Gilgel Gibe II HP

Gilgel Gibe II Hydropower Project June, 2006
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
Ethiopia is rich in water resource potential. Among these hydropower is prominent one.
The over all potential is estimated to be in the order of 15,000 - 30,000 MW. However,
only 1-2% of it has been utilized up to now. Study reveals that about 90% of the energy
consumed in the country is derived from biomass fuels. The use of biomass as the
source of energy has resulted in massive deforestation and subsequent soil erosion. In
addition to these diesel engines generate about 10% the electric energy consumed in the
entire country thus it has significant impact on the foreign exchange of the country.
An attempt to implement a hydropower project helps directly or indirectly the countries

economy as well as social developments. On the one hand, it enhances the economic
development by providing sufficient energy. On the other hand, it promotes the social
developments by improving the living condition of the people.
The existing situation indicates that the supply and demand of power is not balanced.
Not only is the demand being unbalanced with the supply but also the rate of demand
much greater than that of the supply.
Due to power supply shortage and other reasons out lined above, currently the
government of Ethiopia whishes to maximize the use of hydro resources for power
generation.
To that end, the objective in this particular project deals with the assessment of
available alternative water resource potential in the Gilgel Gibe river, down stream of
Gilgel Gibe I and to verify weather the potential projects appear technically,
economically and environmentally feasible or not.
AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 1

1.2. Description of The Project Area

1.2.1. Location and Physical Features
The proposed hydroelectric power project (designated as Gilgel Gibe II) is located on
Gilgel Gibe River. Most components of the project is situated in the Jimma zone of the
Oromia regional state, more specifically in Sekoru and Saja Weredas and some of the
components in Yam special of the southern nation and national people regional state.
Gilgel Gibe River is one of the major tributaries of Great Gibe river, which originates in
mountainous area south – west of Jimma and flows towards the north until it joins Great
Gibe River.
The river regulated by the upstream dam (which is currently in operation) hear after
called Gilgel Gibe I could be utilized further downstream with out constructing
substantial structure. Billie diversion weir which is located approximately at
07055’00”N, 37023’22’’E, some 19km downstream of the upper dam (Gilgel Gibe І)
and it is intended to divert the river water through a 6.1 km power tunnel that will
transfer the water to the power house located on the left of the river at approximate
geographic location 07 058’39”N and 37024’30”E. This site has a total catchments area
of about 4400km2 and mean annual inflow of 1667Mm3.
1.2.2. Geology and Topography
Ethiopia is located in the northern corner of Africa plate, on the southwestern margin of
the Red sea, close to the present location of the triple junction between the Red sea, the
Gulf of Aden and the Ethiopian rift.
The Precambrian (basement) rocks up on which all the younger formation is deposited
contain the oldest rock in the country having age’s grater than 600 million years. The
Gilgel Gibe  project area is located in the southwest plateau very near to the main
Ethiopian Rift (MER), and the geology of the project area comprised rocks, which
range in ages from Precambrian to Quaternary dominantly Plioene age volcanic.

The most likely occurred rock types in the project area are mainly lower basalt,
rhyolites, ignimites and upper basalt etc. The lower basalt is the oldest rock in the site,
which is described as dark grayish to black, very strong, with two joint sets vertical and
dipping west or southern west. The acidic flow represents the top part of the areas
geology and mostly affected by instability problems. The flood basalt, which is one
form of the lower basalt, is the oldest, thickest and most widespread rock type of the
project area. And also, a series of most acidic volcanic rocks overlie the flood basalts.
The master plan report as well as field observation have revealed that this rock is the
hardest and the most resistant to weathering than other volcanic rock.
Generally, the river channel at the proposed diversion weir site is concentrated by very
big blocks, boulders and cobbles trace sand and gravel deposits, which are alluvial as
well as colluvial origin. From close inspection of the site, the bedrock, which is very
sound one, are estimated to be round at a shallow depth below the river channel.
The topography of the area can be grouped in to different geomorphic units based on
morphology. Major geomorphic geneses in the area are concave hill, higher chain of
undulating hills, plateau, long very steep slope and valley bottom. In general, many
rounds to conical hills that rise above the surrounding region and having a very steep
slope characterize the project area.
1.2.3. Data availability

The river Gilgel Gibe is equipped with two gauging stations one is station Sekoru near
to the weir site at the down stream and the other station Assendabo, some km far away
from the weir site at the up stream. At station Sekoru monthly rainfall (mm) data is
available from 1969 -2000.
At a station Assendabo, rainfall data and stream flow data with a few missing values are
available. The run off data available at station Deneba was in operation during a short
period of time, 1980 -1994. The steam flow records available at both stations (Deneba
and Assendabo) are not sufficient to transpose the data to the dam site.

As a result, it is necessary to extend the data at a station Assendabo using runoff- rain
correlation. Since rainfall records of longer duration than the run off data available at
station Assendabo, the regression equation can be used to generate synthetic runoff data
by using the available rainfall data.
Figure 2.1 Location of the Site

CHAPTER TWO
HYDROLOGIC DATA ANALYSIS
2.1 General
The development of power from stream flow depends on the volume of flow and on the
differential head that could be available for power production. Hydrological date is
needed in the design of hydraulic structure to deduce from its analysis, significant figure
such as the minimum, mean and maximum discharge of the River at the proposed
location of the structure.
Hydrology finds its greatest application the design and operation of water resource
engineering projects such as irrigation, hydropower and flood control projects.
Hydrological studies involve the collection of relevant data and analysis of the data by
applying the principles and theory of hydrology to seek solution to practical problems.
 Stream flow records are the major data required in planning and operation of
hydraulic structure.
 Gilgel Gibe River is equipped with two gauging stations: one on the main river
near Ascendabo and the other on the river Bidru Awano, some 3km from
Sekouru. Besides a station on the Gilgel Gibe River near the town of Deneba for
which stream flow records has been obtained. This station was in operation only
during the period 1980 to 1994. However, it delivers useful information on the
correlation of flow with that measured at the upstream site near Assendabo.
Table 2.1: Gauging stations

S.No Station Location Drainag No. of years of % gap
latitude Longitude e area records
1 Bidru Awano near Sekoru 7055”12” 37024”36” 41 21 23
2 Gilgel Gibe near Ascendabo 70 45”36” 37011”24” 2966 34 8.5
The original given data for analysis consists of 28 year average monthly runoff with
some missing data and monthly precipitation (mm) at station Assendabo and 14 years

average monthly runoff records at station Deneba. Therefore, it is necessary to

determine the runoff for the missing data at the station Ascendabo using relationship
between precipitation and runoff. The original records are given in the appendix -1.
2.2 Filling Missing Data

Before using a runoff record of a station, it is necessary first to check the data for
continuity. The continuity of a record may be broken with missing data due to many
reasons such as:
 absence of the observer
 broken or frailer of instrument
It is often necessary to estimate these missing records. The missing data can be
estimated by using the data of the neighboring station. There are different methods of
filling missing data such as arithmetic average method, normal ratio method or other
approximation methods. However, all the above methods require more than one near by
station and concurrent records. These problems force to adopt simple correlation
between runoff and rainfall value for the determination of this missing data.
In hydrologic analysis it is often necessary to develop a relationship between

precipitation and runoff, possibly considering some of the factors affecting runoff as
parameters. Such relations are also used for extrapolation or interpolation of runoff data
from generally longer period records of precipitation.
For this particular project a better way is to fit a linear regression line between rainfall
and runoff. If the correlation coefficients is in the range 0.6 < r<1.0 indicates good
correlation (Ray k. Linsley.JR)
The equation for linear regression between runoff and rainfall is:
Y =aX+b
And the values of the coefficient and b are given by:

a=
b=
r=
Where, a and b are constant

Y =monthly average runoff
X = monthly average rainfall
r = correlation coefficient
Using the above procedure it is found that the regression coefficient between mean
annual runoff and rainfall at station Ascendabo is greater than 0.6. Hence the correlation
between runoff and rainfall is used to fill the missing data.
2.3 Consistency of Stream Flow

Before using stream flow data, it should be carefully reviewed and adjusted for errors
resulting from;
 The records for different gauging stations cover different period of time.
 The location of station have changed
 The instrument exposure has changed

 The observation procedure has changed.
For a number of reasons mentioned above the published flow may not represent the data
actually required by the analysis. In this case, an adjustment of the record is possible by
the use of the double- mass curve method. A more effective procedure is to develop a
relation between precipitation (rainfall) and runoff and make a double mass curve of
observed stream flow verses runoff. (RAY.K.LINSLEY.TR)
As shown in the curve below, the record at Ascendaba does not show inconsistency thus
does not require any adjustment.
Double Mass Curve

1200
1000
Stream flow (Mm 3)
800
600
400
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Runoff(Mm 3)
Figure 2.2 Double mass curve for station Assendabo
2.4 Extension of Flow Record

In many cases, a stream gauge may be of short period records (Y i, i = 1, 2, 3…., n) in
one site and there may be a very long record in another gauging station
(Xi, i =1, 2, 3….N). It will be assumed that n<N, and that records for both stations exists
for the period i= 1, 2, 3 ….n.

Thus the correlation between X and Y may be exploit to extend the length of the Y
records, by estimating a set of N-n flows for the period during which there was an X
records but no Y records. The obvious approach to this problem is to use regression to
estimate Y as the function of X. However, it is not particular values of Y i that is
important, but rather the full collection of estimates of Y, which means a set of Y values
those posses the correct statical properties of Y.
A better approach to this problem is a class of methods known as maintenance of
variance extension (MOVE). The simplest version MOVE 1, presents the variance and
mean of Y using the equation:
Yi =A+BXi
Where B =
A=
Sxx=
Syy =
Signr = the sign of correlation coefficient
For this particular project, the flow recorded at station Deneba has been observed only
15 years, but flow records at station Assendabo has been observed for 32 years. Thus
the method of MOVE-1 technique is employed to extend the 15 years recorded data at
station Deneba to 32 years of flow record using station Assendabo.
.
The following table shows the monthly coefficient for the extended data and the
extended data is given in the appendix.

Table 2.2 monthly coefficients for extension of data

MONTHLY COEFFICIENTS FOR EXTENSION OF DATA
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Ymea
n 6.3 5.0 6.1 10.4 20.0 63.0 143.0 211.9 172.4 70.3 19.0 10.1
Xmea
n 6.9 5.9 11.0 15.8 21.1 47.0 77.5 106.8 81.7 52.5 22.7 8.4
901. 842. 5355. 11516. 7360. 10539. 18307. 55036. 49582. 41160. 14669. 1010.
Sxx 4 2 1 4 7 6 1 0 1 3 4 6
163. 5956. 22845. 62820. 72760. 63697. 30105.
Syy 4 53.7 235.6 1317.8 7 4 8 5 2 3 1442.2 388.2
B 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.4 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.2 0.5
A 4.0 3.9 4.3 6.3 5.2 9.3 31.7 116.8 100.6 35.5 13.5 6.1
2.5 Transferring of Hydrologic Data

Planning and designing of hydraulic structures need adequate hydrological information
of the specific area or the site in particular. Many sites do not have adequate number of
gauging stations or those are recently established or there may not be gauging station in
the catchments at all.
In such cases, transferring of required information (runoff data) from gauged sites to
ungauged site becomes very essential. For our particular project there is no any
recorded data at the weir site, thus it is a must to generate the required run off data from
station Deneba which is assumed the representative for our weir site.
Regulated Flow Consideration

Operation of storage reservoir alters the flow of the natural river. In such cases it is
necessary to combine the flow records of the regulated flow with the flow records of
ungauged natural stream to make hydropower potential analysis of the river. Heizz and
Emmert (1979) have developed a technique for obtaining the necessary stream flow
values and for generating a combined value of flow duration curve (C.C. Warnic)

For Gilgel Gibe-II project, the flow at weir site is the inflow from an area of
considerable extent where there is no stream gauge records plus in flow from the
operation of Gilgel Gibe reservoir. The monthly mean precipitation from station Sekoru
some 2km far from Bilile diversion weir site and the runoff record from a near by
stream gauging station (Deneba) on unregulated stream that represented the sequential
variation of runoff from drainage area are taken for analysis.
For the estimation of annual runoff from annual precipitation, the coefficient of runoff
assumed to be 0.65 considering catchments characteristics such as hilly, steep, land use
management and annual rainfall greater than 110 mm (RAY. K. LINSLEY).
Multiplying annual precipitation inputs value by runoff coefficient the contribution of

average annual runoff from the ungauged catchments is computed. Mathematically, this
is indicated as follows;
=K A
Where = average annual runoff volume per year from
ungauged drainage area
= averaging annual precipitation, m
A = area of the contributing drainage, m2
K = annual runoff coefficients
Once the sequential flows have been computed it is a simple procedure to add,
sequentially, the flow from the engaged tributary area to the regulated flow. The
sequential inflow from the ungauged catchments area can be calculated following a
step- by- step procedure as follows.
Sequential Inflow Calculation
Step 1 => average runoff from catchments area

=K A

Step 2 => monthly flow fraction for representative gauge (MFF).

MFFi=. Runoff for the month , where i= month
Total runoff for that year
Step 3 => tributary inflow for each month in the year

In flow = MFF*Q* years in records
Days in that month
Step 4 => flow at diversion weir site

Flowi = Out flow from reservoir + tributary inflow.
Each month flow fraction for representative gauge and the computed flow at the weir
site is given on the appendix .
2.6 Flow Duration Curve

A stream flow varies over a water year. One of the popular methods of studding this
stream flow variability is through flow duration curve. A flow duration curve of a
stream is a plot of discharge against percent of time the flow was equaled or exceeded.
It also answers the question concerning normal flow, the length of the time (duration)
that a certain reviver flow is expected to be exceeded and also to decide whether storage
is required or not.
There are two different methods for constructing flow duration curve; namely the total
year method and the calendar year method. In total year method, the entire available
record is used for drawing the flow duration curve. All the data are tabulated in
descending order starting from the wettest month on the entire period and ending with
the driest month of the period for which the flow record is available.
In calendar year method, each year average monthly flow values are arranged in
descending order. Then the average flow values corresponding to the wettest month, the
second wettest month and so on up to the driest month are found out by taking

arithmetic mean of all values of same rank. These average values are then used for
plotting flow duration curve.
Thus from the above mentioned advantages, the total year method gives more correct
results than the calendar year method. Therefore, the total year method is used to plot
the flow duration curve for this particular project.
2.7 Plotting Position

When studying stream flow variability through flow duration curve, it requires detail
knowledge of the different plotting position formulae. Numerous methods have been
proposed for the determination of plotting position by different researchers, but most of
them are empirical.
It may be noted that all methods of determining plotting positions give practically the
same results in the middle of the distribution but produce different results near the tail
of distribution.
A comparative study among different empirical formulae revealed that, on the basis of
theoretical sampling from extreme values and normal distribution the Weibull formula (
m/n+1) provided the estimate that are consistent with the experience.
Where Pi = *100 %
Pi = plotting position
m = rank
n = length of records
Since total year method incorporates all the data in the record it gives more correct
results than the calendar year method. Therefore, the total year method is used to plot
the flow duration curve for this particular project. The coordinates of the flow duration
curve are given on appendix.

