=1511.64+0.15=1511.79m
D/S HFL=River bed level+ tail water =1509.99+1=1510.99m
D/S TEL=D/S HFL +ha=1510.99+0.15=1511.14m
4.7 Section of the weir
A gravity weir must be designed to resist with sufficient factor of safety of the following three
tendencies to destruction:
1. Overturning: There is a tendency for a gravity weir to overturn about the downstream
toe at the foundation or about the downstream edge of any horizontal section. The
most critical condition for inducing overturning is, when, at the upstream face, the
uplift pressure exceeds the vertical stress at the horizontal section.
2. Sliding: The horizontal force tends to displace the weir in a horizontal direction. The
frictional and shear resistance of the masonry and the foundation will resist this
tendency. The shear friction factor, which is used for the sliding stability criterion for
all large weirs, should also be used for small weirs.
3. Overstressing: The unit stress in the gravity weir and the foundation must be within
allowable bearing values.
4.8 Design of weir wall
According to Bligh’s method is used to determine the basic section of the weir body (the top
and bottom width of the weir body) as follows.
Since the weir is to be constructed on pervious foundation, uplift force acts along the bottom
of the weir body. Hence, specific weight of the weir becomes (   1 )
Bottom width, =
Top width, =

Where, H: height of weir (m)

He: Specific energy head (sum of overflow depth and approaching velocity head (m)
ρ: specific weight of weir body (2.0-2.3), for this case 2 is taken for masonry structure
. .
Bottom width, = = 2m
√ .
.
Top width, = =1.5m
√ .
Therefore, the downstream slope of the weir is 1V to 1H

Regimes scour depth(R)
13
 q2 
R=1.35   where q=Q/L=35.63/13=2.7 m3 s m
 f 
f = is Lacey’s silt factor  1.76 d mm approximately (dmm is the mean diameter of the bed
material particles in mm) (ref. irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic structures, page 137 &
434). Mostly, the value of f is taken to be 1. According to the geotechnical report, majority of
the overlaying soil material is sandy silt. Diameter of this grain in mm is 0.325, therefore,
13
 q2 
f  1.76 d mm  1.76 0.325  1 R=1.35   = 1.62m
 f 
U/S HFL =U/S TEL – ha=1511.79– 0.15 = 1511.64m
Downstream (D/S) HFL =U/S HFL – Afflux, use afflux = 1m
=1511.64– 1.0 = 1510.64m
D/S HFL before construction = D/S HFL – Retrogression, use retrogression =0.5m
= 1510.64-0.5 =1510.14m
Depth of Sheet Piles
R.L of bottom of upstream (U/S) pile= U/s HFL-R
=1511.64-0.62 =1511.02m
Therefore, depth of U/S pile (d 1 )
d 1 = R.L of bottom of upstream (U/S) pile – River bed
= 1511.02-1509.99= 1.03m≈1.5m for safety

R.L of bottom of downstream (D/S) pile = D/S HFL after retrogression – 2R
=1510.64– 2*1.62 = 1507.4m

Depth of D/S pile (d 2 ) = River bed - R.L of bottom of downstream (D/S) pile
= 1509.99– 1507.4= 2.6m
Impervious Floor
Seepage head, Hs= Pond level – Bed Level
Hs =1511.64-1509.99=1.65m ≈2.2m for safety
By Bligh ' s theory, the total creep length (L) is given by:
L=CHs
Where C: Bligh's coefficient, for sandy loam the value is (5- 9)
Let us take C=9
L=9*2.2 = 19.8m
Length of downstream impervious floor, L2
Hs
L 2 =2.21*C
10
=2.21*9(2.2/10)0.5 =9.3m ≈9m
Length of upstream impervious floor, L 1
L 1 =L- (L 2 +B+2d 1 +2d 2 ) =22.2-(9 +1.5+2*1.5+2*2.6) =3.5m
Therefore, total length of impervious floor b, will be
b = L 1 +B+L 2 =3.5+1.5+9=14m
Total creep length changed into=b+2d 1 +2d 2

=14+2*1.5+2*2.6=22.2m
4.9 Protection Work
4.9.1 Downstream protection work
The total length of d/s floor and d/s protection work is given by
Hsq
=L 2 +L 3 ==18C
10q s
assume qs=75
=18*9*(2.2*2.7/10*75)0.5
=14.41≈15m
Length of the d/s protection work, L3= (L2+L3)-L2=15-9=6m, this length is both
inverted filter and launching apron.

Hence provide 1m thickness d/s loose talus of 4m in length.

4.9.2 Upstream Protection Work
The length of upstream talus (L4) may be kept equal to half the length of talus.
L4= L3 =6/2=3m
2
Thickness of the impervious floor by Bligh’s theory
Seepage head=2.2ms
Creep length=19.8m
LT=2d1+Lt+d2+L2+2D2=2*1.5 +3.5 +2.6 +9+2*2.6=22.2m
19.8<22.2m it is safe
Uplift pressure head
hL= H − ∗ LI
.
At point h4= 2.2 − ∗ 4 =1.8m
.
.
At point h13= 2.2 − ∗ 13 =0.9m
.
.
At point h14= 2.2 − ∗ 14 =0.8m
.
.
At point h15=(2.2 − ∗ 15) =0.7m
.
Thickness of floor, t= ∗( )
G=Specific gravity of floor material use 2.24

.
At point t4= = 1.5
.
.
At point t13= = 0.9
.
.
At point t14= = 0.8
.
Hydraulic jump
To check whether the hydraulic jump is occurs or not, if the d/c between u/s and d/s
energy grade line is very high, therefore the energy must be dissipation before it
reaches the natural river course, otherwise it causes damage to the banks and d/s of
the apron.
Hydraulic jump is used to dissipate energy which is caused to increase by (He)

Applying Bernoulli equation for calculation of Y1 and Y2

Va 2 V 12
P+hd+ =Y1+ by assuming Va=0 and He=hd then we have
2g 2g
V 12 V 12
P+He=Y1+ i.e. 1.5+0.4=Y1+
2g 2g
V 12
1.9=Y1+ ……………………..Equation 1
2g
Applying continuity equation i.e. Q=VA

Where, Q=q/B=V*B*Y,
 V1=q/Y1………………………………………Equation 2
Solving equation1 and 2 we get;
Y13-1.9Y12+0.372=0 …………...Equation 3
Solving equation 3 by trial and error
Y1=0.22m
2.7
V1=q/Y1= =12.3m/s
0.22
V1 12.3
Fr1 (Fraud number) = = =8.37
g * y1 9.81 * 0.22
Critical depth (Yc) = (q2/2g) 0.66667= (2.72/2*9.81)0.66667=0.52m

Y1=0.219<Yc: 0.22; therefore there will be jump.
The conjugate (sequent) depth (i.e. Y2)
Y1 2
Y2= *[ (1  8 Fi )  1 ] =0.1095[ (1  8 * 8.37)  1
2
Y2=0.81m
Length of jump
L=5(y2-y1) = 5(0.81-0.22) = 2.95
= 2.95 <8m (d/s impervious length)…….ok!

Figure 4.2 Weir Profile

Check the thickness of impervious floor by khosslas theory:
Exit gradient;
The total length of impervious floor b=14.1m
Depth of D/S pile =2.6m, α = b/d = 14.1/2.6 =5.42, Hs=2.2m
1 1 2
  3.26
2
H S *1 . ∗
GE= = = it is safe, for clay loam soil its exit gradient
d2 *  *  . ∗ ∗√ .
should less 1/5 to 1/9 (source Garg)

4.9.3 Design of under sluice portion
The purpose of the weir sluice bay is to prevent the entrance of the silt loads in to the off take
canals. The under sluice bay are located to the same side of the off take canal. To maintain
well defined water flow towards the canal head regulator and to remove the silt deposit on the

river bed near the head regulator. Moreover, it is also helpful in lowering the high flood level
by supplementing the flood discharging over the weir
The under sluice portion is so designed that it can pass 15% to 20% of the maximum flood let
we use 15%.
Q sluice =0.15*35.63 =5.34m3/s
Provide one under sluice with (1-1.5) meter width at the bottom of diversion
Let take as 1m
q= Q sluice/L sluice
q =5.34m3 / s/1m =5.34m3/s/m
Scour depth (R) for the sluice section
R=1.35 (q2/f) 1/3 =1.35((5.34)2/1)1/3 =1.62m
4.10 Stilling Basin Design
During the flood season, when high flood occurs over the weir crest water falls from the
maximum reservoir level of u/s to the d/s tail water and the difference b/n the u/s and d/s
energy grade line becomes very high. Therefore, the energy must be dissipated before it
reaches the natural river source: otherwise it causes damage to d/s of the apron. The energy
tends to dissipate through a hydraulic jump d/s of the weir .To control the location of the jump
stilling basin is designed.
4.10.1 Conventional Method
It is experimental formula to determine the length and depth of stilling basin.
= 3√ℎ
= 0.5√ℎ ≥ ≥
2 3
Where, L: length of the basin (horizontal length of the downstream slope of the weir + the
length of the downstream apron floor) (m)
d: depth of the basin (m)
h: Overflow depth (m)
F: (upstream water level + velocity head) – (downstream water level)
F= 1511.64+0.15-1510.14 =1.65
h= 1.50m

Length of basin, = 3√ℎ =3* 1.5 *1.65 =4.72m≈5m
Depth of basin, = 0.5√ℎ ≥ ≥
= 0.5√1.5 ∗ 1.65 = 0.786 ≅ 0.8

≥ ≥ Is ok!! No need of correction for up lift pressure by Khoslas theory.
Therefore, the stilling basin is so designed as to be equipped with the floor length of L=5m
and the depth of d=0.80m.
4.11 Stability analysis of weir
To design a weir, all external forces acting on it must be calculated. These forces which
include the static pressure, self-weight of weir and uplift pressures should be considered.
Uplift pressure is considered for the weir wall. Water block weight is considered for weir
crest only. Unit weight of water and masonry is taken to be 9.81 and 24KN/m3 respectively.
Moment is taken about the toe per meter width.
Forces acting on weir body
 Hydrostatic pressure of the water
 Soil reaction at weir base
 Uplift pressure
 Friction force at the base which balance the horizontal force
 Weight of weir and water wedges
The weir should be designed stable against
 Overturning
 Sliding
 Over stress
Where, the analysis of the weir is done for static condition.