The ordinates of the flow duration curves at selected frequencies are given in table
below:
Table 2.3 Annual flows at selected frequency

Frequency of Occurrence Flow (m3/s)
% of time
99 20.93
97 21.93
95 29.40
92 34.79
300
250
200
Flow (m3/s)
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of time exceedence
Monthly Flow Duration Curve
Figure 2.3 Flow Duration Curve
2.8 Frequency Analysis

2.8.1 General

Frequency analysis is the hydrologic term used to describe the probability of occurrence
of a particular hydrologic event. Since stream flow data is historical (not experimental)
that is it can not be generated, frequency analysis is used to determine the occurrence of
flood. Water resource system must be planned for future events for which no exact time
of occurrence can be forecast.
It is important to realize that these extensions are only a valid as the data used. The
hundred year flood may occur next year or not for two hundred years or may be
exceeded several times in the next hundred years. Generally the accuracy of estimation
of hundred year flood depends on the length of the record the data is available and flood
flows.
Therefore, frequency analysis can be of great value in the interpretation and assessment
of events such as flood flows and the risks of their occurrence in specific time period.
2.8.2 Selection of Data

If probability analysis to provide reliable answer, it must start with a data series that is
relevant, adequate and accurate. Relevant implies that the data must deal with the
problem. But for our case there is no available maximum flow record which is required
for analysis. On the basis of consideration obtained in Gilgel Gibe –І hydropower
project feasibility report, a factor 1.3 is used for the determination of the annual peak
flow.
2.8.3 Theoretical Probability Distribution

Statical distributions are usually demonstrated by the use of samples numbering in
thousands. No such samples are available for stream flow and it is not possible to state
with certainty that a specific distribution applies to flood peaks.
2.8.4 Selection of Probability Distribution

In general there is on well founded theoretical basis for choosing distribution
representing various meteorological phenomena. Numerous distributions have been

suggested on the basis of their ability to fit the plotted data. Decisions for the selection
of probability distribution are made largely on empirical evidence.
L – MOMENT
L- moments are linear combinations of the ranked observations, and thus do not involve
squaring or cubing the observations as do the product moment estimators. As a result L-
moment estimators of the dimension less coefficients of variation and skew ness are
almost unbiased and have very nearly a normal distribution. In a wide range of
hydrologic applications, generally, L- moment provides simple and reasonable efficient
estimators of the characteristics of hydrologic data and distribution’s parameters.
Table 2.3 probability weighted moment and L- moment
probability weighted moment L moment
0
201.0 128.05 95.31 76.34 201.0 55.13 4.55 3.09
The figure below shows the relation between and and the location of our
sample on the weir site.

1.4000
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
0.6000
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
GEV LOG PERSON UNIFORM

EXPONENTIA GUMBAL DAM SITE NORMAL
Figure 2.4 L- Moment Ratio Diagram

From the above diagram it is shown that the GEV distribution is the most probable
distribution for our weir site.
2.8.5 Parameter Estimation

Fitting distribution can be accomplished by the method of moments (MOM), the
method of maximum likely hood (ML), the method of probability weighted moment
(PWM) and method of L-moments.
As mentioned previously L- Moment provides simple and reasonably efficient estimator

of the characteristics of stream data distribution parameters. Hence for this particular
project, L-moments are employed to estimate parameters of GEV distribution.
Inverse cumulative density function for GEV distribution is given by;
XT= +

Where are probability weighted moments

By trial and error;
K= - 0.14173
= 181.2
=80.8
= 0.1
= 0.06
2.9 Selection of Return Period

Return period (T) is the average interval in years between events when equal or exceed
a given magnitude. It may, however be clearly understood that he concept of return
period does not imply that the event of any given magnitude will occurred at constant or
even approximately constant interval of n years. It only indicates frequency of an event
over a long period of years.
Selecting higher return period means the corresponding flood magnitude will be high.
Such a very high flood may never occur during the life time of the structure. On the
other hand, if a very low discharge corresponding to lower return period is chosen for
the design and if it is exceeded it will result in the failure of the structure causing more
damage than would have been caused in the absence of the structure.
Subramanian (1989) and Novak (1972) gave the general guideline for selecting the
return period as shown below.
S.no Structure Recommended design flood
1 Spillway for major & medium projects with T = 1000 years
storage more than 60mm3
2 Permanent barrage and minor dams with T = 100 years

capacity less than 60mm3

3 Weirs and other small structures T = 100 or 50 depending on
the importance of the
project
2.10 Design flood

General
Design flood is the flood adapted for the design of hydraulic structures. It is selected
based on the type of hydraulic structure and the magnitude of loss of life and properly
damage on the down stream end of the structure.
The design flood may be one of the following types depending up on the importance of
the protection design.
1. Maximum probable flood (MPF)
2. Standard project flood (SPF)
3. A flood corresponding to a certain design frequency
 Maximum probable flood (MPF)
MPF is the flood that may be expected from the most sever combination of
meteorological and hydrological conditions that is reasonable possible in the region.
The MPF is used in situation where the failure of the structure would result in loss of
life and catastrophic damage and as such complete security from potential flood sought.
 Standard project flood (SPF)

It is the flood that can be expected from the most sever combination of metrological and
hydrological conditions that are reasonably characteristics of the region but excluding
extremely rare events. Typically the SPF is about 40% -60% of the PMF for the same
drainage basin. SPF is often used where the failure of the structure would cause less
sever damages.
 Flood corresponding to a certain desired frequency

The design flood is sometime taken as flood corresponding to certain desired frequency
of occurrence depending up on economic factors and other practical consideration.
 Selection of design flood

For this particular project considering the magnitude, loss of life, property damage and
economic considerations it is found to be convenient to use a design flood
corresponding to a recurrence interval of 100 years.
Hence using GEV distribution the quintile estimate is given below:
XT =
XT = 181.2 +
XT = 706.4m3/s
2.11 Risk and Reliability

The design of a hydraulic structure faces a nagging doubt about the risk of failure of
structures. This is because of the estimation of the hydrologic design events such as
design flood involves a natural or in built uncertainty and as such a hydraulic risk of
failure.
Risk ( ) the probability of occurrence of an event (X≥XT) at least once over a period
of n years, where n is the useful life of the structure.
Reliability (Re) is the probability of non occurrence of the event (X≤XT) in n years.
= 1- (1- P)n
= 1- (1- )n
Re = 1-

Re = (1- )
Where R = risk
Re = reliability
P = probability of event (X≥XT) = 1/T
T = return period
n = life of the structure
Since the use full life of 50 years and a return period of 100 years are considered
= 1-
= 39.5%
Re = 1-
= 1-0.395
= 0.605
Re = 60.5%
Thus the possible risk of floods damage by flood magnitude exceeding the 100 year
frequency in the assumed 100 year life of the weir is about 39.5 % with a reliability
confidence of 60.5 % .This weir may fail if the flood magnitude greater than the design
flood occurs within the life timed of the weir.

CHAPTER THREE
DIVERSION WEIR
3.1 General
A diversion weir is a structure constructed across a river for the purpose of rising water
level in the river so that , it can be diverted into off taking tunnel. Diversion weir is
generally constructed on Perennials Rivers that have adequate flow throughout the year
and therefore there is no necessity of crating a storage reservoir.
A diversion weir must differentiate from a storage work or a dam. A dam constructed
on the river for the purpose of creating a large storage reservoir. The storage works are
required for the storage of water on a non- perennials river or on a river with inadequate
flow throughout the year. On the other hand, in diversion works, there is very little
storage (poundage) if any.
A diversion weir serves the following function.
 It raises the water level on its upstream side.

 It crates a small pond on its upstream side.

 It helps in controlling the short-term fluctuations.
3.2 Selection of Weir Site

Once a particular river selected for locating the diversion weir, next step is to select
actual site in that river. The site for the diversion weir should be selected after
considering the following points.
Ι. Economic consideration
Particular site selected for the construction of diversion weir should be preferably
narrow, and straight with high non-submersible banks. To reduce the cost of the
structure, construction materials should be available in large quantity in close proximity
of the site.
II. Structural consideration

The major factors that should take under structural consideration are stability of the
riverbank and dimensions of the structure. Riverbanks are usually unstable in shallow
reaches where its cross-section is wide. This implies that a larger and costlier structure
needed in this site than when it built on a narrow and a more stable section. In a
shallow, wide section river, where the flows is sluggish, the velocity is less than that in
smaller cross-section and hence there is a higher rate of silt accumulation in the
shallower section. This latter fact of course affects the performance of the structure and
increases its maintenance cost. As far as possible, the weir should align at right angle to
the direction of flow of the river. Such alignment ensures the minimum length of the
weir and good discharge capacity.
III. Geology and foundation of the weir site

While selecting the diversion weir site, geological characteristics, rock type and
thickness of strata, inclination of the bedding planes, existing faults and fissures etc

affect the selection. Also it is better to have foundation with high bearing capacity,
resisting to erosion, and resistance to percolation.
For the selected weir site at the location approximately 07 055’00’’N and 37023’22’’E
some 19Km downstream of GG-I, we have narrow and straight reach, stable river
banks, the weir aligned at right angle so that it has minimum length and sufficient
discharge capacity and good foundation condition. Hence, the site selected for
construction of weir is feasible.
3.3 Design of weir

General design consideration of weir
The determination of flow condition upstream and downstream of the weir at different
flow rate and dimension different part of the structure accordingly is greatly affected by
the geometry of the weir. Moreover, the geometry of the weir directly affects the design
and economy of the structure. Some important features of the weir and their effects on
the design given as follows:
3.3.1 Crest elevation
The crest elevation of the weir affects the water profile in two ways.
1. The heights of the crest affect the discharge coefficient and consequently the
water head above the weir.
2. The height of the weir affects the slope, location of jump and the design of
the apron.
In this particular project the height of the diversion weirs fixed in such away that the
maximum water level ,including the surcharged head, should be less than the minimum
tail water level of the upstream power plant (Gilgel Gibe I power house ),i.e. less than
1431.1 m a.s.l. The surcharge (the water head above crest) is 3:0m. Therefore, the crest
level of the diversion weir fixed at elevation 1428m a.s.l. Hence, the height of the
diversion weir is 15m.
3.3.2 Length of the weir crest

Length of the weir depends on the physical features of the given site.
A weir with long crest gives a small discharge per unit length and hence the
required energy dissipation per meter of the crest is smaller than what is needed
for a short crest length.
Constructing a weir longer than the river width causes formation of islands at
upstream side of the weir. As a result, the tunnels inlet can be cut off from the
river flow. The formation of the islands upstream of the weir reduces the
effective length of the crust.
From the flow master program the value of crest length for the corresponding elevation
of 1428m.a.m.s.l is about 56.16 m. However, the cross section of the river at the weir
axis shows the slope of the left abutment is unstable. This unstable section has to be
removed by excavation in order to maintain a stable slope, as a result the crest length
increased from 56.16 to 74m.
Water profile at the weir site

I. Water surface at down stream of the weir
The profile is required to:
 carry out the stability analysis of the weir.
 design the weir structure
 design the downstream vertical wall and protection works down stream of
the weir.
II. Water surface at up stream of the weir

Water profile upstream of the weir needs to be known for two purposes.
a. To determine the height of the riverbanks up stream of the weir.
b. To find out whether the water surface is high enough to deliver the required
discharge to the off take tunnel.
3.3.3 Bottom width

Bottom width of the weir obtained from its geometry i.e.;

 For the vertical portion or first part of the weir.
B= 0.282Hd
B = 0.282*3.0m where Hd =3.0m
B = 0.846m
 For the curved portion with equations, Y =
X =5.00m and y = 3.899m.

 For the straight sloping surface with slope 0.7:1
D = Vertical * slope
= 9.266 * 0.7 = 6.4862m.
 For the bucket
Sin = E/R
E = R sin where =60 and R = H/4
E = 15/4 *sin 60 = 3.247m
Total bottom width of the weir is:
BTotal = B+C+D+E
BTotal = 0.846+5+6.4862 +3.247
BTotal =15.5792m ≈ 15.6m

Figure 3.1 The Cross Section of the Weir
3.4 Spillway
3.4.1 General
Spillway is a structure constructed on the weir to dispose of surplus waters from the
reservoir in to the down stream river reach. Spillways are providing for all hydraulic
structures as a safety measure against over topping and the consequent damages and
failure. A spillway acts as a safety valve for the structure, because as soon as the water
level in the reservoir rise above a predetermined level, excess water is discharge safely
into the down stream river reach, and thus the dam is prevent from failure.
Consideration for spillway design

Major considerations that should under take for spillway design are as follow;
I. The spillway must have adequate discharge capacity to pass the
maximum design flood.

II. It must be hydro dynamically and structurally safe and must not give
way under worst and variable loading conditions.
III. Its surface should be erosion resistant
IV. It must be located that the spillway discharge does not erode or
undermine the down stream toe of the dam.
V. It provided with some arrangements for effective disposal of the
energy of the falling water.
3.4.2 Types of spillway

Nearly all spillways fall in to one of the six types or are made up of combination of
them. The six commonly known types are;
I. Over fall or straight drop
II. Over flow or Ogee
III. Side channel spillway
IV. Shaft spillway
V. Chute spillway
VI. Siphon spillway
For this particular project, an Ogee type over flow spillway is selected, because in
comparison to others, it is very common in gravity dam used on valleys where the width
of the river is sufficient to provide the required crest length and the riverbed below can
be protected from scour at moderate cost.
3.4.3 Over Flow (Ogee Spillway)

An Ogee shaped or Over flow spillway is the most commonly used spillway because of
its practically and economy of the structure. It is widely used with gravity dam, arch
dam and butters dam. In Over fall spillway water drops vertically as a free jet clear from
the down stream face, where as in the case of an Ogee shaped spill way, the water
flowing over the crest is guided smoothly and is made to glide over the down stream
face of spillway.