Static condition
The force acting on the wall is indicated and the stability analysis will be carried out below
B=1.5m
W1
W2
H
Pu
Figure 4.3 Force on the weir body

Table 4.1 Forces and moments acting on the weir body
S.no Description Forces Lever Moment About toe
Vertical Horizont Arm +ve -ve

1 W1=1.5*1.5*24 +54 al 1.45 78.3
2 W2=0.5*0.6*1.5*24 +10.8 0.5 5.4
3 PH =0.5*(1.5)2*9.81 -11.04 0.5 5.52
4 Pu=0.5*9.81*1.5*2. -15.45 1.0 15.45

∑=49.35 ∑=11.04 ∑=83.7 ∑=20.97
A) Factor of safety against Over Turning

For structure to be safe against overturning the following condition should be fulfilled
∑
Fo=∑ = 83.7/20.97= 3.99>>1.5……… safe

B) Safety against Sliding

A structure may slide in the flow direction if there are not enough grips between the base and
the foundation. To prevent the following condition should be fulfilled
.
Fs = = =0.223<< 0.65 safe!
.
C) Safety against Over Stress

In order to avoid lifting up of the structure heel and tension occurs at the toe the resultant of
all forces must pass through the middle third of the structure base
I.e. e = |B/2 - ̅ | < B/6
∑ . .
Where ̅= ∑
= .
= 1.27
e =| 2.1/2 –1.27| = 0.22

0.22< B/6 = 0.35 Ok!
Therefore Since e < B/6 the weir is safe against overstress.
4.12 Design of head regulator
It is provided at the head of the off taking canal and has the following objectives;
 To regulate the supply of water in to the canal

 To completely shutout the high flood from entering to the canal.
 To control the entry of silt to the canal.
The regulation is provided by the gate which is fixed in such a way that, the discharge or
desired capacity of water can easily flow in to the intake canal. The intake canal is placed so
as the top level should be less than or equal to the crest level of the proper weir.
Crest levels
1) Under sluice=the crest level of under sluice is equal to the river bed level=1509.99m.
2) Head regulator=is kept 1.2 to 1.5m higher than the crest level of the under sluice (let 1.5m)
=1509.99+1.5=1511.49.
Bed level of canal=crest level of head regulator-canal flow depth
=1511.49-0.4=1511.09m.

Design procedure
 Full supply of off taking canal = 0.012m3/s
 Full supply of canal = Pond level-Modular head =crest level under sluice =1511.49m
 Water depth in the canal at head = 0.4m
 Safe exit gradient for canal bed material = 1/6
 Crest level of head regulator = crest level of under sluice +1.5 = 1509.99+1.5 = 1511.49m
[Sahasrabudhe, 1994]
The water way for regulator is for the full supply discharge of 0.012 m3/s can pass through it.
Discharge Q through the regulator is given by [Garge 2003]
2 /
= 1 ∗ 2 ∗ (ℎ + ℎ ) + 2 ∗ ℎ1 2 (ℎ + ℎ )
3
Where Cd1 =0.577 & Cd2 = 0.8
h1- depth of D/S water level in the channel above the crest = D/s FSL-crest level
= 1511.49-1509.99 = 1.5m
hv - head due to velocity which is very small and is ignored.
h - Difference of water level U/S and D/S of the crest.(1511.64-1511.14) = 0.5m
Neglecting Velocity head hv we get
2 /
0.012 = 0.577 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (0.5) + 0.8 ∗ ∗ 1.5 2 ∗ 9.81(0.5)
3
B=0.00275m
4.13 Design of retaining wall (Guide wall)
To avoid out flanking of the river due to the control structure across the river a masonry guide
wall is provided. Considerations;
 Analysis per meter span and moment heel
 Earth pressure at rest was considered
  m  24KN / m 3 ,  w  9.81KN / m 3 ,  soil  18KN / m 3
 Drained angle of internal friction was considered
 The u/s wing walls are kept segmental with radius of 5 to 6 times head of water over the
crest and subtending angle of 45 0 to 60 0
Therefore, u/s wing; R=6(He-Ha) =6*(0.4-0.15) =1.5m.
Say   45 0

∗ . ∗
Arc length = = =2
The d/s wing walls are kept straight for a length of 5 to 8 times the square root of the product
of head of water over the crest and difference between U/S HFL and D/S HFL.
Therefore d/swing;
L8 H e  H a  * U / SHFL  D / SHFL   8 0.4  0.15 * 1511 .64  1511 .14   3m.
4.13.1 Upstream retaining wall

Data available
 River bed level=1509.99m
 U/S HFL=1511.49m
  w  9.81KN / m 3 ,  m  24 KN / m 3 ,  soil  18KN / m 3
 Angle of repose    30
0
 Top width=1.0m (source soil mechanics Arora)

 Free board(FB)=0.5m(assumed)
 Anchored depth below river bed =0.5m (source soil mechanics Arora)
 Therefore, height of wing wall
H=Anchored depth+ (U/S HFL- river bed level) +FB
H=0.5+ (1511.49-1509.99) +0.5=2.5m
Ka=active lateral pressure coefficient, take Ka=0.333
Bottom width, B=50% -70% of H, Say 70%
B=0.7*2.5=1.75m.
0.5m
Ws1
Wm1 Wm2
Ws2
2.5m
Psl
Wm3
1.5m 0.25
Figure 4.4 Retaining wall stability analysis

Table 4.2 Forces and moments acting on u/s retaining wall

No Item Area Forces (KN) Lever Moments(KN-m)
(m2) arm(m)
Vertical Horizontal Overturning restoring
1 Ws1   siol * A1 1 +18 1.33 23.94
2 Ws 2   siol * A2 0.5 +9 2 18
3 Wm1   m * Am1 1 +24 0.25 6
4 Wm2   m * Am2 1 +24 0.67 16.08
5 Wm3   m * Am3 1.25 +30 0.875 26.25
6 Ps 0.5*Ko *soil*H2 Ko=0.333 -16.9 0.83 14.03
Sum 105 16.9 90.27 14.03
Safety factors
Overturning stability, S o 
M o

90.27
 6.43  1.5, OK !
M R 14.03
 HF  16.9  0.16  0.75, OK!

Sliding stability, S S 
VF 105
Check for tension. x 
 M  76.24  0.73m; e  B  x  1.75  0.73  0.15
V 105 2 2
B/6=1.75/6=0.29m
e = |B/2 - ̅ | < B/6
e=0.15m<B/6=0.29 OK. No tensión.
4.13.2 Downstream retaining wall
D/S HFL=1511.14m
Free board (FB) =0.4m (assumed)
Top width=1.0m (source soil mechanics Arora)
Anchored depth below river bed=0.6m (source soil mechanics Arora)
Therefore, H=anchored depth+ (D/S HFL- river bed level) +FB
H=0.6+ (1511.14-1509.99) +0.4=2m

Bottom width, B=70%H=0.7*2=1.4m

Top width, T=0.5m (assumed)
Ka=active lateral pressure coefficient, take Ka=0.3
0.5
Ws1 Ws2
2m W m1
Wm2
PS
Wm3 0.5m
1.4m 0.4m
Figure 4.5 Forces acting on d/s retaining wall

Table 4.3 Forces and moments acting on d/s retaining wall
No Item Area(m2) Forces(KN) Lever Moments (KN-m)
arm(m)
Vertical Horizontal Overturning Restoring
1 Ws1   soil * As1 0.75 13.5 1.13 15.26
2 Ws 2   soil * AS 2 o.6 10.8 1.3 14.04
3 Wm1   m * Am1 0.75 18 0.5 9
4 Wm2   m * AM 2 0.75 18 1.07 19.26
5 Wm3   m * Am3 0.7 16.8 0.7 11.76
6 Ps  0.5 * K o *  soil * H 2 Ko=0.333 10.8 0.67 7.24
Sum 77.1 12 69.32 7.24

Overturning stability, S o 
 M 
69.32
 9.37  1.5, OK !
 M 7.24
 HF  10.8  0.14  0.75, OK!

Sliding stability, S S 
VF 77.1
Check for tension. x 
 M  62.08  0.805m; e  B  x  1.4  0.805  0.105
V 77.1 2 2
B/6=1.4/6=0.23m
e = |B/2 - ̅ | < B/6
e=0.105m<B/6=0.23 OK. No tension.

CHAPTER FIVE
5 DESIGN OF CANAL AND CANAL STRUCTURES
5.1 General
Irrigation scheme which utilize a barrage or a storage reservoir necessitates the
construction of network of canals. The entire system of canals (main and branches)
distributed over the field are to be designed properly for certain realistic value of maximum
discharge, that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the
command area; the success of the flow irrigation depends on the perfect design of the
network of canals.
The design of canals is carried out in considerations of Kennedy’s and Lacey’s theory
which are based on the characteristics of sediment load i.e. (silt) in canal water. The design
consideration of irrigation canals naturally varies according to the type of soil, again the
velocity of flow in the canal should be critical (i.e., none silting and scouring).
5.2 Canal Alignment
A canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be
irrigated. It is clear that irrigation water, (in flow type) should reach the field by gravity to
accomplish the requirement. Irrigation canal is always aligned in such a way that the water
gets proper command over the whole irrigable area.
5.2.1 General Consideration of Canal Alignment
The following points should be kept in mind in alignment of canal
 The alignment should not pass through the valuable lands, religious places,
villages, etc. to avoid unnecessary compensation and unwanted conflict.
 The alignment should be short as far as possible, but to make it short the
alignment should not be taken through the area where irrigation is not yet all
possible.
 The alignment should be straight as far as possible.
 The alignment should cross the natural stream, drainage, etc. approximately at the
right angles.
 At the crossing point, the width of the drainage should be minimum and the banks
should be well defined.
 The alignment should not involve heavy cutting or banking.

 The alignment along the ridge line or water shade line is very good as the water
shed canal can irrigate the area on both the side.
 Moreover, cross drainage work may be avoided.
 The alignment should be such that the maximum area may be irrigated
with minimum length of the canal.
 The alignment should not pass through the water logged area if possible because
the canal may be collapsed due to the heavy moisture in the area.
 The alignment should not pass through the sandy soil as the percolation in the
loss soil will be more and the duty of the soil will be less.
5.2.2 Horizontal Alignment of Canals
The horizontal alignment of irrigation and drainage canals generally follow the topography of
the terrain. Primary canals are in general located along the contour till it meets ridges.
Branch and secondary supply (irrigation canals) are preferably located on the high grounds
such as ridges or water sheds, the main drainage canals are located in the valleys or along the
natural drainage lines.
5.2.3 Vertical Alignment of Canals
The vertical alignment is compromise between the following.
 The water level in the supply canals should be sufficiently high to the highest for main
canal irrigation in envisage; in drains the level should be low enough to drain the lowest
area that are to be drained.
 The maintenance cost should as possible as low.
 A balance between cut and fill is economic for construction, but canals in high fill are
more difficult to construction and would in general high loss of water by seepage .For
this reason whenever possible the whole canal section is preferable if it be in cutting.
5.3 Hydraulic Design of Canal Net Work
5.3.1 Determination of Roughness coefficient (n)
The manning’s n is a functions of the kind of lining and the condition (roughness) of the
surface. The following are recommended values of the Manning’s n for different linings the
value of roughness coefficient (n) varies according to physical roughness of sides and bottom
of channel and influenced by such factors as:
 Channel curvature

 Change in size and shape of cross-section

 Obstruction vegetation etc.
In this project area the soil type is clay loam. Since the soil is clay loam it may not need lining
but for the proper functioning of the diverted water lined canal by masonry lining with
random stone. Literatures recommend the coefficient of roughness for different condition of
canals. The following table is recommended by buckle.
Table 5.1 Roughness coefficient for unlined canal
Canal condition Values of (n)
Very good 0.0225
Good 0.025
Indifferent 0.0275
Bad 0.3
Source: (Garg, 2003)
Take the value of roughness n =0.0225 for unlined part of the canal from rectangular lined
canal to the end. For the case of lined canal 0-1000m the canal is lined by masonry take the
value of roughness coefficient for masonry lining should be about (0.012 - 0.015)
5.3.2 Longitudinal slope, s determination
It is determined from the general slope of the ground along the alignment and the discharge of
the canal. The following bottom slopes can be adopted for preliminary design of canals. Take
longitudinal slope 1/1000. Therefore, s=0.1%.
5.3.3 Permissible velocity
Design of stable canal needs a series attention on the flow velocity in order to avoid the ill
effect of the two extreme values. For this case researchers give permissible limits. The limits
are given according to the formation of canals.
Channel in silting problems are anticipated may be designed on the principle of minimum
permissible velocity. This velocity is very uncertain and cannot be determined.
To solve the problem R.G Kennedy investigated on some canal reaches and come up with a
relation
VO=0.55mD0.64
Where, VO=mean velocity which will just keep the channel free
From silting or scouring

m= critical velocity ratio (m=1.2 for sandy, loam clay)

5.3.4 Design Discharge
Design discharge is the maximum flow that the canal carry at all season to fulfill the water
demand of crops. The net scheme irrigation requirement has been found to be 0.23l/s/ha.
Discharge capacity of canal is fixed by considering the irrigation area, duty, application or
working time, future expansion and efficiency of conveyance andapplication.
Inputs:
 Max. FWS= 0.23lit/sec/ha
 Total command area= 108ha
 Conveyance efficiency=0.7(predetermined schedule)
 Application efficiency=0.8(assumed value)
 Consider future expansion=25%
 Working hour considered to be 12hrs
Output- design discharge Qd
Calculation:
Qd=Max .FWS* ∗
∗
Qd=0.23l/s/ha* . ∗ .
∗
=88.7lit/sec =0.0887m3/s
For future expansion and safety 25% allowance discharge
Qd= 0.25*0.0887+0.0887m3/s = 0.1109m3/s
5.3.5 Free Board
The free board of channel is the distance between FSL to the top of the channel. The distance
should be sufficient to prevent wave or function in water surface from over topping the sides.
It is usually governed by;
 Canal size
 Discharge
 Wave action etc…
For this reasons Lacey proposed the following equation;
/ 1/3
Fr=0.2+0.15 = 0.2+0.15*(0.111) = 0.272m =0.3m

5.3.6 Design of Main Canal

The purpose of canal system design is to provide water, adequate in quantity and command to
all farms within the area serviced. The cross section of the main canal varies as the distance of
the canal increases. This is because the design of main canal is hold by considering the
amount of water diverted through the off taking canal upstream of each division canals.
Sample calculation for the design of main canal
The cross section of the main canal varies as the distance of the canal increases. This is
because the design of main canal is hold by considering the amount of water diverted through
the off taking canal upstream of each division canals
Data available;
Lined rectangular canal
Length of main canal=2800m, Peak net discharge =110.9l/sec.
n=0.0225 (Garg 2003), S=.0.001
We select rectangular lined cross-section in order to minimize loss of water.
A=db
P=2d+b
For best economical section b/d =2 from this:
b=2d
A=2d2, P=4d
R=A/P=2d2/4d=d/2
Q= 1/nAR2/3S1/2
0.1109m3/s = 2d2*(d/2)2/3*√0.001*1/0.0225
D= 0.4m, b= 2d =0.8m, A= 2d2= 0.32m2, P= 4D = 1.6m
V=Q/A, =0.1109/0.32, V =0.346m/s (accepted) …………< 2.5m/s i.e. this implies that our
canal does not cause either silting or scouring.
Free board = 0.3 m
Here total d=0.40+0.3m = 0.7m
The cross section of the main canal 0-1000m

Fb
b
Figure 5.1Cross-section section of the rectangular main canal
Unlined trapezoidal main canal
Available data:
Discharge (Qd) =0.1109m3/s
Roughness coefficient (N) =0.0225 from table
Bed slope of the canal (S) =1:1000
Side slope of the canal (m) =1.5:1(recommended value for clay soil)
By using manning formula:
1
1 2
Q = A× × R3 ×S 2 Manning’s Formula
n
Take b/d ratio =1for discharge less than 0.3m3/s (from Garg 2003)
b=d
A=d (b+md) =d2+md2, P=b+2d(√1+m2) =d+2d(√1+m2)
R=A/P=d2+md2
b+2d (√1+m2) =d (1+m)
1+2(√1+m2)
By taking the value of m=1.5
R =d/2
A =2.5d2
1
Q = A× 1 ×
2
R 3 × S 2 =0.1109m3/s =2.5d2*(d/2)2/3*0.0011/2
n
0.0225
d=0.325m F=0.2+0.15 Q =0.2+0.15(0.1109)1/3=0.27m

3

b=0.325m
Total d=d+F=0.59m
The cross section of the main canal is trapezoidal with 0-1800m.
Figure 5.2 Cross-section of trapezoidal main canal

Loss at transition from lined rectangular to unlined trapezoidal earthen canal section was
ignored, as it does not have much influence on the flow hydraulic.
5.3.7 Design of secondary canal (branch canal)
Secondary canal are the branch of main canal in either direction taking off at regular interval.
In general secondary do not carry out any direct irrigation, but at a times direct out let may be
provide. Second canal usually feeder channel for tertiary and field channel. In this project
there is only one secondary canal.
Design of secondary canal
There are two secondary canals in the first secondary canal the command area of 58ha and in
the second the command area of 50 ha will be irrigated.
58ha
Available data: Discharge SC1, (Q) in m3/s = * 0.1109  0.0596m3/s
108ha
SC2, Q =50/108*0.1109= 0.0513m3/s
Roughness coefficient (n) =0.0275, Bed slope (s) =1:800, Side slope (m) =1:1
Permissible velocity 0.41 – 1.67 m/s [Arora 2000]
By taking b/d ratio 1when the discharge is less than 0.3m3/s
From the above b=d
For trapezoidal canal A=d (b+md) =2b2 by taking m =1
P=b+2d (√m2+1) =3.83b
R =A/P=2b2/3.83b=0.52b

By using manning equation

1
Q = A× 1 ×
2
R 3 ×S2
n
0.0596m3/s =2b2*(0.52b) 2/3*0.001251/2*1/0.0275 for SC1
By solving the above equation we get;
b=0.29m, d=0.29m
V= Q/A=0.9m/s (accepted)
For second canal, SC2
0.0513m3/s =2b2*(0.52b) 2/3*0.001251/2*1/0.0275
b=0.28m, d=0.28m
V= Q/A=0.8m/s (accepted)
Table 5.2 Values of design calculations of secondary canal
S.Canal Discharge Bed slope Side slope Water depth Bed width Velocity
(m^3/sec)
(m) (m) (m/sec)
SC1 0.0596 1/800 1:1 0.29 0.29 0.9
SC2 0.0513 1/800 1:1 0.28 0.28 0.8
5.3.8 Design of Tertiary Canals

These irrigation canals take their content of water directly from the main canal or from the
secondary canal to irrigate the land or to feed field distributaries. In this project there are 9
tertiary canals are exist to feed field canal. These are designed as unlined earth canals.To
precede with the design of unlined canals Kennedy’s method is applicable with respect to
available data. This method involves predetermined values of
Discharge (Q), Roughness coefficient (n), Bed slope(S)
Sample calculation for tertiary canals
Available data: Command area =12ha
Q=12/108*0.1109=0.0123m3/s
Bed slope =1:100, Roughness coefficient =0.0275, Side slope 0.5:1
Assume d=0.2m