The shape of the crest of Ogee spillway generally made to conform closely to the
profile of the lower surface of nappe where the head over the highest point of nappe is
equal to the design head. At the design head, the water flowing over the crest of the
spillway always remains inconstant with the surface of the spillway as it glides over it.
For this shape, no negative pressure will develop on the spillway surface at the design
head.
However, when the head is greater than the design head the overflowing water tend to
break contact with the spillway surface and separation zone is formed. In this case a
negative or suction pressure occurs. On the other hand, if the head is less than the
design head, the water flowing over the crest of the spillway remains in contact with the
surface of spillway and positive hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the flowing water.
This is because the nappe tends to be depressed and crates a back water effect.
3.4.4 Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of cavities in a region of liquid
where the pressure has reduced to that of vapor pressure of the liquid. When the cavities
collapse near a fluid way surface extremely high local pressure and stress in the
waterway surface result and cause pitting and erosion of the surface. It is an important
factor which must be considered in the design of high velocity outlet works where the
water way alignment and every surface of discontinuity are potential source of
producing cavitations and cavitations damage. In spillway designs, we certainly should
be very worry of cavitations problems at velocity exceeding 35 m/s, even if the spillway
surface is smooth and well constructed.
However, in this particular project the maximum velocity of water over spillway
surfaces is 18.4m/s, so there is no need of providing artificial aeration to reduce the
pressure causing cavitations problem.
3.4.5 Design of Ogee Spillway

Available data for the design of ogee spillway are:
Spill way crest level = 1428ma.s.l.

Design discharge = 706 m3/s.

River bed level = 1413 m a.s.l
The spillway consists of 6 span of 10 m Clear width each. The thickness of each
spillway pier may assume to be 2.0m.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The discharge passing over the Ogee spillway is given by:
Q = C*Le*He 3/2
Where:Q = discharge
Le = effective length of the spillway crest.
C = coefficient of discharge
He = total head over the crest including the velocity head.
Coefficient of discharge may be taken as 2.2 and L ≈ Le = clear water way
Le= 6* 10
=60m then
Q = C. Le. He 3/2
706 = 2.2*60. He 3/2
He3/2 = 706/2.2*60 =4.457
He = 3.058 m say 3.0m
Correction Coefficients of Discharge
Correction due to height of weir
Since H/Hd > 1.33, the velocities of approach have a negligible effect up on ht
discharge, and as such, Hd becomes equal to He, i.e.
He /He ≈ 1.0
In such a case the coefficient of discharge,
C = Cd has been found to be 2.2
Correction due to upstream slope
Up stream slope correction factor is required when the up stream face is sloping at some
angle. However, for our case we provide up stem vertical face, hence no need to
upstream sloping correction.

Correction due to the up stream apron interference and submergence effect

Hd + H/He = 3.0 +15/3.0
Hd + H/He = 6.0 >1.7
Since He +H/He >>1.7, the discharge coefficient is not affected by tail water condition.
Effective Length of Spillway (Le)

Le=L-2(Kp*N+Ka]*He
Where,
L = the net clear length of he spillway crest
Kp = pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient
N =number of piers
He = total design head on the crest including velocity head.
Assuming that 900 cut water nose piers and rounded abutment, we have
Kp = 0.01
Ka = 0.1
N=6
Le = L – 2[Kp*N + Ka]*He
= 60-2* /0.01*6+0.1]*3.0
Le = 59.04m
Hence Q = c* Le* He 3/2
Q =2.2 *59.04*He3/2
He = 3.091m (say 3.0m)
The velocity head Ha can also calculated as follows.

Velocity of approach
Va =
Va = 0.5447m/s
 Ha = va2/2g = 0.5442/2*981
Ha= 0.015m

This is very small and therefore it is neglect.

Hence the crest profile will be designed for Hd = 3.0 (by neglecting the velocity head).
3.4.6 Design of Crest Profile

Several standard Ogee shaped have been developed by U.S. army corps of engineers at
their waterways experimental station (WES). Such shapes are known as “WES
standards spillway”.
The downstream profile can be represented by the equation.
Xn=K* *Y
Where,
(X, Y) – are the coordinates of the points on the crest profile with origin at the
highest point of the apex of the crest.
Hd – is the design head including the velocity head.
K and n – are constants depend on slope of the upstream face of the spillway.
The values of k and n are given as follows:
Slope of the upstream face of spillway K n
Vertical 2.0 1.85

1:3 (1H:3V) 1.936 1.836
1.939 1.81
1:1 (1H:1 V)
For this particular project, an overflow ogee spillway having a vertical upstream face is
selected. Thus, the down stream crests profile given by the equation.
X 1.85 = 2* Hd0.85 *Y
Where, K = 2.0 and n = 1.85 (from the above table)
Before determining the various coordinates of the downstream profile, the point at
which the parabolic curvature ends should be determined. This curved profile of the

crest section is continued till it meets tangentially the straight sloping surface of the
downstream face of the over flow weir. The slope of the downstream face of the over
flow weir usually varies in the range of 0.6:1 to 0.8:1
For this project a slope of 0.7:1 is taken,

i.e. dy/dx = 1.00/0.70
From
X 1.85 = 2.0*Hd 0.85 *Y
Y= , Where Hd = 3.0m
Y= =
X = 5.00 m.
The parabolic curvature is ended at x= 5.00m from the apex of the crest. The
coordinate from
x = 0 to x = 5.00 are solved as follows.
Table 3.1 Coordinates of Downstream Profile of the Weir
X(m) Y = 0, 1965 X 1.85

0 0
0.50 0.0545
1.00 0.1965
1.50 0.4161
2.00 0.7085

2.50 1.0705
3.00 1.5000
3.50 1.9950
4.00 2.5540
4.50 3.1759
5.00 3.859
At the end of straight sloping surface, a curved circular surface, called bucket provided.
This circular curved is drawn with a radius equal to H/4 = 15/4 = 3.75m at an angle of
600 from the vertical.
3.5 Energy Dissipation

Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion
of the entire potential energy to the kinetic energy. If the water flowing with such a high
velocity discharged directly into the channel down steam, it is liable to cause a series
scour of the bed of channel immediately below the toe of the weir. If the scours not
properly controlled, it may extend backward and may endanger the structure. In order to
protect the channel bed against scour, the energy of this flowing water has to be
destroyed before the water is discharged into the down stream channel.
In general, the kinetic energy of this super critical flow can dissipate in two ways.
i. Converting supercritical flow into sub critical flow by hydraulic jump.
ii. Directing the flow of water in to air and then make falls away from the toe of
the structure. The energy dissipated by the aeration of jet and impact of
water on the riverbed. However, some scour will take place, but it is too far
away from the weir to endanger it.
Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water, which occurs where changes
from supper critical flow state to the sub critical flow state and it is very effective means
of energy dissipation.
3.5.1 Design of Energy Dissipation

Construction of weir elevates the total energy line upstream of the structure. The
difference between the upstream and downstream energy grade line becomes very high.
Therefore, the energy must dissipate before it reaches the natural river course, otherwise
it causes damage to the banks and downstream of the apron. The flow over the weir is in
a supercritical state that, the energy tends to dissipate through a hydraulic jump
downstream of the weir. To control location of jump energy dissipater should be
introduce.
3.5.2 Selection of Energy Dissipation

There are three alternatives to select the type of energy dissipaters. The tail water depth
(y3) and the cross-section govern the choice of these energy dissipaters of the hydraulic
jump. i.e. post jump depth (y2).
These alternatives explained as follows.
Case –I
It represents a case in which the tail water (y3) is equal to the sequent depth (y2). In this
case the jump occurs at the toe of spill way at all discharges. For scouring protection
purposes, a simple concrete apron is generally sufficient to provide in the region of
hydraulic jump. In practices this conditions might not be fulfilled since a little
difference. Between the actual and assumed values of the hydraulic properties of
structure and the river and assumed values of the hydraulic properties of structure and
the river will cause the jump to move from its calculated position. Consequently some
factor of safety should be considered to control the position of the jump.
Case- II
In this case the tail water depth (Y3) is lower than depth (Y2) for all discharges. Such a
condition occurs when the tail water is carried away quickly due to a rapid or a fall

some where on the down stream of the spillway. In this case, the jump will be located at
a point in the down stream of the toe of the spillway. This problem can be solved by:
I. Provision of a sloping apron below the river bed.
II. Construction of a low secondary weir
III. Provision of ski jump bucket.
Case- III
In this case the tail water depth (Y3) is grater than sequent depth (Y2) for all discharges.
Theirs condition usually occurs when the river cross section on the down stream of the
spillway is narrow and therefore the tail water back up.
The hydraulic jump in this case is located up stream of the toe on the spillway face and
it might be drowned /submerged.
This problem can be solved by:
I. By constructing a sloping apron above the river bed.
II. By providing a roller bucket type of energy dissipater.
Determination of sequent depth (Y2)
For Q =706 m3/s
Le = 60.00m
H = 15.0m
Hd = 3.0m
q = Q/L = 706/60 = 11.767 m3/s/m

Figure 3.2 Energy grade line
Using energy equation

H+Hd = Y1+V12/2G
15+3 = Y1 +q2/2gY12
18 = Y1+11.7672/2*9.81*Y12
18 *y12 = Y1 3+7.0568
Y1 =0.637m
And,
Y2 = - +
Y2 = -0.637 +
Y2 = 6.34m
Determination of Tail Water Elevation

To determine the tail water depth, the rating curve at the location of the weir needs to be
known. The curve is usually constructed from the river stage and discharge
measurement records. But this data is not available at the location of the weir; therefore
a theoretical rating curve should be constructed. The following steps can be taken to
draw a tail water rating curve for the design purpose.
I. Determination of the cross-section of the river at the weir site.

II. Assume different water depths in the river, and determine the wetted area
and wetted perimeter corresponding to each depth.
III. For each depth determine the flow velocity and discharge by using
manning equation [v = 1/n R 2/3s1/2]
IV. Plot the assumed depths and corresponding discharges to present the tail
water rating curve which is used to determine the water depth for known
values of the river discharge.
From the tail water rating curve give for Q = 706 m 3/s the corresponding value of tail
water depth Y3 is equal to 6.3m. Hence y2≈ y3 therefore, case I is to be considered for
the selection of energy dissipater i.e. provision of apron.
3.6 Design of Apron

Downstream apron have two functions. It lengthens the path of percolation in the
foundation and also provide a basin where the energy of over flowing water may be
safely dissipated.
Determination of Apron Length

Design of apron depends on the value of found number (F 1), the post jump depth (Y2)
and the tail water depth (Y3).
Design Procedure
1. Determine the pre and post hydraulic jump of water depth.

2. Determine the pre- jump velocity (V1) and F1

3. From figure select a suitable value of L/Y2 for F1
Where,
L = apron length
Y1 = 0.637m
Y2 = 6.34m
F1 =V1/ Where, V1 = q/Y1 = 11.767 /0.637m
V1 = 18.472 m/s
F1 = 18.472/
F1 = 7.3896
The value of L/Y2 corresponding to F1 is 6.2 i.e.
L/Y2 =6.2
L/6.34 = 6.2
L = 39.308m, by considering some safety factor it is taken to be L = 40.0m.
Apron Thickness
Apron of concrete blocks are placed immediately down stream of the weir. Its thickness
may be designed by using Bligh’s creep theory for pervious foundation and by
considering dynamic condition. Also the thickness of apron is recommended by various
investigators, Spring recommended a thickness of about 0.9m, Gales recommended a
thickness varying from 1.35m to1.2m for discharge from 7000 to 70000m 3/s (R.S.
Varshney), and for concrete block apron 3ft to 4ft (0.91 to 1.219m) depth are
recommended (Hand book of applied hydraulics).For this particular project average of
1.0m thick down stream apron is provided.
3.7 Cutoff
Concrete cutoff may be used under aprons or under the over flow sections. They
constructed by the trenching with a machine. A concrete cutoff is probably the best type
of wall for preventing under seepage. For this particular project since there is good
foundation and no problem of seepage, small reinforced cut off (groove) with 1m depth
and 0.5 m width is provided for the structural stability (sliding resistance) of the weir.

Design of Side Wall

The side wall usually provided to control the erosion on down stream area due to the
spillway.
H=datVmax. + Vm2/2g +Freeboard
Where
Freeboard =0.61+0.04*Vm* dm1/3
Vm=mean velocity
dm=mean depth (m)
Vm=V1+V2
2
Where, V1= =11.76/.637 =18.4m/s
V2=q/Y2=11.76/6.347=1.85m/s
Vm=18.4+1.85 =10.12m/s
2
Dm=0.637+6.347 =3.492
2
Freeboard=0.61+.04*Vm*dm1/3
=0.61+.04*10.12*3.492 1/3
=1.22m
H=datVmax. +Vm2/2g +Freeboard
=0.637+10.12 2/2*9.81+1.22
=7.0m of wall provided.
Bridge Over the Weir

Bridge over the weir is constructed to connect the left and right abetments, to make the
repair and maintenance easy and as access road. The bridge for this particular project is
composed of 12.0m spans supported by the spillway piers.

3.8 Structural Analysis of Diversion Weir

All external forces acting on a weir are the result of flowing water in the river on which
the structural is constructed. A typical force system of a weir consists of the following
components.
I. static water pressure of the surface water
II. up lift water pressure
III. Friction force at the base which developed to balance the
horizontal force.
IV. Weight of the weir.
Static Water Pressure of the Surface of Weir
The water pressure acts on the upstream and down stream faces of the weir. The water
pressure on the up stream face is the main destabilizing (over turning) force acting on a
weir. The tail water pressure helps in the stability.
Figure 3.3 Pressure Distribution Diagram

Upstream face water pressure
The horizontal components force due to water pressure per unit length of the weir is
given by
PH = γ [Hd+H2/2] + Ha] (H2-Hd)

Where Ha = approaching velocity head=
Hd = 3.0 m
H2 = H+Hd Where, H = height of the weir
Ha =va2/2g, Va = 0.467 m/s
Ha = 0.4672/2*9.81 = 0.0111m
This value is very small and it is neglected.
PH = γ*[Hd+H2/2 +Ha] *[H2 –Hd] where Ha ≈ 0

PH = γ*[HD+H2] *[H2-Hd]
PH = 9.81 [3+18]/2 * [18-3]
PH = 1545.075kn
The total force PH acts at a height of Z above the bed given by:
Z = 1/3 [H2-H1] [H2+2Hd+3Ha / [H2+H1] +2
Z = 1/3 [18-3] [18+2*3/18+3]
Z = 5.7143 m
Water Pressure at Down Stream of the Weir

It has been assumed that the tail water is held away from the weir due to hydraulic jump
and therefore the hydraulic pressure due to tail water depth is not consider
Up Lift Pressure
Water enters in to the body of the weir through the pores, cracks and fissures within the
body of the weir, at interface between the weir and within the foundation. Because the
water is under pressure it creates up lift pressure on the body of the weir .The pressure
acts in all directions but the pressure acting up ward is important for the design of weir,
as it reduce the effective weight of the weir. The magnitude of the up lift pressure
depends up on the character of foundation used in construction, grout curtains, the drain
and the method used in construction. A force due to up lift pressure requires the

determination of the area on which it acts and intensity of up lift pressure at various
points.
I. Area Factor
The up lift pressure generally does not occur on the entire horizontal area because, in
some portions there are no pores in which water can enter. The function of the total area
on which the up lift pressure acts is the area factor. A latest investigation shows that the
area factor for concrete and impervious foundation is unity.
II. Intensity of Uplift Pressure