A=d (b+md) =0.2b+0.02, P =b+2d (√m2+1) =b+0.45

. .
R=A/P=
.
1
1 2
From manning formula v= × R 3 × S 2 …………….1
n
From continuity equation v =Q/A …………………2
Equating 1&2
. . /
∗( . ) /
3 .
0.0123m /s = , Then by trial and error b=0.22m
. . ∗ .
V=Q/A =0.4m/s
By using the same procedure fill the following table.
Table 5.3 Design calculation of tertiary canals
Canal Q in Irrigable N M S d in m b in m V in m/s
3
(m /s) area(ha)
Tc-1 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.2 0.22 0.39
Tc-2 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.22 0.23 0.29
Tc-3 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.26 0.28 0.23
Tc-4 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.28 0.3 0.20
Tc-5 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.3 0.31 0.17
Tc-6 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.34 0.36 0.14
Tc-7 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.25 0.27 0.25
Tc-8 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.25 0.27 0.25
Tc-9 0.01232 12 0.0275 0.5 0.01 0.25 0.27 0.25
5.4 Design of Irrigation Canal Structures

5.4.1 Design of Drop Structure
Drop structure is constructed on a canal to lower down the water level and the bed level of the
canal to minimize the potential. It is therefore designed to dissipate the energy, but it has to be
resisting the scoring effect. For discharge less than 8m3/s vertical drop is best and economical.
Sample calculation
Available data
Q=0.1109m3/s

B=1m
Drop, adopted height, H=1m
D1=D2=0.5m
Design
.
q= = = 0.1109m3/s/m
.
V= = .
= 0.222m2/s
Critical depth at the drop (Yc)

/ /
.
Yc= = = 0.107m
.
Velocity head (Ha)

.
Ha = = = 0.0025
∗ .
= + − = 0.5 + 0.0025 − 0.30 = 0.2025 (Assuming a crest height of 0.30m)

Depth of critical (X)
.
X= = = 0.054
Length of critical
= 3∗( ∗ ) =3 ∗ (1 ∗ 0.24) = 1.47
Width (W)
18.46 18.46 ∗ 0.1109

= = = 0.6 ≂1
+ 9.91 0.1109 + 9.91
Height of U/S wing wall =0.5+0.5 =1m
Height of D/S wing wall =0.5+0.5 =1m

Figure 5.3 Canal Drop Structure

5.4.2 Division Box
Division structures or boxes regulate the flow from one canal to another or several others.
They usually consist of a box with vertical walls in which controllable opening are provided.
Metal sluice gates or stop logs are usually installed to regulate the division of flow of all times
and to shut off in any branch when desired the structure designed to supply water to the
secondary canals.
The width of each out-let is generally proportional to the division of water to be made.
Design of division boxes
To provide MC
Available data;
QO=QMC1= 0.1109m3/sec
A broad crest formula to divide proportionally is used
3
2
Q=C*L*H
Where, Q=discharge over rectangular weir sill
C=discharge coefficient, use 1.77
Q=Out let of secondary canal1
L=effective length of crest (openings in meter)

H=over flow depth (m)

Assuming that:
Crest level and crest form are in the same direction
Equal coefficient of discharge & sill height for the divided canal
Assuming sill height s=0.20 & dead height=0.20
H=sill height + dead height = 0.2+0.2 = 0.4m
3
2
Then Q=C*L*H
.
L= Q/ C*H3/2 = /
= 0.25m
. ∗ .
Figure 5.4 Division box

5.4.3 Culverts
Culverts are conveyance structures which carry water under the canal, roads, highways, etc. It
consists of a pipe barrel which can be circular or rectangular, an entrance and exit. Flow in
culvert can be either free flow (open channel) or pipe flow. Select circular type culvert for
small discharge.
The size of the pipe should be selected so that it will result maximum allowable velocity 1m/s
for a pipe with concrete transition. At a road crossing a minimum earth cover 7m should
provide over the top of the pipe. In order to facilitate occasionally clearing and to avoid
blocking by debris, the circular
circular pipe should have a minimum diameter of 0.6m. Pipe culvert
are used if the discharge very small.

5.4.4 Flow Control Structure (Gates)

Flow control structures (Gates) are physical structures that are used to control and regulate the
state of flow in the canal.
They can be:
 Water level regulators or

 Discharge regulators
Water level can be set to the target value by rising and dropping the gates units the target
isset.

CHAPTER SIX
6 DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN
6.1 General
Drainage is the artificial removal of excess water from the soil surface or subsurface in order
to create a favorable condition for plant growth .In addition in order for the plant to grow,
apart from availability of water, air is also needed and hence soil should not saturated with
water. A soil therefore has good interval drainage characteristics which mean that the water
must be able to move fairly and easily through the soil so that the excess water can be
removed when required.
Poor drainage cause a decrease in a crop production is the fact that the plant roots have only a
limited amount of soil in which to grow. This means that the plant roots system is not
adequate to supply the required nutrients.
6.2 Requirement of Drainage
Irrigation without drainage is not a complete system. For proper plant growth aeration is as
equally important as water in the plant root zone. While irrigating the land, the excess water
either percolates and joins the ground water or removed as runoff. Excess water which joins
ground water, help in raising the water table and canals water logging condition. If the
topography, soil condition or other factor favors the soil salinity may develop due to rise in
ground water. Hence, the result will be yield reduction. So, drainage of any cultivated area is
necessary for the following purposes∶
 Drainage is essential to maintain in supply oxygen
 Drainage promotes conditions that maintain soil structure and workability.
 In drain soil the plant roots can be penetrate more deeply, thus enlarging the supply of
plant food which produce heal there, may be vigorous growth.
 Proper control of salinity and alkalinity can be accomplished only in well drain soils.
 Environmental protection by reduction or elimination of Mosquitoes and other insect
breading.
Therefore proper drainage is essential to fulfill the above conditions and can improve our
product.
6.3 Methods of Field Drainage Systems
There are two methods of drainage:

1. Vertical drainage by means of pumping wells and

2. Horizontal drainage by means of open or buried drains
Vertical drainage by producing wells is a costlier and it is advisable only when conditions are
suitable. Further the suitable condition for vertical drainage like transmissivity of aquifer and
vertical permeability of over lying layers must be favorable since transmissivity conditions
are not favorable at Shor. Therefore horizontal drainage is quite clearly the method best suited
to physical condition to Shor area.
The horizontal drainage system is of two types.
1. Surface drainage system
2. Sub surface drainage system
6.3.1 Surface Drainage System
Surface drainage is required for the disposable of storm runoff and to lesser extensive
irrigation application through the field drains, tertiary drain and secondary drain to the main
drain
6.3.2 Subsurface Drainage System
With irrigation, water table will rise and there will be a need for sub surface drainage to create
favorable condition in the root zone. However, the rate of rise of water table and for sub
surface drainage will vary across the project area.
6.4 Selection of Drains System
Drain size physical condition of the soil, topography, required drain spacing and annual
operation and maintenance costs are dictate for selection of drain system. The surface
drainage system is suitable for Shor irrigation project as the topography is also congenial. The
other advantages are:
 It need low initial investment cost
 It can drain large quantity of water within the stipulated time
 It maintained in good condition easily
In the area of southern block, the ground water table is between 3mto 10m. Therefore need for
sub surface drain system is not such important.

6.5 Design of Drainage Canals

6.6 Mean Annual Rain fall (MAR)
MAR is the average of the total yearly rain fall of along years recorded, which is an important
parameter needed for the design of surface drainage system.
For this project the mean annual rainfall (MAR) is 1874.4mm/year.
6.6.1 Drainage Coefficient (DC)
Drainage coefficient depth of water to be varied with in 24hrs to obtain the desired protection
of crops from excess surface or subsurface water and can be expressed in mm/day. It is
important parameter for the design of drainage system.
The value of Dc can be obtained by different empirical method.
1. Hudson(1975)
He suggested that:
I. For MAR > 1000mm; Dc=MAR/100 mm/day
II. For MAR < 1000mm; Dc=10 mm/day
Therefore in our case MAR=1874.4mm which is greater than 1000mm
So use the formula For MAR > 1000mm; Dc=MAR/100 mm/day
DC=1874.4/100,DC=18.744mm/day
Therefor DC=18.744mm/day
1% of MAR
DC=0.01×1874.4,DC=18.744mm/day
6.6.2 Velocity for Drainage Design
The experience of soil conservation service in designing drainage ditch indicates that, the
following roughness coefficients can be used to give satisfactory design. [Lutin, 1978]
Table 6.1 Possible values of Manning coefficient for different value of Hydraulic
Hydraulic Radius N
<2.5 0.04-0.045
2.5-4 0.035-0.04
4-5 0.03-0.35
>5 0.025-0.03

Table 6.2Maximum side slope for drain canals for different soil type
Soil type Side slope (H:V)
Sand, silt clay 3:1
Sand, clay, silt loam 1.5:1
Fine clay, clay loam 1:2
Table 6.3 Maximum permissible velocity for different soil type
Soil type Max. velocity (m/sec)
Sand and sandy loam 0.726
Silt loam 0.91
Sandy clay loam 1.07
Clay loam 1.22
Heavy loam 1.52

6.7 Design of Tertiary Drain
Tertiary drain collects the excess water that drained by the field drain to ward tertiary drain
from tertiary unit. The area which drained by tertiary drain is the sum of the areas of the fields
under tertiary unit.
They are designed with trapezoidal cross-section with 1.5:1 (H: V) side slopes. The hydraulic
designs of the drainage channels are normally designed using the Manning equation.
Sample calculation
Available data
Area to be drained A=58ha
Drainage coefficient, DC = 18.744mm/day
Bed slope, from top a graph, S=1/4000=0.00025
Capacity of the drain, Qd= Dc*A= 18.744mm/day*58ha
18.744 ∗ 10 ∗ 58 ∗ 10
= = 0.0126 = 12.6 /
1 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60

The most economical bed width of a trapezoidal channel under favorable structural condition
is
B= 2Dtan (ϴ/2)
B = bed with, m
D = depth of flow of water
ϴ = Angle between the side and the horizontal
= tan-1(1/1.5) = 33.69ᴼ [AM Michael 1978]
In this case let as assume, D= 0.56
B = 2Dtan (ϴ/2) = 2*0.56*tan ((33.69°)/2)=2*0.56*0.303=0.34m
The wetted perimeter (p),m= 1.5
P = B+2D√ (1+m^2) =0.34+2*0.56√ (1+〖1.5〗^2) =2.363
Area of cross-section, A
2
A = B*D+mD2= 0.56*0.34+1.5*0.562=0.663m
The hydraulic radius R
2
R=A/P=0.663m /2.363m
R=0.281 so n=0.04 from table above
The velocity of flow (v), in the drain can be determined from Manning’s equation
V= 1/n R^ (2/3) s^ (1/2) =1/0.04*〖0.281〗^ (2/3)*〖0.00025〗^ (1/2)=0.152m/sec
The discharge of flow, Manning:
Q=A∗V
Q=0.663m2∗0.152m/sec=0.101m3/sec
Q=0.101m3/sec˃0.0126m3/sec............................................. Ok!
Free board of tertiary drain
FB= 0.15m (FB= 10 to 20cm)
Total depth, DT= D+FB= 0.56+0.15= 0.71m
Top width (T)
T=B+2*m*Dt = 0.34+2*1.5*0.71= 2.47m

2.5m
0.15m
1.5
0.6m 1
0.35m
Figure 6.1 Typical cross section of tertiary drain canal

6.8 Design of Collector Drain
Collector drains collect excess /drained/ water from field drain and tertiary drain.
Available Data
A=108ha
Dc=18.744mm/day
s=1/3000,m=1.5
. ∗
Qd = ∗ 108 ∗ 10 m =0.234m /sec
∗ ∗
Capacity of canal
Assume: D= 1.11m
B=2Dtan (ϴ/2) = 2*1.11*tan (16.845) = 0.68m
P = B+2D (1+m2)0.5 = 0.68 + 2*1.11*(1 + 1.5 ) .
= 4.69
A=DB+mD2=0.68*1.11+1.5*1.112 = 2.61m2
R=A/P=2.61/4.69 = 0.56m
1 / /
1 /
1
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ 0.56 ∗( ) = 0.293 /
0.04 3000
Q = A*V= 2.61*0.293/sec

= 0.776m3/sec ≥ Qd = 0.234m3/sec …………………..ok!

FB = 0.2m
DT = D+FB= 1.11+0.2=1.31m
Top width, T=B+2mD= 0.68 + 2*1.5*1.11= 4.62m
4.6m
0.2m
1.5
1m 1
0.7m
Figure 6.2 Cross-section of collector drain

CHAPTER SEVEN
7 IRRIGATION METHOD DESIGN
7.1 General
The delivery schedules highly depend on the field irrigation methods and field irrigation
requirements. The objective of a water delivery and distribution system is to deliver water
adequately, efficiently and reliably to the users there by improving production. In all the cases
the system should deliver the required water that can sustain the field crops within the
irrigation interval (T).
7.2 Irrigation Method selection
The selection of irrigation method/system is largely influenced by the topographic nature of
the command area, soil and crop type that is planned to be grown. Farmers experience and
level of technology being used in the ploughing system are also other important factors, which
have got considerable impact on the selection of irrigation methods.
Selection of an irrigation method is based on, technical feasibility and economics. Surface
methods are mostly the cheapest to install, and where conditions are suitable there is little
point in considering other methods.
Some of the limiting conditions to determine the choice of surface irrigation systems are:
 natural circumstances (slope, soil type)
 type of crop
 required depth of application
 level of technology
 previous experiences with irrigation
 required labour input
Farming operations (land preparation, cultivation and harvesting etc.) For Shor small scale
irrigation project surface irrigation is proposed to be adopted, which is the most common
method employed in the world for insignificant land topographic area and also the most
commonly provided method in Ethiopia. Surface (gravity irrigation) methods use a moving
water stream over the surface of land in order to wet it, either completely or partially.
Furrow method of application is quite suitable for row crops like maize, potatoes, and onion
and adaptable to most soils of different textures.

Furrow irrigation method: only one fifth to one half of the land surface is wetted by water. It
therefore, results in less evaporation, less pudding of soil, and permits cultivation sooner after
irrigation. Furrow is narrow field ditches excavated between row of plants and carry throw
them. Spacing of furrows is determined by the plants. It is very selective for flat topography,
clay loam and sand type of soils. It is also suitable for surface sources.
7.3 Furrow irrigation method
Design can be viewed as the process of making decision concerning the value of flow rate
(Q), length and during the project development phase. The available stream size, the length
and grade of land unit must be combined to achieve acceptable result without excessive labor,
waste of water, erosion and inconvenience to other farming operation. Since the performance
of surface irrigation is independent on three set of variables; design management and field
parameters (system parameters), which are shown in the following functional paramount
importance to consider each one of them in detail.
P=f (I, SO, n, Zr, G, qo, L, tco)
Where; P= performance of surface irrigation
I=symbolize the infiltration parameter
So=channel bed slope
n=hydraulic resistance
G=symbolize geometry parameters
Zr=required amount of application depth
qo=unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
tco=time of cut off
L=furrow length
7.4 Design of Furrow irrigation System
The Parameters used in furrow irrigation design are;
7.4.1 Furrow spacing
Spacing depends up on the type of crop grown and type of machine used for planting and
cultivation. Crops like, potatoes and maize are planted 60-90cm apart and have furrows
between all rows. Vegetables crops such as shallots are spaced 30-40cm and often have two
rows between the furrows. For optimum yield of crops, ease of weed control and irrigation the
following spacing is recommended.

Table 7.1 Furrow infiltration and infiltration rate

Soil texture Infiltration rate (mm/hr) Furrow inflow (l/s/1000m length)
Clay 1-5 0.03-0.15
Clay loam 5-10 0.15-0.3
Sandy loam 20-30 0.5-0.8
Sand 30-100 0.8-2.7

Table 7.2 Spacing and rows between plants (Michael 1994)
Crop Suggested space between Rows and plants (cm)
Maize 75 x 30
Pepper 60 x 40
Cabbage 60 x45
Banana 150 x 120

SOURCE (Michael 1994)
7.4.2 Furrow Length (L)
The optimum length of the furrows is usually the longest furrow that can be efficiently
irrigated. It may be as short as 45m on soils which take up water rapidly or as much as 300m
or longer on the soils with low infiltration rate. The length of the furrow may often be limited
by the size and shape of the field.
The choice of furrow length depends on soil type, stream size, irrigation depth, field size and
shape, slope, farming practice. Generally,
 Furrows can usually be longer on clay soils than on sandy soils.
 Furrows can be longer when a larger stream size is used for irrigation.
 Furrows can be longer when a larger irrigation depth is applied.
 Furrows are usually shorter on steeper sloping land to prevent erosion.

Table 7.3 Suggested maximum length of cultivated furrow (m)

Furrow Average depth of water applied (mm)
slope 75 150 225 300 50 100 150 200 50 75 100 100
(%) Clay Loam Sand
0.05 300 400 400 400 120 270 400 400 60 90 150 190
0.1 340 400 470 500 180 340 440 470 90 120 290 220
0.2 370 470 530 620 220 370 470 530 120 190 250 300
0.3 400 500 620 300 280 400 500 600 150 220 280 400
0.5 400 500 560 750 280 370 470 500 120 190 250 300
1.0 280 400 500 600 250 300 370 470 90 150 220 250
1.5 250 340 430 500 220 280 340 400 80 120 190 220
2.0 220 270 340 400 180 250 300 340 60 90 150 190
SOURCE (Cuenca, 1989)

7.4.3 Furrow Slope(S)
The slope or the grade of the furrow is important because it control the speed at which water
flows down the furrow. A minimum slope of 0.05% is needed to ensure safe drainage. If the
slope of the land is to steep, the furrow should be around the hill rather than straight down the
slope. Furrow slope, S=0.25% (0.2 to 0.3% is recommended)
Application Depth
The depth of water applied per irrigation. It can be from crop watt.
Opportunity time
The deference between the time at which water front reaches a particular point along the
furrow and the time the tail water recedes from the same points.
Advance time (TA); time at which the advanced water reaches a particular point.