The up lift pressure at any point depends up on the depth of water at the point. The
pressure variation along the base is assumed to be linear between the up stream and
downs stream faces.
Total uplift pressure on the base of the weir,

U = average pressure intensity * area
U=
Where,
B = the base width of the weir =15.6m
H = the depth of water on the u/s side =15m
H’= the depth of water on the D/s side = 0.637m
U=
= 9.81 ( ) * (1*15.6)
= 1196.5119KN
And it acts through the centroid of the trapezoid 1-2-3-5
For convenience, the up lift pressure diagram is divided in at a rectangle 1-2-3-4 and
triangle 1-4-5. Thus the up lift becomes;

U = U1+U2 =
U = 9.81 * 0.637m * 15.6 + ½ * 9.81 * (15-0.637)*15.6

U = 1196.5119KN
Where, U1 and U2 are the uplift pressure to rectangle 1-2-3-4 and triangle 1-4-5
respectively.
The line of action of U1 and U2 are at a distance of B/2 and 2B/3 from the toe.
i.e. B/2 = 7.8m
2B/3 = 10.4m
General Stability Consideration

a) Failure Due to Sliding
The structure may slide in the flow direction if there is enough grip between the base
and foundation. To prevent this happening, the following condition should be fulfilled.
Total horizontal external force <
Total vertical external force
Where, the value of between concrete and good rock generally varies between 0.65
and 0.75.
 Water pressure
PH = 1545.075 KN
 Weight of the weir
W = 0.5*15*15.6*24+1*15.6*24 +1*40*24
W = 4142 4 KN
 Up lift pressure
U = 1196.5119KN ……….upward
V = 4142.4KN -1196.5119KN
= 2945.888KN
F.S = = 0.524 < 0.7 ……..OK!
Therefore, the structure is safe against sliding!

b) Frailer Due to Overstress

In order to avoid lifting up the structure’s bed and tension occurrence at the base, the
resultant force must pass through middle third of the base of the structure. i.e.
Eccentricity, e < B/6
e=
X=
Where,
M = sum of all moments about the toe
VF = sum of all vertical force
X = distance of resultant of the force
B = width of the weir base
W1 = 2808 KN acting at 2/3* B =2/3 * 15.6 = 10.4m

W2 = 374.4kN acting at 7.8m
U1 = 97.48 acting at 7.8 m
U2 = 1099.023 acting at 10.4 m all are from the toe of the weir
PH = 1545.075KN acting at 5.714m above the base of the weir
M = 2808 * 10.4 + 374.4*7.8 – 97.48 * 7.8 – 1099.023*10.4-1545.075 * 5.7143
M = 11104.31kN-m
VT =3182.4 KN – 1196.5119KN = 1985.888KN.
X= = 5.59m
e=
= 2.6m
So, the structure is safe against overstress problem.

C. Failure Due to Overturning

For a structure to remain stable, the moments which tend to topple it must be equal to
the moments which balance it.
The factor of safety against over turning (F.S) is defined as the ratio of the sum of the
stabilizing moment (resisting moment) to that of the over turning moment about the toe.
Usually a safety factor of a bout 1.5 to 2 is applied.
F.s =
Mstabilizing = 2808*10.4 + 374.4*7.8 = 32123.52 KNm

Moverturning = 1545.075 * 5.714 + 1099.028*10.4+97.484*7.8
=21018.82KN-m
F.s =
F.s = 1.5283 > 1.5

Therefore, there is no problem of overturning.
3.9 Foundation Treatment

The material underlying the base of a weir (the foundation of weir) must be strong
enough and capable to withstand foundation pressure excreted on it under various
conditions of loading. The rock in actual practice usually has structural and lithotomical
defects. It is therefore necessary to have through geological investigation to determine
the suitability of the foundation for the weir. Defects, if any, should be located in the
rock and suitable measures can be taken.
Before starting the construction of the weir the rock surface is suitably dressed. It
consists of removing the entire loose rock and overburden up to the some bed rock
should be carried out can equally so as not damage the bed rock.

Foundation treatment should be sufficient enough to minimize leakage, prevention of

piping, limited settlement and sufficient friction development between abutment and
foundation to ensure sliding problem.
Foundation grouting is generally required during the construction of hydraulic

structures so as to improve the characteristics of foundation materials and to reduce the
uplift pressure. The foundation grouting is usually of two types.
1. consolidation grouting
2. curtain grouting
The choice of the method depends up on the practicality of the method for a particular
job. The method of grouting in large measure depends up on the treatment to be given
to the foundation material. This in turn will depend on the geological features. For
diversion weirs a grouting of small depth i.e. consolidation grouting is recommend.
3.10 Consolidation Grouting

Consolidation grouting is done to improve the characteristics of the foundation rock and
to increase its strength. It is done on the entire base area of the weir. Shallow holes are
drilled through the foundation rock usually on a gird pattern. The depth of these holes is
usually between 3m to 15m. The spacing of the primary holes is kept large, about 12m
to 30m. After the grouting of these holes, intermediate secondary holes are drilled and
grouted. If necessary tertiary holes are drilled after wards between the secondary holes
and grouted.
Prior to the commencement of grouting of wholes, all the holes washed with alternate
use of water and air to remove all loose materials and drill cutting etc. The holes are
then tested with water under pressure to check the water tightness of the rock or to
locate seams or other openings in the rock, which are to be plugged.
The consistency of the grout required depends up on the water tightness of the rock. The
ratio of cement to water in the grout is suitably adjusted. Usually the ratio varies

between 1: 3 to 1:8. The holes are generally grouted using a low pressure of 300 to 400
KN/m2 (3 to 4 kg t / cm2).
The required depth of the deepest holes depends upon the nature of the rock in the
foundation. The accurate assessment of depth can be made by water testing of holes
drilled up at various depths to determine the extents of leakage.
U.S.B.R. has suggested the following criteria.
d = 0.33 h + C
Where: d = depth of the hole in m
h = height of the weir in m
C = constant varies from 7.5 to 25
Therefore, for this particular project the required average depth of hole for grouting is:
d = 0.33*15 + 10
d = 15m
CHAPTER FOUR
DIVERSION DURING CONSTRUCTION
4.1 General
Construction of a weir in a river channel requires that the site should be dry during
construction. So diversion of stream flow around or through the weir site during
construction period is essential.

Diversion Requirements
The selection of the most appropriate scheme for handling the flow of the stream during
construction is important to the secure economy in the cost of the weir. The required
area for weir should satisfy the following criteria.
The work in progress should be protected from expected flood during

construction period
A safe working should be maintained during construction
The economy in the cost of the weir should be secured.
The cost between the diversion facilities and the amount of risk should be
compromised.
Therefore the serious potential flood damage to the work in progress is minimized at
minimum of expense during diversion work.
4.2 Selection of Diversion Flood

In selecting the flood to be used in the diversion design, consideration should be given
to the following points.
 How long the work will be under construction
 The cost of possible damage to work completed or still under construction if it
is flooded.
 The cost of delay to completion of the work, including the cost of forcing the
contractor’s equipments to remain idle while the flood damage is being
repaired.
 The safety of workmen and possibly the safety of downstream inhabitants in
case of failure of diversion works resulted due to unexpected flooding.
Usually, it is not economically feasible to plan on diverting the largest flood that has
occurred or may be expected to occur at the site, and consequently some lesser
requirement must be decided up on. This, therefore, brings up the question as to how
much risk is involved in the diversion scheme under consideration.

For Gilgel Gibe II project, the diversion flood is designed for 15% acceptable risk and
the construction period for the weir is 4 years. Thus the return period for this risk is
computed as ;
R =1-(1-P)n =1-(1-1/T)n
0.15 =1-(1-1/T)4
T = 25 years
Therefore, the diversion work is designed for the return period of 25 year and
acceptable risk of 15%.
4.3 Coffer Dam

A coffer dam is a temporary structure or barrier used to divert the stream or to enclose
an area during construction. The design of an adequate coffer dam involves the problem
of construction economics. Generally, coffer dams are constructed of materials
available at the site. For the case of Gilgel Gibe-II, the coffer dams are foreseen as
rocklike obtained from excavation works in the diversion weir area.
During filling the compactor will increase the water tightness of the materials. However
to provide better water tightness the upstream face has to be provided with clay. To
prevent erosion the down stream slope is provided with larger materials. The design
considerations of which closely follow those for permanent small dams of the same
type.
4.4 Design of Temporary Diversion Work

Before starting the construction of the weir the river water has to be diverted away from
the site so that the construction can be done in dry. If the geologic and topographic
conditions are favorable, a diversion tunnel may be constructed in either of the
abutments to divert the entire river flow around the dam site.

Thus the diversion tunnel should be capable of carrying a discharge selected by the
frequency analysis for a reasonable risk in view of the hazard involved. The 25 year
return period flood is calculated as follows.
Q25 =
Where , = 80.8
=181.2
K= - 0.14173
Q25 = 520.82m3/s
But for diverting the design flow through a tunnel requires 10.6m diameter. The height
of the coffer dam required to divert the water through this diameter tunnel not much less
than the actual structure. Hence the best way to divert the water is using concrete
culvert through the bottom of the diversion weir. Two 3.5 height by 4.5 wide
rectangular 120m long concrete culverts are used to pass the 25 year return period flood
which is 580.2m3/s.
Maximum Flow Discharge through Culverts

During discharge both the inlet and out let of the culvert are submerge, there fore, a full
flow occurs in the culverts.
In calculation the flow within the culvers, energy conservation is assumed between the
section immediately upstream of the culvert intake and the culvert out let section.
The energy conservation equation can be written as follows:
Where, H = total head necessary to over come the

various head loss to produce discharge.
V = velocity inside culverts
L = length of culvert

Ke = entrance loss coefficient

Kv = exited velocity head coefficient at the out let.
n = manning coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
For our particular project, the manning coefficient of 0.0125 for the concrete, ke = 0.5
and kv = 1.1 is assumed. For the assumed maximum flood, v =8.4 m/s
= 1.8 + 1.36 + 3.95

H = 7.11
By adding to the above height 1.5 m of free board, a minimum coffer dam height
obtained is 8.5 m
During the plant operation or after the completion of dam construction, one of the
culvert which is equipped with sliding gate performs the function of under sluice in
order to flush the sediment, where as the other will be close with concrete stop log at the
end of construction.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONVEYANCE STRUCTURE
5.1 Intake Structure
5.1.1General
An intake is a structure constructed at the entrance of a power canal or tunnel or pipe
through which the flow is diverted from the source such as a river or reservoir. It is an

essential component of hydropower scheme and provided as an integral part or in

isolation from the diversion weir or dam.
The main functions of in lakes are:

 To control flow of water into the conveyance system. The control is achieved
through agate or a value.
 To provide smooth, easy and vortex (turbulence) free entry of water in the
conveyance system and helps to minimize head loss. This can be also achieved
through providing bell mouth shape entrance.
 To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as boulders, logs, tree
branches etc. provision of trash rack at the entrance achieves this function
 To exclude heavy sediment load of river from interning the conveyance system.
Special device such as silt traps& silt excluders are use to control and trap the
silt.
5.1.2 Types of Intakes
Intakes are conveniently classified into the following types depending on the power
plant type and it’s lay out
1. Run-off-river intake
2. Canal intake
3. Dam intake
4. Tower intake
5. Tunnel intake
6. Shaft intake
5.1.3 Selection of Intake

The selection of type of intake structure depends up on the type of power plant and it’s
lay out. For Gilgel Gibe II project the water is conveyed through a tunnel until the surge
tank and a large slope penstock will take the water to the turbines. Thus, for this
particular project tunnel intake is preferably selected.

In order to attain the required discharge capacity the intake must be placed sufficiently
below reservoir operating level and high enough to prevent entry of sediment.
5.1.4 Design of Bell Mouth Entry

Entry from the intake to the tunnel requires transition to reduce head loss due to
separation of flow. A bell mouth entry is much better and superior to any other type,
and extra cost involved in shaping the entrance is usually justified.
For circular tunnel the bell mouth shape can be achieved by an equation given by
Douma.
The bell mouth has an elliptical shape with an equation;
4X2+44.4Y2=D2 Where, D is the diameter of tunnel

Therefore, equation of the bell mouth can be written as:
4X2+44.4Y2=62
4X2+44.4Y2=36
Taking some coordinate points for bellmouth entry
Table 5.1 Coordinates of Bellmouth Entry
X -Coordinate Y -Coordinate
0.0 0.900
0.2 0.895
0.4 0.892
0.6 0.876
0.8 0.860
1.0 0.840

Figure 5.1 Shape of Bellmouth Entry
5.1.5 Trash Rack

The entrance of intakes is usually provided with a trash rack to prevent entry of derbies
and floating materials.
Design of Trash Rack

I. Spacing
Bars on the trash rack before the inlet to the penstock should be spaced no closer than is
necessary to remove derbies which might be detrimental for the turbines operation. For
the case of Francis turbines, the spacing between bars should not exceed the distance
between the runner vanes and it is usually in the range 10cm to 30 cm. For this
particular project it is taken as 15 cm.
II. Permissible Velocity through Trash Rack

The gross area of the rack needed depends on the velocity which can allow through
them. The inlet trash rack should be sufficient to cover the inlet area which is greater
than the area of the tunnel mouth. The velocity in the trash rack should be sufficiently
low to avoid high head loss and vibration of the rack, and should be sufficiently high to
avoid large trash rack cross section.
According to Mosony’s formula, velocity which eliminates eddies and vortex is taken
for this particular project
V=0.075
Where, H = maximum head above the trash rack

= normal water level – elevation of center ling of the gate

=1428m-1420m
=8m
V=0.075*
=0.94m/s
III. Bar Thickness
Thickness of bar should be between 0.65 cm and 2.5 cm. A bar thickness of 1.2 cm is
used for this particular project.
IV. Length of Rack Bar

The maximum length of rack bars between lateral supports of stiffeners is limited by the
vibration characteristics related to bars thickness and velocity through the bars.
According to the table based on curves given by Davis for velocity 0.94 m/sec and
thickness of bars 1.2 cm, the unsupported length of bar will be 95cm. Therefore, let the
bars be supported at interval of 90 cm.
V. Trash Rack Inclination

The trash rack is usually placed vertical or nearly vertical (0 0 to 250 from the vertical).
The angle of inclination depends on the magnitude of trash which decides the racking
arrangement. Keeping the trash rack inclined is always a better practice. Therefore, for
this particular project trash rack inclination of 200 is taken.
5.1.6 Depth of Intake

The intakes should be located in such away that it ensures safe operation of intake that
means it should not be blocked by sediments and as high as possible to effect economy
in concrete constant and cost of maintenance.
According to J.B. Gardon, for the condition of no vortex at inlets the necessary
submergence depth will be given by;

Ys> 0.725*V*
Where, Ys = necessary submergence depth

V= velocity at the inlet of the tunnel
= 0.6m/s to 1.5m/s
D = diameter of the tunnel
Y> 0.725 * 1.5*
The minimum required depth of the intake for no formation of vortex is 3m, but for this
particular project the intake is fixed at a depth of 5 cm considering some factor of
safety.
5.1.7 Determination of Intake Losses

An intake loss includes entrance loss, trash rack loss and gate loss.
Entrance loss
Usually entrance loss is a loss due to sudden contraction of area of intake. The loss is
equivalent to
he =kt Vb/2g where, Kt = 0.03 for bell mouth entry
Vb = velocity at the inlets
g= acceleration due to gravity
Vb=0.075*
=0.94m/s
Therefore, he =
=0.00144m
Trash Rack Loss

There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across the trash
racks.