Furrow stream (q); the size of furrow stream is one of the factors which can be varied after
the furrow irrigation system has been installed. The maximum non erosive flow rate in furrow
is given by the following formula:
qm=0.6/S=0.6/0.25=2.4 l/s
Where, qm= maximum non erosive stream (l/s)
s= slope of furrow expressed as percent
Infiltration in furrow system and calculation of required infiltration time must be handled
different from other types of surface systems. This is because of infiltration only takes place
on the wetted perimeter of the furrow, yet it must be expressed as an equivalent depth of
infiltration over other surface area of the yield.
Recession time (TR);
The time of out flow of water to stop after inflow at the head of the furrow has ended in
recession time. Infiltration in furrow system and calculation of required infiltration time must
be handled differently than for other types of surface system. This is because infiltration takes
place on the wetted perimeter of the furrow and the adjusted wetted perimeter is given by the
following equation
P=0.265(Q*n/s0.5)0.425+0.227…………………………………..6.1
Where Q - volumetric inflow rate, l/s
n - Manning roughness coefficient
s - Furrow slop or hydraulic gradient (m/m)
The advanced time (Ta):- for a stream of water moving down the furrow is given by
Ta = L/exp (gl/ QS0.5)………………………………………..6. 2
Where Ta – advance time (minute)
L - Distance down the furrow (m)
Q - Volumetric inflow rate (l/s)
S - Slope, m/m
The net infiltration time or opportunity time (TN):
Tn = [(dn*(w/p)-c)/a] 1/b ……………………………………….6. 3
Where Dn - net irrigation depth (application depth)
Dn = RAM*P*D
Where RAM-readily available moisture from CROPWAT4window version

P - Depletion factor
D - Root depth
Dn - net irrigation depth
Cut of time (Tco)
Tco reflects an irrigation management decision made by the former and designer. It should be
an adequate length of time to infiltrate a satisfactory depth of water over the length of the
furrow without causing excessive deep percolation.
Tco = Ta+Tn-Tr, min ………………………………………………………………6. 4
Where Tr is recession time is assumed zero for open–ended gradient furrow (i.e. for furrows
whose slope is not equal to zero) without loss of accuracy.
There before Tco = Ta + Tn
The average infiltration opportunity time
Toavg =Tco -0.0929/f (L) (0.305/L) 2*[(ẞ-1) exp (ẞ) +1], Where ẞ = gl/ QS0.5 ….6. 5
Gross application depth (dg)
Dg = [60(Q)*tco]/ WL…………………………………………………......................6. 6
Surface run off (dro)
Dro = dg – davg........…………………………………………………………………..6. 7
Deep percolation (DP)
DP= davg-dn……………………………………………………………………………6. 8
Distribution pattern efficiency, Ed
Ed =dn/dg* 100 (>50%)………………………………………………………..…........6. 9
If the value of deep percolation and distribution efficiency is greater than the standard
specification value, cut-back condition is necessary to minimize the deep percolation of the
water. In this condition some formula is modified.
Sample calculation for MAIZE
Parameters needed furrow design
Soil type-clay loam
Intake family for the given soil type, If=0.25
For If =0.25;
a=0.8534 f=7.62
b=0.711 g=1.74*10-4

c=7.0
Furrow spacing, W=80cm
Furrow slope, S=0.2% (0.05 to 0.5% is recommended)
Furrow length, L=250m (max. is 370m for clay loam of s=0.2%)
Manning’s roughness coefficient, n=0.0275
Net irrigation depth, dn= 66.3 mm
Inflow rate (initial stream), q=0.3l/s (from table……corresponding to clay loam soil)
Design
Cut back stream, qr
qr =0.5q=0.5*0.3=0.15l/s
Adjusted perimeter, pr
0.425
 qr n 
 0.5   0.227
Pr=0.265(  s 
0.425
 0.15 * 0.0275 
 0.5   0.227
Pr =0.265  0.002  =0.323
Advanced time, TA
L B g*L (1.741 *10 4 * 250

*e 0.5
 0.5
 1.776
TA= f , where B= ( qs ) ( 0.3 * 0.002)
250 * e1.776
TA = 7.62 =193.772min
Opportunity time, TO
pr
( aTOb  c )
From dn= w
∗ / . ∗ . / .
.
.
To= =
.
=1535.029min.
Total inflow time, Tf
Tf= TA+ TO
Tf = 193.772 + 1535.029=1728.8min.

Cutoff time, TCO

0.0929
2

* B  1e B  1 
 0.305 B 
f * L 
TCO=  L 
0.0929
2

* 1.776  1e1.776  1 
 0.305 * 1.776 
7.62 * 250 
TCO =  250 
TCO =57.998min.
Average opportunity time during advance, t
Tavg= TA-TCO
=193.772-57.998
=135.774min.
t=Tavg+TO
t =135.774+1535.029
t =1670.80min.
Average intake depth, dav
aT f  TCO   c
b
 pw  a * T
r b
av c  p wp r
dav= =
.
0.232
[0.8534(1728.8 − 57.998) + 7.0]
0.8
.
0.356 − 0.323
+ [0.8534(135.774) + 7.0]
0.8
dav =52mm
Gross intake, dg
60
* q * T A  q r *TO 
dg= WL
= . ∗
∗ (0.3 ∗ 193.772 + 0.15 ∗ 1535.029))
dg =86.52mm
Runoff, R
R=dg-dav
= 86.52-52

=34.52mm
Deep percolation, DP
DP=dav-dn
=52-66.3
=-14.3mm
Application efficiency, Ea
dn
*100
dg
Ea=
.
Ea= ∗ 100
.
Ea =76.6%
Hence, Ea is greater than the target efficiency (i.e. ≥ 70%), then the design is acceptable

CHAPTER EIGHT
8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
8.1 General
Environment is composed of various systems comprising of physical, biological and
socioeconomic subsystems, which subject to changes due to construction of development
works like, water resource development projects. These changes may shape the environment
for the better or the worse, which necessitates that may be analysed in the design of such
projects. Environmental impact assessment is therefore, a systematic structured identification,
prediction, and evaluation of the environmental consequences of a proposed action. The
impacts of the proposed action will be identified by using the existing environment as a
control. A change in the environment is the difference in the environment between the control
of the existing environment and the new environment caused by a project. An environmental
impact assessment is used as a tool for identifying alternative options during the
reconnaissance and feasibility phase of the project cycle and to assess environmental impacts
of each of the proposed projects. The main purpose of (EIA) is to improve decision making
and to ensure that the project or programme options under consideration are environmentally
sound and sustainable. The EIA is concerned with identifying, predicting and evaluating the
environmental effects, both beneficial and adverse of public and private (development)
activities, alternatives and suggest mitigation measures to identify appropriate monitoring
strategies and also to incorporate environmental information in to the decision making process
relating to given development project.
8.2 Justification for the EIA
The project area changes the environmental situation. Such changes could have both positive
as well as negative impacts. The positive effects should have to be fostered while the negative
effects need to be minimized to the possible extent. In light of such effects, it would be critical
to undertake environmental impact assessment (EIA), of the project in comprehensive and
adequate manner. Normally, the environmental impact of irrigation systems depends on the
nature of the water source, the quality of the water, and how water is delivered to the irrigated
land. It has to be expected that the impacts is positive or negative, can be the result of
phenomena which is out of the project or it can be an impact solely caused or generated by the
project itself.

8.3 Scoping and Stakeholder Involvement

Scoping is a process of determining what should be the coverage on the scope of the EIA
study for a project proposal. Scoping helps in developing and selecting alternatives to the
proposed action and involving stakeholders.
8.4 Impact prediction and evaluation
Impact identification after the scoping and stakeholder involvement, impact were identified,
predicated and evaluated. Impact identification was designed to ensure that all potentially
significant impacts are raised in EIA. This was followed by evaluation of their magnitude and
significance. This section presents the identified and predicated potential impacts of the
project. Impact prediction after identification of the potential impacts the magnitude extent
and duration of each of the potential impacts were assessed. Impact significance was rated
based on magnitude extent, duration degree of recovery of the affected area, the value of the
affected environment, the level of public concern and political repercussions. Potential
positive and negative impacts are described in different phases of the project.
Expected positive and negative impact Health problem and occupational hazard Occupational
hazard such as injuries during construction can takes place Communicable diseases such as
AIDS could spread Low Employment.
8.5 Impact mitigation and monitoring
Mitigation is a measure for avoiding, reducing and if possible remedying significant adverse
effects of different activities. It seeks to minimize or eliminate significance negative impacts
identified in the earlier stages of the EIA processes and also ensures that the public or
individual do not bear costs greater than the benefits that occurs to them(Howlett and
Nagu,1997). The role of mitigation is generally to encourage all the parties involved meeting
the requirements of environmental management plan and the condition attached to projects
authority through the greater visibility and explicitness of its environmental responsibility and
requirement.
Monitoring on the other hand is systematic collection of data through a serious of repetitive
measurement over a long period to provide information on characteristics and functioning of
environmental and social variables in space and time (Sadier, 1996). It reflects the input of
EIA by involving assessment of compliance with the project design and implementation.
Monitoring also establishes the effectiveness of the prescribed mitigation measures and

provides an early warning system to identify harmful trends, before adverse impact can
happen.
8.6 Health Problem
The project will contribute to economic progress which permits rural households, a greater
purchasing power for drags and health services. On the other hand there will be the potential
negative impacts and local people will suffer from vector borne diseases and communicate
diseases such as AIDS. Thus health and other appropriate health sector institutions should be
involved and consulted the earliest stage of the project.
8.7 Increased hazard of water related diseases
Construction and operation of the irrigation scheme may create habitats well suited to vectors
of water related diseases particularly malaria. The systems that are used in the irrigation
scheme such as open canals, and drainage ditches on fields can provide attractive sites for
vector mosquitoes. As a result of these favorable conditions the incidence of malaria may
increase in the area.
8.8 Reduction of water quantity and quality
Some temporary fluctuation/alteration in the river flow can result during the construction of
the diversion structure. The construction activity may also have some effects on the quality of
the river water due to pounding and possible addition of wastes generated from construction
spoils. Due to the interruption in the river flow and decrease of its quality, in general there
will be a decrease in the dilution of wastes added downstream. However, it is unlikely that
there will be significant wastes added downstream of the diversion site. The proposed
irrigation scheme development is using the diversion of Amato River to irrigate about 30
hectares of land. The river completely disappears after 1km from the top of the river (head
work). As a result there is no downstream user. Therefore; social conflict with downstream &
upstream users is not expected to be a serious problem.
8.9 The Negative Impact of the Project
There are some negative impacts of Shor small scale irrigation project on natural
environment, local communities and on others are list as follows:
 Deforestation in the upstream area of the project during reservoir area
clearance.
 Modification of the river discharge in the downstream side.

 Change in the sediment transport and river morphology downstream of

the weir.
 Changes in the ground water level in the regions which may results in
water logging and salinity.
 Wild life destruction.
 Reservoir siltation.
8.10 The Positive Impact of the Project
There are some positive impacts of Shor small scale irrigation project to local
communities and for others
 Increasing food production i.e. self-sufficiency in food.
 Progress in living standard of the beneficiaries in the project area.
 Job opportunity for semiskilled and unskilled in habitant
 Enables the inhabitants for raising crops two, three times in a year i.e. it
avoids over all dependence in rain fed agriculture.
 Serve as recreational facilities.
 Better health due to the need for water.
8.11 Mitigation measures
Mitigation is defines mitigations including not taking certain actions, limiting the
proposed action and its implementation, repairing, rehabilitating or restoring the
affected environment presentation and maintenance actions during the life of the
action ,and replacing or provided substitute resources environments.

Table 8.1 Negative impact with mitigation measures

Negative Impacts Mitigation Measures
 Deforestation in u/s area of the project  By planting forests in sustainable way as a
during reservoir clearance, which results in substitute around the project area.
soil erosion.
 Since erosion hazards and siltation and  In order to control and minimize the
other related problems have been observed problem of erosion hazard and siltation and
particularly around the headwork site, this will result in ensuring and increasing
sloppy areas of the irrigable lands and the sustainability of the project
along the main canal should compromises development besides to improving the
the activities of integrated soil and water microclimates of the area.
conservation practices.
 Reservoir siltation due to erosion from u/s  soil conservation measures such as
catchments. forestation, terracing in the u/s.
 Change in ground water level in the region  Provide agricultural drainage such as
which may result on water logging and surface and subsurface.
salinity.
 Water quality pollution  Proper disposal of swage to
agricultural waste
 Treatment of water before use
 Outbreak of diseases  Avoiding of stagnant water

 Reductions down stream flow  Provide allowance of minimum water for
downstream flow
 Ecology Aquatic  Care full environmental management to
avoid polluting water courses.
 Measures concerning affected  Reallocation of population and
population loss of productive land.
8.12 Socio Economic Impact of the Project

Generally, Shor small scale irrigation project has so many socio economic impacts. Among
this impact few are listed below:

 The local people enables the inhabitants for raising crops two, three times in a year
and it avoids overall depending in rain feed agriculture.
 The local people will a job opportunity during the implementation of the project.
 The local people’s life standard will improve depending on the income from the
project.
 The operation is convenient, simple to use once setup and has a lower labor
requirement, so that reduce labor cost it needs the educated one.
 The initial cost of drip and sprinkler irrigation equipment is very high the economic
consideration usually limits the use of this irrigation system in large area as our
country.
 The produced crops for domestic consumption at lower cost and sufficient quality will
be available at the market.
8.13 Monitoring
In order to have good environmental management over the life period of the project in
sustainable way, the monitoring program should be included.
Some of the points which need to be monitored are:
 Productivity and benefit analysis of individual system.
 The amount and quality of fertilizers and pesticides to be used.

CHAPTER NINE
9 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
9.1 General
A project is economically feasible, if the total benefit which results from the project exceeds
the total cost spent to implement the project. That mean benefit-cost ratio at the project should
be greater than unity. A widely accepted method is the construction of a ratio of expected
project benefit to expected project costs on a common time basis. Costs include these
necessary to implement a project, such as investment costs operation and maintenance
expenses, other direct cost and any associated costs that are needed to make the products or
service of the project available for use or sale.
9.2 Project Cost
The project cost can be calculated in annex 18
Present project cost=1167866 Birr from annex 18
Assume that the annual operation and maintenance cost of the project cost is 15% and
contingency cost is 10% of the initial investment. i.e.
= (0.15*1167866+ 0.1*1167866) birr/year=291966.5 Birr
Total project cost=1167866+291966.5 =1459832.5 Birr
1459832.5
Total cost per hectare= =13516.97 Birr

CHAPTER TEN
10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATION
10.1 Conclusion
As it can be seen from the background history, it can be concluded that the majority of the soil
in the project area is suitable for irrigation and the quality of water is also very good which is
suitable for irrigation. The hydrological analysis of the project site, the nearby station
metrological data of 31 years of maximum annual daily rainfall ofMizanAmanstation was
taken and analyzed to get maximum or peak design flood by United States Soil Conservation
Service method (USSCS). Crop water requirements have been means of computer program
(CROP WAT 8.0 software). Also ETo is determined based on the Penman monteith equation.
The USDA method is used to calculate the effective rainfall because it is found to be
scientific as it considers ETo in its computation.
The design of any irrigation and hydraulic structures is based on the capacity and property of
the soil and foundation. To improve the drainage system of the project proper designation of
surface drainage system is best for furrow irrigation system as it is also used to remove excess
runoff during the rainy season.
The project is expected to be best profitable for the beneficiaries since its benefit to cost ratio
is much attractive. The environmental impact assessment for the project area is also well
through-out. With the extension of negative impacts, valuable remedial measures are
proposed for each effect.

10.2 Recommendations
To sustain optimal production and safeguard the environment the following recommendations
were made:
 Since the rainfall pattern of the project area is unimodal, rain-fed agricultural
production once in a year is not satisfactory to sustain the community necessitates.
Accordingly, irrigation project is very indispensable for the area.
 To make efficient use of the project, farmers need to be supported through training
and provision of other services like inputs (fertilizers, agrochemical), extensions,
credit, market etc.
 To have efficient use of water and to keep the structure operational, establishment of
water user’s association is important
 For the project to give the expected services all the concerned bodies such as farmers,
farmer associations and government agencies need to manage, follow and monitor the
whole activities of the project.
 Since most of the canals in the project command area are unlined, frequent
maintenance or silt removal is needed as to make the canals durable.
 As there may existence of soil erosion in the command area, afforestation should be
made and thereby sedimentation problem will be decreased.
 Design of any irrigation project need technical skills to operate. To have skilled and
efficient workers it is better to give periodical training for easily adoption of new
technology systems.
 For the project to be feasible and profitable effective marketing system should also be
searched.
 However, Shor River is sufficient to fulfill the demand required for irrigation of
command area; there may be water project or any other project on upstream and
downstream of these rivers. Thus, cares have been taken not to divert more than
0.025m3/s from these rivers.

REFERENCE
1. Given data of Shor small scale irrigation project
2. FAO, Guide lines for Prediction of Crop Water Requirement, Irrigation and drainage
Paper 24, FAO, ROME, 1993.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment (2000), B.Petry, P.Boeriu.
4. ARORA K.R (2002), Irrigation, Water power and Water resource Engineering, standard
publishers distribution, Neia Sarak Delhi
5. GARGE S.K (1996) and (2005) Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures 6th
edition
6. Subramaniya K (1984) and (2005) Engineering Hydrology 2nd edition.
7. Ven Tee Chow, Applied Hydrology, (2002)
8. Hydraulic Structures, Vol. 1 (Ed. P. Novak)

ANNEXES
Annex 1 MizanAman Metrology Rainfall data
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1979 9.64 24.4 41.78 207.4 204.9 131.4 90.53 81.69 66.36 36.69 37.84 9.64
1980 0.8 11.8 26.25 46.92 327.3 185.1 84.64 24.64 12.18 47.41 13.74 0
1981 0.67 12.6 212.1 218.5 152.7 66.36 68.3 54.91 75.43 62.14 59.88 8.57
1982 25.7 5.32 16.34 145.4 112.2 66.61 78.75 98.03 36.55 84.37 262.1 69.64
1983 4.82 32.9 21.7 50.03 208.4 90.46 96.42 93.48 155.8 197.1 95.64 5.36
1984 10.5 0.38 1.12 47.43 78.21 62.21 99.64 17.14 81.39 28.93 65.84 28.93
1985 26 3.15 43.12 297.6 255 85.02 101.8 29.46 37.84 61.07 138.4 0
1986 0 9.68 41.78 155.3 162.9 250.7 159.6 59.46 71.28 40.98 25.4 42.85
1987 1.07 40.9 29.46 53.91 260.1 168.2 120.8 7.5 46.66 163.4 46.14 12.86
1988 13.9 29.1 20.89 229.4 136.9 85.28 200.1 105.8 169.5 151.9 30.59 3.21
1989 1.34 63.6 54.37 173.7 179.7 114.1 257.4 44.46 95.39 148.9 94.09 153.5
1990 18.2 99.4 117.9 175.7 203 135.6 221.2 151.9 81.91 122.1 90.98 23.84
1991 34.3 28.1 53.03 171.3 129.9 171.3 148.1 127.8 98.24 88.92 51.58 28.66
1992 13.1 32.1 24.37 91.5 163.4 173.4 144.9 119.5 94.09 159.9 29.81 37.5
1993 28.4 72.3 35.89 76.2 257.1 124.7 121.1 45.27 26.7 101.2 81.65 0.85
1994 5.09 3.39 56.78 190.3 237.6 180.4 106.9 76.33 5.44 127 94.87 7.77
1995 5.89 9.19 11.79 155.3 167.9 71.02 99.9 55.18 100.1 182.7 65.84 37.77
1996 27.3 18.5 44.19 233.8 152.1 224.5 1eee95.3 174.6 199.3 134.5 126 14.46
1997 39.9 0.48 63.48 310 189.6 117.4 129.1 122.1 28.51 182.9 285.1 197.4
1998 76.3 10.6 51.69 128.6 247 210.5 167.9 101.5 43.03 137.9 31.62 2.14
1999 47.9 12.3 55.18 164.3 218.8 76.2 84.1 32.14 12.18 206 7.52 28.66
2000 0.67 1 22.23 135.3 151.9 56.76 79.55 81.42 70.5 152.4 66.87 7.23
2001 0 25.6 119.2 277.1 127.8 160.7 51.16 129.9 69.21 193.7 190.8 19.82
2002 57.3 8.71 144.9 100.3 233.3 141.8 16.34 45.27 35.25 151.9 80.61 188
2003 22 10.9 91.87 203.5 117.6 136.6 42.59 137.1 8.29 74.73 144.9 150.8
2004 81.4 21.1 60.8 271.9 170.4 116.1 111.7 83.03 125.7 96.42 265.2 82.49
2005 3.75 1.94 80.35 153.2 432.8 142.8 50.62 49.28 144.1 177 102.9 0.8
2006 22 23.5 104.2 268 230.3 201.7 71.25 136.1 70.76 215.1 257.4 212.7
2007 56 62.7 67.5 191.8 208.9 262.1 151.3 33.21 224.7 127.2 57.02 5.09
2008 27.3 50.61 60 301.19 167.4 77.24 74.19 54.37 193.1 306.68 161.48 12.32
2009 84.1 34.84 99.64 198.29 200.08 75.95 21.7 40.71 71.54 224.18 58.84 300.78
Mean 24.0 24.6 61.4 174.9 196.3 134.3 111.2 77.8 82.3 135.0 100.7 54.6