Among them the widely used formula is;
hr = Kr( ) 4/3 sin
Where kr = trash rack loss coefficient

= 2.4 for rectangular x-section
t = bar thickness, 1.2 cm
B = spacing between bars
Va = approaching velocity
= angle of inclination from the horizontal
hr = trash rack loss, m
Therefore trash rack loss will be;
hr =2.4* * *sin 70
=0.0037m
Gate Loss
hL = , Where Kg = 0.2
= 0.08
5.1.8 Design of Inlet Aeration

Intakes normally have bulk head gates at the in front of the control gate inside on the
down stream side. An air vent is always provided just down stream of a control gate to
provide the following functions.
 It nullity vacuumed effect, which could be created when the penstock is
drained after control gate closure.
 Intake gates operate under condition of balanced pressure on both sides of
the gate. Thus the conduit is required to be filled with water through by

pass pipe conduit. The entrapped air is therefore driven out through out the
air vent.
According to G.S. Sarkarias formula the diameter of the air vent pipe is given by;
d = 0.00578 D1.365
where, d = diameter of air vent pipe ,m
D = diameter of head race tunnel, m
Therefore,
d= 0.00578*61.365
d= 0.0667m
Hence, 67.0 mm air vent pipe is provided.
5.2 Power Tunnel

Pressure tunnels are underground conveyance structure constructed by a special
tunneling method with out disturbing the natural surface of the ground.
Generally there are two options to transport the water from its source (reservoir) to the
powerhouse. Theses are;
 to provide a pressure shaft (penstock)
 to provide a long low pressure head race tunnel, surge tank and a short pressure
shaft (penstock).
Usually the second option is adopted when the distance between the intake and the
powerhouse is long.
For Gilgel Gibe-  project, which has a distance of 6.1 km between the intake and the
power house, the second option is found to be the best choice.
5.2.1 Design of Head Race Tunnel

Longitudinal Slope

The minimum slope for a pressure tunnel is limited on the base of dewatering
requirement. The usual practice is to keep the slope of the power tunnel gentle; usually
a slope of 0.005 is adopted until the surge tanked and then steeper for the pressure shaft.
Flow Velocity
The allowable velocity through tunnel depends up on weather lined or unlined. For
concrete line tunnels 4 to 5 m/sec is often employed.
Optimum Cross-Section
The optimum cross section (diameter) of a tunnel or s shaft is one for which the sum of
tunnel construction cost and the economical loss due to the head loss is minimum.
For quick and initial estimate of diameter of pressure tunnel, the imperial formula
suggested by Fahibusch can be used as:
For concrete lined tunnel
D = 0.62 Q 0.48
Where D – diameter of tunnel
Q – Design discharge
D = 0.62*(82.16)0.48
= 5.45m (say, D=6m)
A= m2
V= m/s (Ok!)
Table 5.1 Cost optimization for pressure tunnel
Diameter,
(m) Tunnel cost M birr Lost cost in M birr Total cost in M birr
8.96 58.19 59.09
8.64 55.83 1.10 56.93
8.35 53.68 1.33 55.01
8.08 51.70 1.57 53.27
7.84 49.89 1.85 51.74
7.62 48.29 2.16 50.45
7.41 46.70 2.49 49.18
7.23 45.38 2.85 48.23
7.05 44.06 3.25 47.31
6.89 42.90 3.68 46.58

6.74 41.75 4.14 45.89

6.60 40.76 4.64 45.40
6.46 40.15 5.18 45.33
6.34 39.16 5.75 44.91
6.22 38.23 6.35 44.58
6.11 37.35 7.00 44.35
6.00 36.47 7.69 44.15
5.90 35.70 8.42 44.11
5.80 34.93 9.18 44.11
5.71 33.88 10.00 43.88
5.63 33.55 10.85 44.40
5.54 32.84 11.75 44.58
5.46 32.23 12.69 44.92
5.39 31.63 13.68 45.31
5.31 31.02 14.72 45.74
5.24 30.47 15.81 46.28
5.18 29.98 16.94 46.92
5.11 29.43 18.12 47.55
5.05 28.99 19.36 48.34
4.99 28.44 20.64 49.08
4.93 28.00 21.98 49.97
4.87 27.50 23.37 50.87
4.82 27.17 24.81 51.98
4.77 26.68 26.31 52.98
4.71 26.29 27.86 54.15
4.66 25.91 29.47 55.38
4.62 25.58 31.14 56.71
4.57 25.19 32.86 58.05

OPTIMIZATION FOR TUNNEL DIAMETER

60.00
50.00
40.00
TOTAL COST
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
TUNNEL DIAMETER
Figure 5.2 Optimum Tunnel Diameter
The optimum diameter of the power tunnel is selected to both minimize the sum of
capital construction costs and lose of energy due to head losses and also to keep the
velocity in a permissible range.
Hence for Gilgel Gibe project, an optimum diameter of 6.0m is selected for pressure
tunnel from the above cost optimization
Lining of Head Race Tunnel

A protective layer by concrete on the inner surface of the pressure tunnel is required for
structural reasons such as to resist external forces particularly when the tunnel is empty,
resisting high internal pressure, reduction in frictional resistance and reduction of
seepage loss.

The minimum concrete thickness, to provide rigidity against the water pressure can be
determined according to U.S.B.R recommendation, which is given by;
t(mm) =
Where, D = diameter of tunnel in mm
Then,
t=
= 16.25 mm
Allowing 1.5mm extra thickness for correction;
t= 16.25 + 1.5 = 17.75 mm, say t = 18mm
Therefore, 6.0m internal diameter head race tunnel and 18mm thick concrete lining is
provided.
5.3 Surge Tank

The surge tank, also called the expansion chamber is a structure which forms an
essential part of the pressure conduit conveyance system, wherever such system is long.
Surge tank may be considered essentially as a fore bay close to a machine. Their
primary purpose is protection of long pressure tunnel in medium and high head plants
against high water hammer pressure arising from sudden rejection or acceptance of
load. The surge tank converts these high frequency high pressure transient (water
hammer) in to low frequency, low pressure mass association.
5.3.1 Design of Surge Rank

The hydraulic design of a surge tank concerns with two main aspects.
1. Its height
2. Its cross-sectional area

5.3.1.1 Design of Cross-Sectional Area

The required cross sectional area of a surge tank is determined based on stability
consideration for the surge oscillation in the tank. Stability consideration of the system
were established by Thomas, stated that in order to prevent the development of
unstable oscillations the cross section of the surge tank should exceeds a certain critical
magnitude.
According to Thomas expression
As min ≥
Where, As min = minimum cross sectional area of surge tank

Vo = mean velocity in the tunnel
LT = length of a tunnel
AT = cross sectional area of a tunnel
hfo = head loss in the tunnel
Hnet = net head on the turbine
But in actual practice the cross section area of a surge tank is:
A surge = F.S *As min

Where, F.S is factor of safety and has a value of around 1.5
Based on this for Gilgel Gibe –II, the required minimum area will be:
As min ≥
Vo =
LT = 5500m
AT = 2

Head loss in the tunnel,
hf = f = 7.1m
Head loss in the penstock,
hfp = f
Total loss,
hT = hf + hfp + loss in the trash rake + loss in entry
= 7.1 + 1.785 + 0.0033 + 0.00144
= 8.89m
Hnet = 108 – 8.89
=99.11m
Therefore,
As min =
= 95.38 m2
Thanking a factor of safety of 1.5,

Asurge = 1.5*95.38
= 143.1m2
But, Asurge =
144.25 = , D = 13.5m

Therefore, for this particular project a surge tank with a diameter of 13.5m will be
provided.
5.3.1.2 Design of Height of a Surge Tank

The total height of a surge tank should be such that both the maximum upsurge and
down surge is contained within the surge tank. And the worst condition for up and down
surge must be considered.
In actual installation, frictional effect is not negligible. Jaeger has recommended the
following formula for computing up surge and down surge in the case where the friction
is taken into account.
= , for Po < 0.7
Where, Zup = maximum up surge with friction taken into account.

Zmax = maximum up surge neglecting friction
Po =
Zmax = Vo
Where, hf = friction head loss through the tunnel

LT = length of the tunnel
AT = cross sectional area of the tunnel
As = cross sectional area of a surge tank
g = acceleration due to gravity
Vo = velocity in the tunnel
Zmax = Vo where, AT = 28.27m2 and AS = 113.1m2

Zmax = 2.91
Zmax = 30.63m
Po = =
Zup = Zmax
= 30.63*
= 25.71m
Zdown = Zmax
= 30.63(-1 + 2*0.232)
= -16.42m
Therefore, the height of surge tank will be:
H = Zup + Zdown + height of live storage + 3m(for protection of air entry)
H = 25.73 +16.42 + 5 + 3
H = 50.0 m
5.4 Penstock
A penstock is high pressure pipe line between surge tank or reservoir and a turbine. In
designing of a penstock, water hammer effect must be considered
.
Factors that must be considered for the choice of material for pressure tunnel are head,
topography, and discharge. Various materials used are steel, RC, asbestos cement, PVC,
etc. But the following factors have to also be considered when deciding materials to use
for. These are required pressure, design life etc. Steel penstock become the most
common type of installation in hydropower development due to simplicity in
fabrication, strength and has long life etc. Hence considering the above criteria’s a steel
penstock is selected for this particular project.
Number of penstocks

The number of penstocks used in any particular installation can be single or multiple.
The design should strive for maximum economic solution. If the number of penstocks
increases the total weight of steel and the erection cost also increase.
The present trend is to use a single penstock. Based on this, a single penstock which has
two manifolds at the end of the penstock and valves at the beginning of each manifold
to control the flow are designed.
5.4.1 Design of penstock

The larger the diameter for a given discharge, smaller will be the head loss and greater
will be the net head available to the turbine, resulting in grater power development. On
the other hand, greater size of penstock would mean less velocity and higher capital
investment. We should choose, therefore, a size which would give least cost.
The allowable velocity for a pressure shaft which is steel lined, is in the range 5m/sec to
8m/sec.According to USBR empirical formula for economical diameter of a penstock:
V = 0.125
Where V = optimum velocity

H = max. Working head
= Gross head –head loss
=99m
V < 0.125*
< 5.5 m/s
V= =
= -------------(*)
Where

Q= design discharge
D = diameter of penstock (m)
hf = Where hf = head loss in penstock
= f= friction factor (for steel=0.02)
L = length of penstock
hf =
H net= 100.9- , and
V= =0.554
V= ------------ (**)
Equating (*) and (**)
Solving the above equation by trial and error procedure the required diameter become:
D=4.5m
Checking for the allowable velocity:
A= m2
V= = 82/15.9
= 5.16 m/s < 5.5m/s

Hence the velocity through the penstock is within the allowable limit.
5.4.2 Liner Thickness of Penstock
Under normal flow condition, the penstock is subjected to only internal hydrostatic
pressure. But when turbine gate at the end of penstock are closed suddenly, there is

sudden pressure rise known as water hammer, due to the moment of flowing water
being destroyed.
Ideally there will be, a series of pressure waves traveling back and forth over the length
of the pipe. The celerity of these pressure waves can be calculated by the formula:
C=
Where,
C =celerity of wave in m/sec
Eb = bulk modules of water = 2.1*109pa
B = modulus of elasticity of steel =2.1*1011pa
= mass density of water = 1000 kg/m3
D = internal diameter of penstock = 4.5m
t = thickness of steel linear in m
Substituting the respective values in the equation
C=
C=
Water hammer pressure for instant closure is;
Pc=
Where, Pc = water hammer pressure due to celerity

V = velocity in penstock

Pc = *
And the required liner thickness is given by the equation
t=
Where, PT = total internal pressure

r =radius of penstock in m
q = allowable hoop stress in t/m2
The total internal pressure (PT) in the penstock as a function of depth (h) below the
intake level is given by:
PT = static pressure + water hammer pressure
= h + (1428 -1420) +
The above formula related to the design of penstock thickness when the whole water
pressure is taken by penstock liner and no load is shared by the rock or concrete. But in
actual case the design of pressure conduits in under ground power house is influenced
by the available rock cover and the characteristics of the rock.
When steel liners are installed in pressure conduit it requires proportioning of internal
pressure between steel and surrounding rock.
The formula given by F.W Patterson, R.L clinch and I.W Mc Lag’s is used to
proportion the pressure taken by out side steel liner and surrounding rock to adopt an
economical steel liner thickness as show below. (R.S Varshemy).

Where:
E = young’s modulus for steel in t/m2
Ec = young’s modulus for concrete in t/m2
Er = young’s modulus for rock in t/m2
b= radius to inside of steel liner in m
c = radius of out side surrounding concrete in m
d = radius to end of radial fissures in rock in m
R = radius to point considered in m
t = thickness of steel liner
e= gap between steel liner and surrounding material in m
1/m = poison’s ration for rock
P = pressure in conduit in t/m2
= proportion of pressure taken by out side steel liner and by the rock.
The values of the above variables for this project are taken as:
t = 30mm 0.03m (assumed)
e = 3 mm 0.003m (assumed)
b = 2.25m
c = 2.25 +0.5 +0.03 = 2.8 (assuming thickness of concert =0.5m)
= poison’s ratio = 0.2
E = 21*106t/m2
Ec= 1.4 * 106 t/m2
Er = 0.75*106t/m2
Substituting the values in the above equation, the total internal pressure:

Ps =
Ps =
=482.08m
So, PT = h+8+482.08
= (h+ 490.08) t/m2
Then the proportioning of internal pressure between steel and rock will be;
Numerator
Denominator=
Therefore, the values of at various depths from the top of intake level are given
below:

Table 5.2 Proportioning of internal pressure taken by the rock

Depth from the intake level (m)
20 0.6348 -0.464 =0.1704
40 0.6348 – 0.447 =0.1879
60 0.6348 -0.431 =0.2042
80 0.6348 – 0.416 =0.2193
90 0.6348 – 0.408 = 0.2265
100 0.6348 – 0.401 =0.2334
The liner thicknesses given by:
t= where, t = thickness of the liner
P= *(h + 482.08)
r = radius of penstock =2.25m
q = max. Permissible stress = 10,000 t/m2
Table 5.3 Penstock Liner Thickness

Depth fro intake Thickness of liner Total stress in liner Theoretical stress
level (mm) assuming =0 development is liner
40 96 12,236 9,997
60 98 12,446 9,904
80 100 12,647 9,873
90 102 12,619 9,761
100 104 12,593 9,653
The maximum stress in the steel which is 9,997t/m 2 is lower than the minimum
allowable stress and therefore the penstock is safe with liner thickness shown above.
But for this particular project since the penstock length is short it is better to adopt a
uniform liner thickness 105mm.
5.5 Losses inside the Conveyance

I. Loss inside Tunnel

hlt = Where, = manning coefficient = 0.018
V= velocity in tunnel
D= diameter of tunnel
L= length of tunnel
ht =
=7.1m
II. Loss inside the Penstock
hlp =
f = manning coefficient for penstock (=0.02)

L= length of penstock
V= velocity in the tunnel
=1.78m
5.6 Design of Manifolds

Manifolds are provided when a single penstock feed a number of turbines. There are
two turbine units in this particular project to be provided with water by the manifolds,
which are installed at the end of the main penstock (bifurcated from the main penstock).
Considering the head loss in side the penstock in the same as in both pipes
hf = Q2 =

= constant
= D2=D1* -------------- (*)
Where:
Q = discharge through the penstock
Q2 = discharge through the main fold
D1 = diameter of pens
D2 = diameter of manifolds
Since there are two units of turbine for this particular project the magnitude of flow
which passes safely through each manifold will be half of the designed discharge.
i.e. Q2=
Substituting in the above equation (*)
D2=
=
=3.4m
Therefore, adopt a diameter of 3.4 for both of the manifolds which feed for each of the
two turbines.
5.7 Tail Race

The tail race is a water way in which the water from the turbine until discharged to the
downstream of the powerhouse at a suitable reach of the river. Since the power house
for Gilgel Gibe II is underground and situated some distance fro the natural river a
tunnel of allowable longitude slope should be provided.

Considerations for Design of Tail Race

In similar fashion with that of the head race tunnel designing of a tail race concerns with
the shape, alignment, slope, velocity and lining.
Shape: Tunnels are either circular or non circular in shape. Circular tunnels are
structurally more stable. They are more stable when the internal water pressure is high.
Non-circular tunnels usually have flat floor, near vertical or gently flaring walls and
arching roof. The most popular of the various sections adopted is the so called horse
shape. Horse shoe shapes are very convenient from the construction point of view.
Alignment: The alignment should be following the location of the power house on one
hand and suitable reach f a natural river on the other hand, keeping in view the length as
short as possible, the alignment away from dangerous fault planes.
Slope: gentle longitudinal slope (=0.005) should be provided in the case of tail race
tunnel to make it allow pressure tunnel.
Velocity: The permissible range of velocity in tunnel depends on whether it is lined or

unlined. The allowable velocity in trimmed tunnel is usually varies between 1m/s to
3.5m/s.
Lining: Lining is a protective layer of concrete, RCC or steel on linear surface of the
tunnel. Tunnel in good round rock can be left unlined. Most of the time low pressure
tunnels are left unlined.
5.7.1 Design of Tailrace

Based on the above design considerations a horse shoe tunnel of longitudinal slope
0.005 is adopted for this particular project.
Considering mining’s flow equation
V=

R=
Where: n= manning coefficient (n = 0.03 for trimmed)

R= hydraulic radius
A = area of tail race tunnel
= 0.8293 (for horse shoe shape tunnel)
P = perimeter of tail race tunnel
= 3.267 (for horse shoe shape tunnels)
R=
V=
Where:
Q = design discharge = 82m3/sec
V=
D=5.7m
V=82/26.94
V=3.0m/s
Thus the velocity is within the range of allowable velocity for trimmed tunnel.
Therefore adopt a tail race tunnel of:
D = 5.7m
A = 23.94 m2
L = 300m

CHAPTER SIX
PRELIMINARY POWER ASSESSMENT AND POWER
HOUSE LAYOUT
6.1 General
Hydropower is extracted from the natural potential of usable water resources. The
transformation of the pressure and kinetic energy of water in to more easily usable form
of electrical energy is takes place in the power house. The plant of hydropower includes
different structures such as dams, intakes, conveyance structure, penstock, power house,
surge tank, draft tube and tail race.

6.2 Selection of Site for Hydropower Plant

The power generated in the plant is primary a function of the discharge and the
elevation difference, net head available at the project site. Hence the site for
hydropower plant is selected based on the following criteria.
- to provide maximum head
- to minimize cost of excavation
- to get easy access to the power house
Based on these criteria, the powerhouse is located at a position 1320m above mean sea
level so that a total gross head of 108 m is developed including the tailrace outlet.
6.3 Overburden
For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden of the rock on the roof of the
tunnel serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internal pressure. The
minimum desirable height of the overburden ‘hr’ for any given internal water pressure
head ‘h’ is given by the following condition.
γw h≤ γr hr (based on statically equilibrium)
Where γw and γr are the unit weight of water and rock respectively
If a factor of safety is taken as ‘n’, then,
nγwh = γrhr
Since ; if we adopt a factor of safety of 2.5 we get the following easily

remembered thumb rule.
h ≤ hr
Mosonyi recommends:
h = (0.4 to 0.8)hr
Depending up on the rock formation head of water above the soffit of the tunnel at the
intake
h = 1428 -1423 = 5m + 50% (5) for head variations and surges
Therefore, minimum over burden pressure that should be present to resist the water
pressure is

hr = 2.5 h = 2.5 * 7.5 = 18.75m, say hr = 20m
Therefore, the tunnel alignment should be selected along a location where a minimum
over burden of 20m available. For our project there is ample overburden pressure
through out the tunnel, therefore, overburden pressure problem is not a major concern.
6.4 Lay Out of Hydropower Plant

Due to good geological condition and rugged topography tunnels are considered as
conveyance structure. The layout of the power plant is dictated by the search for high
hydraulic head between the bondage area and down stream river valley while ensuring
sufficient overburden pressure, shortest length of tunnel and good rock quality.
Because of many reasons Gilgel Gibe II hydropower project has an underground power
house than surface powerhouse. Some of the reasons are costs, risks operation and
maintenance and the availability of good sound rock at the desired location and depth.
Due to these good topographic and geologic conditions underground power house is the
best choice for this particular project
Arrangements of underground power station

I. up stream station
II. Down stream station
III. Intermediate station
IV. Diagonal tunnel alignment
For our project downstream station arrangement is the best because most of the head is
gained by a long water way releasing water. The down stream station arrangement has a
long and nearly horizontal pressure tunnel together with pressure shaft and a short tail
race tunnel.
The layout contains the following sections, nearly horizontal pressure tunnel, inclined
pressure shaft, under ground power house, tailrace tunnel and access tunnel.

The pressure tunnel is 5500m long inclined at approximately 0.5% slope. It is classified
as low pressure tunnel and line with concrete over its whole length. A surge is provided
at the end of the pressure tunnel. Inclined pressure shaft (penstock) has a length of
510m and has a slope of 19.9%. It is steel lined over its whole length. The tail race
tunnel has a length of 300m and it is inclined at approximately 0.5 % has a horse shoe
shape and trimmed rock surface. It will be supported by short crating and bolting. The
lay out of the hydropower plant is given on appendix.
6.5 Available Hydraulic Head

The total available head for hydropower plant is the difference between the normal pool
level and the point of discharge (tail race), after the turbine uses up the water for power
generation
For Gilgel Gibe- Π,
Normal pool level=1428m.a.m.s.l
Elevation of tail race level=1320m m.a.s.l
Therefore, gross head available=1428-1320=108m
The Net Head

The net head available for power generation is the difference between the gross head
and the total loss.
Available gross head = 108m
The total loss = 9m
Net head = 99m
6.6 Firm Power and Installed Capacity
Firm power is the net amount of power which is continuously available from a plant
without any break on firm or on guaranteed basis is known as firm power. This power
should be available under the most adverse hydraulic conditions. The consumer can
always be sure of getting this power. The excess power available over the firm power
during the off-peak hours or during monsoon etc is kwon as secondary power.
Let ‘p’ be the potential power for a stream having head ‘H’ and a discharge ‘Q’. The
theoretical potential power can be expressed as
P = ηoγQH

Where ηo = overall efficiency of turbine and generator
Load Factor
It is the ratio of average load to the peak load and is expressed as a daily, weakly,
monthly or yearly value. The load factor can be taken within the range of 0.4 to 0.6 for
developing countries. Generally the load factor gives an idea of utilization of plant
capacity.
Load factor = Average load

Maximum load
Installed Capacity
Installed capacity or plant capacity refers to the maximum power that a power plant can
produce at its full capacity using the maximum available head and maximum discharge
condition.
Qmax = Qaverage
Load factor
=82.07m3/s
Therefore, installed capacity, P = ηo*γ*Qmax*H
P = 0.85*9.81*82*99
P = 67.69 MW
The firm power, Pfirm = ηo*γ*Qave *H
Pfirm = 0.85*9.81*34.47*99
Pfirm = 28.46 MW

CHAPTER SEVEN
HYDRAULIC TURBINES AND ELECTOMECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT
7.1 General
Hydraulic turbines are a machine, which use the energy of water and converts it into
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy so produced is used to drive the electric
generator.
Turbines are classified in several ways depending on;

 the direction of flow of water in the runner

 the action of water flowing through the rotor

 the basis of head and quantity of water required
 the basis of specific speed
But generally all types of turbines fall into two categories.
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
Impulse (Pressure less) Turbine

In this turbine, the pressure head in the penstock is completely converted into kinetic
head in the form of a jet of water issuing from one or more nozzles and hitting the
wheel vane. In such case the free jet will be at atmospheric pressure before and after
striking the vane. Pelton wheel and Turbo Pelton wheel are common types of impulse
turbines.
Reaction (Pressure) Turbine

In this type, the water enters the turbine in a circumferential direction into the scroll
case and passes into the runner through a series of guide vanes. The available energy
partly converted to kinetic energy and substantial magnitude remains in the form of
pressure energy. The water is flowing under pressure through the runner. The most
common types of reaction turbine are Francis, Kaplan and Propeller turbine.
7.2 Selection of Turbines
The selection of the type of turbine depends on:
 The Operating Head

 Kaplan and propeller………….for head less than 60m
 Francis………………………..for head from 60m to 250m.
 Pelt on wheel ………………... for head above 250m.
 The Specific Speed

As far as possible, a turbine with high specific speed should be chosen. Higher specific
speed means small size turbine, generator and powerhouse etc and therefore, more

economical. Since higher specific speed is generally more liable to cavitations, it is not
possible to increase the speed indefinitely. So, suitable range of specific speed should
be selected. In addition specific speed is an important parameter for the design of the
turbine as it includes all the three parameters. i.e. speed, power and head of the turbine.
 Part Load Operation

Turbines have maximum efficiency for only one load, where they have to be operated
for part loads. Only those turbines whose turbines efficiency is do not fall appreciably
with part load should be selected.
Francis turbine is popular turbine in larger hydro scheme, although it has poor part.
Flow efficiency, it is one of the few turbines which turns at reasonable speed at certain
power and head combination.
 Cavitations Characteristics
Cavitations affect the installation of a reaction turbine. It is better to install the turbines
as much above the tail water level as possible. This saves the cost of excavation for the
draft tube. Care should be taken to ensure that cavitations not to occur.
 Overall Cost
It includes initial cost and running cost. As much as possible we have to adapt minimum
overall cost turbine unit. Therefore, based on the available head h= 99m, Francis turbine
It includes initial cost and running cost. As much as possible we have to adapt is
considered in this particular project. The turbine size and number of unit have to be
chosen so as to given optimum working condition as well as economy. If to big a size of
a single unit is adapted the failure may result in considerable slashing of load. On the
other hand, too small a turbine size may mean more number of units and thus is
uneconomical.

After knowing total installed capacity, the number of unit is decided. If the capacity of
the turbine is fixed, it will have to run at low efficiency during low demand period. If
load is constant, only one unit provided. However if the load goes down to 50% of the
installation capacity, two units would be better. An additional unit is provided for extra
capacity during surplus flow.
For this particular project, the installation capacity is not much high that means about
67.69MW, so it is enough to select two units.
7.3 Performance of Turbine

7.3.1 Specific Speed
It is the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate if it were so
proportioned that it would develop 1kw power when operating under a head of 1m, and
expressed as
NS= Where, Ns – specific speed
N – Rotational speed (rpm)

P – Power developed (kw)
H – Effective head (m)
7.3.2 Synchronous Speed

Since the generator and turbine are directly coupled, the rated speed of the turbine is the
same as the synchronous speed of the generator, given by
N=
Where, N = rotational speed in (rpm)
f =frequency in cycle /sec usually 50cps
Np = no of poles divisible by 4 for head up to 200m
Generally, Francis turbines have high efficiency at medium specific speed. The table
below shows the value of the specific speed ranges and the efficiencies of the three
main types of turbine.