Year Rainfall Maximum, mm

1979 77.13
1980 48.99
1981 41.39
1982 68.53
1983 57.56
1984 63.65
1985 57.29
1986 75.28
1987 38.85
1988 80.62
1989 55.75
1990 68.64
1991 58.74
1992 54.73
1993 42.39
1994 41.47
1995 78.03
1996 82.53
1997 66.04
1998 44.04
1999 36.59
2000 65.16
2001 52.58
2002 57.52
2003 64.96
2004 71.88
2005 55.28
2006 100.78
2007 111.78
2008 54.46
2009 35.17
Annex 2 Consistency check by outlier test

Year RF(x) y=logRF(x) Ym y-ym (y-ym)^2 (y-ym)^3 Xm x-xm (x-xm)^2
1979 77.13 1.8872233 1.77213 0.1150969 0.01325 0.00152 61.5423 15.5877 242.978
1980 48.99 1.6901074 1.77213 -0.0820190 0.00673 -0.0006 61.5423 -12.552 157.559
1981 41.39 1.6168954 1.77213 -0.1552310 0.0241 -0.0037 61.5423 -20.152 406.114
1982 68.53 1.8358807 1.77213 0.0637543 0.00406 0.00026 61.5423 6.98774 48.8285
1983 57.56 1.7601208 1.77213 -0.0120056 0.00014 -2E-06 61.5423 -3.9823 15.8584
1984 63.65 1.8037984 1.77213 0.0316720 0.001 3.2E-05 61.5423 2.10774 4.44258
1985 57.29 1.7580788 1.77213 -0.0140476 0.0002 -3E-06 61.5423 -4.2523 18.0817
1986 75.28 1.8766796 1.77213 0.1045532 0.01093 0.00114 61.5423 13.7377 188.726
1987 38.85 1.5893910 1.77213 -0.1827354 0.03339 -0.0061 61.5423 -22.692 514.939
1988 80.62 1.9064428 1.77213 0.1343164 0.01804 0.00242 61.5423 19.0777 363.96

1989 55.75 1.7462449 1.77213 -0.0258815 0.00067 -2E-05 61.5423 -5.7923 33.5503
1990 68.64 1.8365773 1.77213 0.0644509 0.00415 0.00027 61.5423 7.09774 50.3779
1991 58.74 1.7689339 1.77213 -0.0031925 1E-05 -3E-08 61.5423 -2.8023 7.85265
1992 54.73 1.7382254 1.77213 -0.0339010 0.00115 -4E-05 61.5423 -6.8123 46.4069
1993 42.39 1.6272634 1.77213 -0.1448630 0.02099 -0.003 61.5423 -19.152 366.809
1994 41.47 1.6177340 1.77213 -0.1543924 0.02384 -0.0037 61.5423 -20.072 402.896
1995 78.03 1.8922616 1.77213 0.1201352 0.01443 0.00173 61.5423 16.4877 271.846
1996 82.53 1.9166118 1.77213 0.1444854 0.02088 0.00302 61.5423 20.9877 440.485
1997 66.04 1.8198071 1.77213 0.0476807 0.00227 0.00011 61.5423 4.49774 20.2297
1998 44.04 1.6438473 1.77213 -0.1282791 0.01646 -0.0021 61.5423 -17.502 306.329
1999 36.59 1.5633624 1.77213 -0.2087640 0.04358 -0.0091 61.5423 -24.952 622.615
2000 65.16 1.8139811 1.77213 0.0418547 0.00175 7.3E-05 61.5423 3.61774 13.0881
2001 52.58 1.7208206 1.77213 -0.0513058 0.00263 -0.0001 61.5423 -8.9623 80.3221
2002 57.52 1.7598189 1.77213 -0.0123075 0.00015 -2E-06 61.5423 -4.0223 16.1786
2003 64.96 1.8126460 1.77213 0.0405196 0.00164 6.7E-05 61.5423 3.41774 11.681
2004 71.88 1.8566081 1.77213 0.0844817 0.00714 0.0006 61.5423 10.3377 106.869
2005 55.28 1.7425680 1.77213 -0.0295584 0.00087 -3E-05 61.5423 -6.2623 39.2159
2006 100.78 2.0033744 1.77213 0.2312479 0.05348 0.01237 61.5423 39.2377 1539.6
2007 111.78 2.0483641 1.77213 0.2762377 0.07631 0.02108 61.5423 50.2377 2523.83
2008 54.46 1.7360776 1.77213 -0.0360488 0.0013 -5E-05 61.5423 -7.0823 50.1584
2009 35.17 1.5461724 1.77213 -0.2259540 0.05106 -0.0115 61.5423 -26.372 695.496
Annex 3 Reduced mean in Gumbel’s extreme value distribution, N= sample size

Annex 4 Reduced standard deviation Sn in Gumbel’s extreme value distribution, N=sample

size
Annex 5 Table of kn value for different sample size (VenTe Chow, 1983)

Annex 6 output of effective rainfall
Annex 7 monthly ETO penman Monteith

Annex 8 crop water requirement of maize
Annex 9 crop requirements of Peppers

Annex 10 crop requirement of Cabbage

Annex 11 crop requirement of Banana
Annex 12 planting and harvesting date of maize
Annex 13 planting and harvesting date of Pepper

Annex 14 planting
ing and harvesting date of Cabbage

Annex 15 planting
ing and harvesting date of Banana

Annex 16scheme supply for maize, cabbage, pepper &banana

Annex 17 irrigation schedule for maize,

maize cabbage and banana as follows


Annex 18 Initial investment cost and bill of quantities are summarized below
No. Word description Unit Quantity Unit Price Total Cost
1 General
1.1 Diverting water 1 12000 12000
during construction
2 Head work
2.1 Weir and protection
work
Site clearing m2 100 40 4000
3
Excavation m 626.22 35 21917.7
Masonry work m3 153.85 750 115387.5
Concrete work m3 358.62 1200 430344
Plastering m2 179.53 45 8078.85

Under sluice portion

2.2 Foundation m3 102 35 3570
excavation
Masonry work m3 11.1 750 8325
Concrete work m3 95 1200 114000
Sluice Gate Pcs 1 5000 5000
2.3 Retain wall
Excavation m3 221.34 35 7746.9
Masonry work m3 138.97 750 104227.5
3
Backfill m 111.96 40 4478.4
3 Main canal
3.1 Lined canal(1000m)
Excavation m3 187.43 35 6560.05
Masonry m3 64.05 750 48037.5
Plastering m2 430.5 45 19372.5
Backfill m3 105 40 4200
3.2 Unlined canal
Excavation m3 1702 35 59570
4 Culverts5
Excavation m3 28.73 35 1005.55
Backfill m3 22.44 40 897.6
Pipe of 0.6m dia. Pcs 17 2000 34000
5 Division box
Excavation m3 1.08 35 37.8
Masonry m3 0.54 750 405
Plastering m2 9.36 45 421.2
Backfill m3 1.4 40 56
6 Secondary canals
Excavation m3 311.04 35 10886.4
7 Tertiary canals

Excavation m3 464.4 35 16254

8 Drainage canals
8.1 Collector drain
Excavation m3 945 35 33075
8.2 Main drain
Excavation m3 2203.2 35 77112
Total 1167866

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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 1

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 2

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 3

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 4

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 5

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 6

Lower outlier YL = Ym – KN * SD = 1.77213-2.577*0.12336 =1.45423

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 7

I. Normal distribution method

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 8

Table 2.1 Guidelines for selecting design flood

∂n-1 = standard deviation of the sample size

KT = frequency factor expressed as,

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 9

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 10

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 11

METHODS Maximum RF (mm) calculated

2.5 Peak Discharge Determination

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 12

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 13

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 14

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 15

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 16

Factors affecting crop water requirement

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 17

Table 3.1Crop water requirement

ET=Kc*ETO, Where, ET=evapo‐transpiration for a specific crop.

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 18

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 19

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 20

Where, ETo= reference evapo-transpiration in mm/day

L=latent heat of vaporization=2.45*10 6 J/kg

e d =actual vapor pressure of the air at 2m height in kpa

e s =saturation vapor pressure for the air temperature at 2m height in kpa

 =psychometric constant=0.067kpa/k at sea level

r a =aerodynamic resistance in s/m

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 21

Table 3.2ETo determination by using pen-man montieth method

3.5 Crop Selection

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 22

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 23

Table 3.3Period of growing station of proposed crops

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 24

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 25

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 26

Table 3.5 Computation of water requirement in different method

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 27

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 28

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 29

Where, I=irrigation interval

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 30

Table 3.6 Irrigation Intervals of Irrigation for Recommended Crops

Maize 0.3-1.0 2.85 0.55 6

Pepper 0.25-0.8 46.6 2.49 0.3 3

Cabbage 0.25-0.5 2.64 0.45 5

Banana 0.3-0.9 2.88 0.45 9

for the other crops.

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 31

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 32

1) The site, the river should be straight and narrow.

WU IOT Department Of Hydraulic & Water Resources Engineering Page 33

4.6 Estimation of Water depth on the Crest

2 W2=0.50.61.5*24 +10.8 0.5 5.4

3 PH =0.5(1.5)29.81 -11.04 0.5 5.52

4 Pu=0.59.811.5*2. -15.45 1.0 15.45

6 Ps 0.5Ko soil*H2 Ko=0.333 -16.9 0.83 14.03