Type of turbine ø Ns H(m) Efficiency (%)

Impulse 0.43-0.48 8-17 85-90
17 90
17-30 >250 90-82
Francis 0.6-0.9 40-130 90-94
130-350 94
350-452 25-450 93-94
propeller 1.4-2.0 380-600 94
600-902 <60 85-94
7.4 Hydraulic Design of Turbine

7.4.1 Design of Francis Turbine
Francis turbine is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine. That is water enters the runner
radically at its outer periphery and leaves axially at its center.
Determination of Turbine Parameter

I. Specific Speed
So many empirical formulas used for determination of specific speed of the turbine.
Some of these are
a. R.W.Abett’s formula
Ns= = =170.85 , where H=Net head
b. P.c. Nag and k. Madhvan’s formula
Ns = = =164.83
c. Moody formula
Ns = +83.6
= +83.6 =145.945

d. Ramadan Sadek and Mohamed Atafy Sinble’s formula
Ns = = = 167.983
e. Guthrie brown
Ns= 141
f. USBR formula (for Francis turbine)
Ns = = =154.776
g. W.L Voorduin’s formula
Ns= Where, Hc = critical head
=0.9*H
Hc = 0.9*99 =89.1
Ns = =167.684
Taking the average of the above values the specific speed will become
Ns =158.995 =159
II. Turbine Speed (N)
N= where, P1= power of one unit in KW
η=90%
Q= 82m3/s (design discharge)
γ =Specific weight of water
P = η*γ*Q*H
=0.9*0.81*103*82*99
= 71673.822kw
P1=P/2=35836.911KW

N=
=262.286 Take 262

Ш. Synchronous Speed
N= Where, f=50Hz
NP= no of poles
NP=
= =22.9, Take Np=24
Therefore,
N= =250<=262 OK!
The new specific speed is;
Ns=
=151.55 Take 152

Therefore, Ns=152 and N=250rpm
IV. Runaway Speed

It is a speed, which occurs when the external load on the machine suddenly drops to
zero, and the governing mechanism fails at the time and the turbine will tend to rise up
to the maximum possible speed. This limiting speed no load, maximum flow must be
considered for safe design.
The following formula used to determine proportion of runaway speed as compared to

normal speed.
i. USBR formula

Nr = Kn *N*
Where,
Kn = (o.1475 Ns +14.5) in % age
= (o.1475*152+145)
= 167.42 in % age
= Kn =1.6742
= Nr = 1.6742*250
= 437.16 r.p.m
ii. F.de Siervo and F.de. Leva (1997) formula
Nr = 1.52N (1*0.001N3)
= 1.52 * 250 (1+0.001*152) = 437.76
7.4.2 Runner Discharge Diameter

The diameter of the runner can be found with the help of peripheral coefficient ¢ and
empirical formulas used for determining ¢ are;
a. Kruegers formula
¢=0.0197*Ns2/3 +0.09
=0.0197*1522/3 +0.09
=0.651
b. Nag.and K.Madhvan’s formula
¢=0.036*Ns7/12
=0.036*1527/12
=0.675
c. D.ZanoBett’s formula
¢=0.68+
=0.68 +

=0.741
Taking the average of the three, the value of ¢ is 0.689
The determination of discharge diameter using E.Mosonyi’s formula is as follows:
D=84.6*¢*
= 84.6* 0.689* = 2.32m
D3= D (0.5+ )
= 2.32 (0.5 + ) =2.04m
D1= 4.4 ( )4/3
= 4.4 (82/150)4/3 = 1.9m

Where D1=diameter of the entering edge of the runner blade
D3=diameter at the discharge end
Since Ns < 200, D =D1
Therefore, D1 =1.9 m
D3 =2.04 m
7.4.3 Dimension of the Scroll Case (Spiral Casing)
Scroll case is a conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock to the runner in
reaction type turbine. It is essentially a winding duct of varying size with opening on the
runner side through which water can flow on the runner. A spiral shaped scroll case of
the corrected geometry ensures even distribution of water around the periphery of the
runner with the minimum possible eddy formation.
- According to F.de Siervo and F.de.Leva. Water velocity at spiral case inlet
section can be calculated as
V= 844 *NS-0.44
= 844 (152)-0.44=92.54 m/s
A = D3 (1.2 - )

= 2.04 (1.2 - ) =2.18m
B = D3 (1.10 + ) =2.04 (1.10 + ) = 2.98m
C = D3 (1.32 + ) = 2.04 (1.32 + ) = 3.35 m
D = D3 (1.5 + )= 2.04 (1.5 + ) = 3.71m
E = D3 (0.98 + ) = 2.04 (O.98 + ) = 2.85 m
F = D3 (1 + ) =2.08 (1 + ) = 3.80m
G = D3 (0.89 + ) = 2.04 (O.89 + ) =3.11m
H = D3 (O.79 + ) = 2.04 (O.79 + ) =2.71m
I = D3 (0.1 +0.00065 NS) = 2.04 (O.1 + 0.00065 *15) =0.41m

L = D3 (0.88+0.00049NS) =2.04 (O.88+0.00049*15) =1.95m
M =D3 (O.60 + 0.00015NS) = 2.04 (0.6 + 0.00015 * 15) = 1.27m
Where the designation of the letters shown on the appendix.
7.4.4 Draft Tube

A draft tube is a flaring tubes either straight or an elbow type and it is necessary only
for reaction turbines.
Purposes of Draft Tube are;

- To recover the velocity energy of the water flowing out of the runner, which
otherwise would have gone to waste as an exist loss, thus increasing the
dynamic draft head.
- To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail water level,
in other words to allow the turbine to be set at higher elevation with out losing
the advantage of elevation difference. In this particular project, we used elbow

type draft tube, because of the following advantages it offers over the straight
type.
- Minimizes the required depth of excavation.
- Directs the flow in the direction of the tail water flow
- Allows the provision of rate at the outlet of the tube which can facilitate the de-
watering of the turbine for repairing.
7.4.5 Dimension of Elbow Type Draft Tube

- According to F.de Siervo and F.de. Leva (1976) (water power, July 1975)
V1 = Water velocity at draft tube inlet section
V1 =8.74 *
= 8.74 * = 14.28 m/s
N=D3 (1.54 + ) = 2.04 (1.54 + ) =5.87m
O = D3 (0.83 + ) = 2.02 (0.83 + ) = 3.58m
P= D3 (1.37 – 0.00056NS) =2.04 (1.37 -0.00056*152) =2.62m
Q= D3 (0.58 + ) =2.04 (0.58 + )= 1.49m
R = D3 (1.5 - ) =2.04 (1.50 - ) =3.06m
S = D3 = 2.04 * = 10.80m
T = D3 (1.5+0.00019NS) = 2.0 (1.5 +0.00019*152) =3.12m
U= D3 (0.51 -0.0007 NS) =2.0 (O.51 -0.0007*152)=0.82m
V = D3 (1.1+ ) =2.04 (1.1+ ) =2.96m
Z= D3 (2.63 + ) = 2.04 (2.63+ ) = 5.82m
Where the designation of the letters above, shown on the appendix.

7.5 Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation in subsequent collapse of vapor pockets in a region of liquid
where the pressure has been reduced to that of vapor pressure of the liquid. When the
pressure in any part of flow passage reaches the vapor pressure of the flowing liquid it
starts vaporizing and small bobbles of vapor form in large number.
The effects of cavitations are:-
- Surface of the vanes subjected to intense pressure during the collapse becomes
scored, pitted and even torn.
- Cause noise and vibration.
- Cavitations in a turbine can be avoided by the following measures
- A careful stream lined design of the flow passages of the runner as well as that
of draft tube.
- The average sub-atmospheric pressure at runner outlet is kept reasonably above
the vapor pressure limit.
- Some metals are more resistance to cavitations damage than others.
- By a periodic inspection of the turbine and by regular spot welding the eroded
portions.
Since reaction turbine is running under pressure, they are exposed for cavitations than
impulse turbine. So the above measures should be carefully used. In order to have
cavitations free operation of a turbine;
Pmin>P V => σc<σ
The expression used to determine the maximum elevation (Z max) of the turbine above
the tail water surface for vacation to be avoided.
Zmax = – –σc*H = (Ha-Hv) – H*σc
For Francis turbine;
σc= 0.625 *
Where, Ha= atmospheric pressure head (m)

=9.18m at altitude of 1000m and at a mean temperature of 250c

Hv= vapor pressure head (m)
= 0.32m
σc=0.625 (15/380.78)2 =0.0996
= (9.18-0.32)-99*0.0076
= -1m
It means that the turbine is set at 1m below the tail water level for proper operation.
7.6 Turbine Governors

Governors are use to control the speed of turbines. Some governing or control of the
turbine speed is often required to ensure proper operation of mechanical or electrical
end use machinery. The speed of the turbine runner is maintained constant by regulating
the quantity of water flowing through the runner in accordance with variation in the
load. Usually, it is done automatically.
7.7 Electromechanical Equipments
7.7.1 General
In hydropower scheme generator coupled with turbine shaft, to run the rotor of the
generator. Alternating current generators widely used in hydroelectric Shane. The
relative displacement between rotor and stator induces alternative electromotive force.
Electrical Equipments
- generator
- exciters and voltage regulator
- transformer
- switch gear
Mechanical Equipments
- Shafts, bearings, coupling etc. for the generator
- The oil circuits and pumps
- Compressors and air ducts
- Breaking equipments

- Ventilation and air cooling system

- Crane and over lifting equipment
Besides the above auxiliary equipments, lighting, water supply and drainage facilities
are also required for the power house.
7.7.2 Generator
The generator should have vertical configuration, protection against run away speed are
to be provided. This machine should be capable of supplying heavy line charging
current since the hydroelectric power plant is located at a considerable distance from the
load end.
The different parameter of the generator is designed as follows:
Weight of Generator
Using USBR formula
Wg= g - 85 tones
Where: N= 250 rpm calculated before

g= 20 to 32 take26
K= power in KVA
= =
= 89592.2775KVA
Wg=26* -85
= 407.2 tones
≈ 408 tones
Dimensions of the Generator Components

Using J.J Dalton formula, diameter of generator is calculated as:

Dg=0.119* (Np) 0.466 *K0.233

Where Np =no of poles
K= power in KVA
Dg=0.11 (24) 0.466 (89592.2775)0.233
= 7.45m
≈ 7.5
 J.H. Walker has given elaborate curves and relation to determine the generator
diameter. If D’g is the gap diameter in meter, (there is gap between poles and
stator and this diameter being at the end of the gap.)
D’g=
Where: K= constant varies from 5 to 9(take 7)
D’g= =5.28m
 Diameter of generator frame in meter
Df =Dg* + 1.55
= 7.5* + 1.55
= 9.71m
 The generator pit diameter in meter
DP = Df+2
= 9.71+2
= 11.71m
 Total height of the generator in meter
Hg= k’S * +2.3 Where: k’s = is constant varies from 5.5 to 12.75
Take, k= 8
Hg = 8 * +2.3
=4.8m

≈ 5m
Hence the generator has;
Height =5m
Weight = 404 tones
Diameter = 7.5m
Pit diameter =11.71m
Gap-diameter =5.28m
Frame diameter =9.71m
7.8 Transformers and Transmission

Transformer is stationary equipment used to transform the voltage produced in a
generator. It is an important piece of equipment for converting the power of the
generator at a relatively low voltage to the power for transmitting to the remote
electrical system at high voltage.
The existing transmission voltages in Ethiopia inter connected system (ICS) are 230 KV
and 132KV. Based on this experience, we suggest a step up transformer of 230 KV,
which is located in separate cavern or hall in the powerhouse.
A transmission system delivers huge power from the power station to the load center. In
our case the overhead line to take the advantage of air insulation, which decreases the
cost for insulation, should transmit it. Since the insinuated cables are exposed to
lighting and fall of trees, the load close to the lines has to be cleared of trees and carried
out periodically.

CHAPTER EIGHT
POWER HOUSE DIMENSIONING
8.1 General
The power house is a building constructed for housing and protection of various
hydraulic and electrical equipment required for the generation of power. The power
house provides the following main equipment and facilities:
I. Water conveyance structure penstock, draft tube etc.
II. Energy conversion equipments turbines, generator etc.
III. Electrical energy control equipments switch board, control equipments
etc.
IV. Other facilities.
The following are the important parts in a hydropower station.

i. Unit bays housing the main turbine and generator.
ii. Control bays housing the main control and their equipments.
iii. Service and erectioin bays provided for handling erection and maintains of
main machines.

8.2 Surface and Underground Power House

The power house would be located to economically maximize available head while
observing site physical and environmental constraints. Based on the location power
house can be grouped in to two, namely surface power house and under ground power
house. Each of them has their own advantage and disadvantage.
As the name implies in the surface power station the units and all other equipments and
power house is situated over the ground surface, usually surface power house is
accompanied with power canal following the terrain, forbay and surface penstock which
has no space limitation and maintenance of power house is easy.
On the other hand, under ground power house is accompanied by head race tunnel,
surge shaft, embedded penstock and tail race tunnel. Under ground power house is safer
during war attacks and in areas with frequent seismic activates, land slides, and flood
etc. If there is a gorge, a valley, and good geology around the site an under ground
power house is found to be the economical choice.
For this particular project, due to good geologic and topographic condition, under
ground powerhouse is selected. The layout of the powerhouse is shown on the
appendix.
Under ground power house have the following advantage;

- It helps to utilize the maximum available gross head.
- Ensures short conveyance structure i.e. short pressure shaft.
Due to space limitation in under ground power house, vertical shaft axis installation is
preferred.
8.3 Dimension of Power House

The dimensions of the plant are determined by the dimension of the generating units
The power house dimensions are governed by:
- arrangement of shaft
- overhead erection crane and its minimum requirement

- the dimensions of individual units

- dimension of erection bay
- the number of units
The dimensions of the power house are determined as follows.
1. Unit spacing
i. N- Ven Kata raws (1960) formula (for Francis turbine)
Unit spacing = (3.8 to 5) D
= 4.4 D
= 4.4 * 2.04 = 8.976 ≈ 9m
ii. Esonysis formula
Unit spacing = (5.5 – ) D , Where D is runner diameter
=(5.5- )*2.04
= 9.6696 ≈10
Adapt unit spacing =10m
2. Length
The length of the machine hall depends on the number of units and the size of the
machine. The preliminary dimensions between center to center of two unit is
L = 5D +2.5 m
L = 5* 2.04 +2.5
= 12.7
Hence the total length:
LT = 2 unit + 1 unit for erection bay + 1unit for control room.
= 4 units
= 4 * 12.7 = 50.8m
3. Width

The width of the machine hall is determined by the size and clearance spacing between
the wall needed as a gantry way.
I. According to U.S.B.R, the width of the power house can be calculated as;
W =F+C+2+1.85D
F= D (1+ )
= 2.04 (1+ ) = 3.8
C = D (1.32+ )
C = 2.04 * (1.32 + ) =3.35
W = 3.8+3.35 +2+1.85* 2.04=12.924

II. Width = center to centre spacing
= 12.7 m
To minimize excavation costly, we have to adopt the smaller one. i.e., W = 12 m
4. Height
The height of the machine hall is fixed by the head room requirement. The hall must
have a height which will enable the crane to lift the rotor of the generator or the runner
clear of the floor with out any obstruction.
The capacity of generator can be calculated using the power factor for the generator. A
power factor of 0.85 is selected for the installed capacity of 67 MW and plant factor of
0.4.
Generator capacity =
Since two units are provided (one for each)
Installed capacity = =33.5MW
Generator capacity= =39.41MW

For this much capacity and net head of 99m the total height from generator floor to
crane rail is obtained to be after two step linear interpolation is 15.72m
 space for crane hook can be taken as 2m
 height of the generator = 5m
 hence, total H = 15.72 + 2m = 17.72m ≈ 18m
To conclude, a power house of the following dimension is provided for Gilgel Gibe II
hydropower project.
Length X Width X Height
(50.8 m X 12.7 m X 18 m)
CHAPTER NINE
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
9.1 General
Hydropower projects that are intended to produce electric energy, may cause
irreversible environmental changes over a wide geographic area and thus have a
potential for significant impacts. The area of influence of the project extends from the
upper limits of the catchments to far down stream. Therefore hydro project such as
Gilgel gibe II are designed to enhance economic development and bring a better
standard of life to people due consideration should be given to their adverse
environmental and social effects. This can be done through environmental impact
assessment which is a management tool for officials and manager who take decision
about important development project.
The EIA not only predicts potential problems but also identifies measures to minimize
the problems and out lines ways to improve the project suitability for its proposed
environment.
The aim of environmental impact assessments is;

 To understand the likely environmental consequences of new developments.

 To understand the implification of proposed interventions.

 To identify measures by which the impacts can be mitigated.
 To present the results in such away that they can provide answers needed by
stakeholders.
Generally EIA can be described in short as an instrument used to identify, predict and
assess the environmental consequences of a proposed major development project.
Moreover EIA is used to plan appropriate measures to reduce adverse effects.
9.2 Impacts on Physical Environment

9.2.1 Impacts on Hydrology
Hydropower projects have little impact on the total available water but some
detrimental effect on the distribution of water in terms of space and time. This has a
significant effect on aquatic resource, recession agriculture wild life movements and
other human activities downstream of the scheme. All these and other effects are
brought about through the reduction and flood modification i.e. alteration to the liver
regime.
The amount of water in the river will highly reduce during most time of the year due to
diverting of the river water to a 6.1 km power tunnel for generating but the river flow
has a minimum flow of 1.3m3/sec from the tributaries, so that it will not affect human
and domestic animal water requirements but aquatic fauna particularly fish and large
animals like hippocampus and crocodile may be affected.
9.2.2 Impact on Water Quality

Hydropower projects usually yield high sediments during construction and low
sediment rating during operation phases. It also modifies the natural river hydrographs
through of weir and creation of reservoirs and since the release of water is usually

dictated by power demand cycles. All these changes well definitely deterioration and
physical changes can also result in chemical impact to the river system, like inclination
of trees and other vegetation may lead to increase in nitrate and phosphate imputes that
would initiate eutrophication (depletion of oxygen).
9.2.3 Change in Landscape and Aesthetic Value

Construction of the structures and access roads, establishment of construction camps
and material producing plants, operation of borrow areas and quarries; the disposal of
waste materials and above all formation of a reservoir will bring localized changes to
the natural landscape and same effects to the visual value of the impact areas.
9.2.4 Increase Risks of Erosion

Earth work activities for roads, civil works, construction camps, etc. will remove and
district the natural vegetation and top soil particularly on the steeper slopes increasing
the potential for erosion. The implementation of the proposed hydro power project plant
will require construction of access roads to the weir site and power house. Roads are
important contributor to soil erosion, primarily because they concentrate and distribute
runoff as channel flow rather than a uniform over land or subsurface flow.
9.2.5 Sedimentation
Sedimentation studies carried out for upper Gilgel Gibe  reservoir indicates that most
of the suspended sediment is represented by very fine particles of silt and clay and
considering the amount of sediment deposited in the upper reservoir, the estimated
annual sediment yield at Billie weir is in order of 0.25 million tones.
9.2.6 Slope stability problems

Cutting in soil and weathered rock particularly in areas of steep slopes can trigger land
sliding or slope stability problem. The banks of the Gilgel gibe of the Billie weir sites
are susceptible to slope instability problem mainly because of geological factors
(weathered rocks and different flow of volcanic origin) and steep slopes of the area.

9.2.7 Impacts on minerals and construction materials

No any mineral occurs have been identified from the impact areas. The likely impact
would be on construction materials mainly bed rocks for masonry, aggregate materials
etc and quarries for various purposes.
Natural hazards
Since the project area is close to the rift valley which has the most active seismic
centers, energy developed by earth quake originating should be considered.
9.2.8 Impact of air quality

Air pollution is common during construction phase. Dust pollution caused by frequent
movement of the construction vehicles and machineries coupled with wind effects
suspended particles are the cause for many diseases. In addition to dust exhaust fumes
or emissions released by diesel operating equipment cause air pollution.
Noise pollution and vibration effect

The noise and vibration that are produced during construction cause many problems on
human health like hearing loss.
9.3 Impacts on Biological Environment

9.3.1 Terrestrial Ecology
Flora and Fauna
Billie plant will certainly cause loss of natural vegetation and fauna available in those
sites due to construction of the weir, access roads, power house, access tunnels etc. In
addition operation of quarries for selected materials, construction equipment and
disposal of wastes generated from tunneling and weir foundation will affect certain
areas of natural vegetation.
In most of the impact areas a fairly dense wood land or wooden grassland will be
affected permanently.

The area to be taken for strong water, which will be cleared before reservoir filling will
be an important loss of wild life habitat. Animals moved to the adjacent areas could
become more vulnerable to poaching by the local people or immigrant people during
the construction period.
9.3.2 Impact On Aquatic Ecology

The Billie diversion weir will provide a barrier to movement of aquatic fauna. No
significant aquatic plant communities are present in the river side areas where the
construction works are to be located. However, the activities at the weir and
powerhouse site will disturb and probably displace the populations of large aquatic
animals particularly hippopotamus, crocodiles and fish in these localities.
9.4 Impacts on Socio-Economic Environment

9.4.1 Resettlement
At the site and its surrounding there will be no disruption of settlement because of the
construction. Due to the rugged topography of the area and high prevalence of
trypanosomiasis (“Gendi”), there is no settlement and cultivation near to the site.
However, there are settlements along the access routes to the project sites and
construction camps mainly owing to terrain, human and animal disease (malaria and
tripanosomiasis) problems. The routes are used for social and economic (market and
trade) interactions by the people living on both side of the river.
9.4.2 Loss of Land and Other Fixed Properties

The main impact for the surrounding local community will be losses of grazing land,
bush land and wood land areas that comprise bushes and grasses which used to build
houses. More over, the communication net work and social infrastructure will be
affected by the diversion wire. Currently the river valley is largely used for livestock
grazing and as main source of fuel wood, construction materials and farm implements
for the communities living on the surrounding up lands.
9.4.3 Increased Risk Disease

During construction period there will be job opportunities attracting labor force from
out side the area. This new influx will change the existing population. The main effects
will be increased exposure of workers and their families to locally endemic diseases and
sexually transmitted diseases.
9.4.4 Potential Positive Impacts

 Generation of electric power.
 Employment opportunities
 Fishery
 Flood control
 potential for wild life reserves
 Infrastructure development and mitigation benefits.
9.5 Remedial Measures
The proposed remedial measures and the impacts are shown below in the following
table.
Table 9.1 Negative Environmental Impacts and Remedial Measures.
Impact Remedial Measures
1 Soil erosion - For any road construction side drains longitudes
drains, culverts and appropriate angle of wet and
fill should be incorporated to combat soil erosion.
- Erodible surface should be cut only during dry
weather and replanted a soon as possible.
- vertical and horizontal alignment of new roads
2 Landscape should follow the natural relief as classer as
possible
- after completion of the construction work the
borrow or the quarry areas should be stored as closely
as possible to the natural contour taking consideration
also the drainage point of view.
3 Water quality - Design ways and means to minimize erosion and

sediments, chemical pollution from construction

activities, pollution from human and domestic
waste from the camps and offices from entering
in to the river channel.
- Conducting periodic water quality monitoring
4 Air quality - Dust collectors or water spray systems isrequire
to prevent high dust emissions from batch plant
operations.
- Diesel engines of construction equipment should
be subjected to regular checking and cleaning of
the inspectors to minimize emissions.
5 Noise and vibration - Minimize the use of explosives and promote a
systematic blasting schedule.
- Ensure that ancillary machinery is contained and
silenced as for as possible.
6 Terrestrial ecology - minimize the off take of woody biomass for
building and fuel by work force prohibit the
people from un sustainable exploiting the local
natural resources base
- construction site should under go restoration
ration after project
7 Aquatic ecology - Allow for a compensation flow rescues down
stream during reservoir falling and in the weir to
tailrace out the stretch.
- Care full environmental management to avoid
polluting water courses.
- Clear biomass in the indention zone to avoid
europhication problems.
8 Loss of fixed properties - Provision of financial compensation for hours and
and land land loss to made way for the project.

- Allocation of financial compensation on the

basses of lost income from the land and the time
and labor necessary to bring new land into use.
9 Social service, - reestablishment of the lost infrastructure at a
communication better or improved standards at the new village
network and - To give priority for the local people participating
employment in the construction as a manual labour.
10 Health and sanitary - Employment of preventive and curative measures

issues to reduce transmission of communicable diseased
between the work force and the local population.
- Health education campaign about sexually
transmitted diseases and their preventive
measures.
- Establishment of potable water supply and
sanitary facility for the project workers and local
population.

CHAPTER TEN
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
10.1 General
Economic analysis in a hydropower project deals primarily with the development and
application of benefit – cost analysis, which is the most frequently, used procedure for
project economic evaluation. The objective of economic analysis is to provide an
economic basis for deciding weather on not to implement a project.
10.2 Cost Estimation

The total cost of Gilgel Gibe II project is estimated 93.37 million USD.
The bill quantity and their corresponding cost are as follow:
Table 10.1 Cost Estimate of the Project

Serial Description unit Unit price Qu Total
No. ($USD) antity $USD
(*106 )
1 diversion weir
Excavation

soft m3 4 15375.107 0.062
hard m3 7 36231.924 0.254
weir m3 120 8321.5 0.999

Apron m3 120 1780 0.214
Reinforcement t 980.0 321 0.31
Sub total = 1.839
2 Concrete culver for
diversion
- Concrete volume m3 120 816 0.098
- reinforcement t 980 48 0.047

Sub total= 0.145
3 Power tunnel
Excavation -tunnel m3 50 155510 7.78
-penstock m3 64 7952.11 0.5
- Surge m3 91 5994 0.545
Concrete looses m3 250 22390 5.59
500m long penstock m3 6666.7 500 3.35
Sub total = 17.765
4 Power house
Excavation m3 11 17233.9 0.19
civil work 6.29
Sub total = 6.48
5 Infrastructure and
Access
to the weir Km 150.000 2
0.27
to the powerhouse Km 150.000 4
0.6

camp facility
4.0
tunnel m3 42
6.33
Sub total= 11.2
6 Hydro Mechanical
Equipment
-intake gates, trash rack, 2.85
trash rack cleaning, gate
opening equipment
- Penstock and accessory, 8.4

diversion equipment
bifurcated manifolds,
there value
- turbine and auxiliary 13.88
equipment
Governor auxiliary
governor and auxiliary 2.19

equipment
Draft tube and adite 0.23

accessory
Sub total = 28.5

7 Electrical equipment 8.87
and transmission feeder
line

Sub total = 8.87

8 Environmental cost 1.53
Sub total= 1.53
9 Contingency = 8% of total
cost
Total cost 90.67
Operation & maintenance 0.9067
cost = 1% total cast.
10.3 Cost of the Project

This is the sum of the money invested in a project (including its interest during
construction) before its completion. Sine both benefits and costs comes about different
times, it is necessary to evaluate the benefit and costs in equivalent monetary terms.
The equivalent annual cost calculated from the total cost of the projects will be
A = CRF *C
Where,
A = annual equivalent project costs
C = total project cost
CRF = capital recovery facto
Where, i = annual interest rate
= 10%
N= project life, 50 Years
CRF =
=0.1

There fore A = 0.1 *90.67M$US

= 9.07 M$USD
10.4 Benefit of the Project

The annual energy expected to sell is:
= installed capacity * 8760*L.F
Where L.F load factor (=0.42)
= *Q*g*H*8760*0.42
= 0.85*1000*9.81*99*8760*82
= 249.05 GWH
The average energy price according to recent study on Geba hydropower project is 0.05
USD/kwH
The total income from energy sells
= 0.05 USD/ Kwh * 249.05 Gwh
= 0.05 USD / Kwh * 249.05 * 106* Kwh
= 12.453 * 106 USD
10.5 Economic Efficiency Indicators

10.5.1 Benefit to Cost Ratio (B/c)
The benefit cost ratio is the ratio of present value of benefit to that of the cost.
The benefit cost ratio value for this project will be:
B/C = (12.453 M$UD) /( 9.07 M$USD +0.907M$USD)
=1.3
10.5.2 Net Benefit Value

Net benefit value is the present value of all revenues minus the present value of all
running and capital costs.
NPV =
=19.34M$UDS

10.5.3 Internal Rate of Return

The internal rate of return (IRR) is that a discount rate at which the net present value
equals to zero. Projects that have an IRR value less than the opportunity cost of capital
should be rejected.
NPV =
IRR = 12 % > 10 %
Therefore, from the above the project is economically feasible.

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Gilgel Gibe II Hydropower Project June, 2006

An attempt to implement a hydropower project helps directly or indirectly the countries

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 1

1.2. Description of The Project Area

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 2

1.2.3. Data availability

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 3

Figure 2.1 Location of the Site

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 4

Table 2.1: Gauging stations

2 Gilgel Gibe near Ascendabo 70 45”36” 37011”24” 2966 34 8.5

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 5

average monthly runoff records at station Deneba. Therefore, it is necessary to

2.2 Filling Missing Data

In hydrologic analysis it is often necessary to develop a relationship between

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 6

Where, a and b are constant

2.3 Consistency of Stream Flow

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 7

 The observation procedure has changed.

Double Mass Curve

Figure 2.2 Double mass curve for station Assendabo

2.4 Extension of Flow Record

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 8

Signr = the sign of correlation coefficient

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 9

Table 2.2 monthly coefficients for extension of data

2.5 Transferring of Hydrologic Data

Regulated Flow Consideration

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 10

Multiplying annual precipitation inputs value by runoff coefficient the contribution of

Sequential Inflow Calculation

Step 1 => average runoff from catchments area

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 11

Step 2 => monthly flow fraction for representative gauge (MFF).

Step 3 => tributary inflow for each month in the year

Step 4 => flow at diversion weir site

2.6 Flow Duration Curve

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 12

2.7 Plotting Position

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 13

Table 2.3 Annual flows at selected frequency

Monthly Flow Duration Curve

Figure 2.3 Flow Duration Curve

2.8 Frequency Analysis

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 14

2.8.2 Selection of Data

2.8.3 Theoretical Probability Distribution

2.8.4 Selection of Probability Distribution

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 15

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 16

GEV LOG PERSON UNIFORM

Figure 2.4 L- Moment Ratio Diagram

2.8.5 Parameter Estimation

As mentioned previously L- Moment provides simple and reasonably efficient estimator

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 17

Where are probability weighted moments

2.9 Selection of Return Period

AMU, Hydraulic Engineering Department Final Year Project 18

capacity less than 60mm3

2.10 Design flood

 Standard project flood (SPF)

 Flood corresponding to a certain desired frequency