Water and Wastewater Treatment

(CE F342)
Unit Operations and Processes –
Sedimentation
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Module 3-3
Sedimentation

• Sedimentation is removal of suspended particles by

gravitational settling
• Designed to reduce the velocity of flow of water so as to permit
suspended solids to settle out
• A sedimentation or settling basin or clarifier is a large circular or
rectangular tank designed to hold the water for a long enough
time to allow most of the suspended solids to settle out
• can also remove particles that are contaminants themselves or
may harbor other contaminants, such as pathogens or
adsorbed metals
Terms
• Plain sedimentation (by gravitation and natural aggregation)
• Clarification (sedimentation with mechanical devices like flocculators)
• Chemical precipitation (remove dissolved compounds from solution)
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Factors affecting sedimentation

• Density of particles

• Size of particles

• Concentration of particles

• Viscosity of fluid

• Temperature

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Types of settling
Settling observed to happen in four ways
• Discrete
• settle as individual particles and do not
flocculate
• Understood based on Stokes law
• Flocculent settling
• characterized by particles that flocculate
during sedimentation.
• no adequate mathematical relationship
• the flocculating particles are continually
changing in size and shape
• specific gravity of flocs also changes as
water is entrapped in the floc
• Hindered/ zone settling
• particles that are in contact with one another
tend to settle as a zone or “blanket.”
• Compression Settling
Only the first two are typically observed in water treatment systems 4
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Settling of discreet particles -
Type I
• Although particles have very irregular shapes, their size may be
described by an equivalent diameter (hydrodynamic diameter),
comparing them with spheres having the same settling velocity.

• a particle falling in a quiescent fluid accelerates until the frictional

resistance, or drag, on the particle is equal to the gravitational force of
the particle.

• By equating drag force and gravitational forces we can get the

Newton's law for terminal settling velocity, vs,

4 𝑔𝑑 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤
𝑣𝑠 =
3 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑤
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Settling of discreet particles -
Type I
CD, drag coefficient needs to be determined and is can be established
from relationship to Reynolds Number as given by Camp Curve
I. for Re>103 to 104, Turbulent flow regime, CD = 0.4

II. For transition flow, Re from 0.5 to 104

24 3
𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
III. For laminar flow regimes i.e. R< 0.5, CD = 24 / Re

For Laminar flow condition Stokes derived the same equation for terminal
velocity without considering inertial forces as
𝑔 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑑
18 𝜇
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CD vs Re
Newton’s coefficient of drag as a function of Reynolds number. (Source: Camp, 1946.)

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Equations for settling velocities

Based on GoI
Manual
Re limit is
considered
to be 1
instead of a
safe value
0.5 for
laminar flow
And
1000 instead
of 104 for
transition –
turbulent
region

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Affect of temperature and
Viscosity
Stokes equation Unit Conversion
𝑔 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 2 1 Pa-s =1Ns/m2= 10 poise (Dynamic
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑑 viscosity)
18 𝜇
1 Stoke = 10-4 m2/s. (Kinematic Viscosity)
1 stokes = 100 centistokes
can be rewritten as = 1 cm2.s-1 = 0.0001 m2.s-1.
1 centistokes = 1 mm2.s-1 = 10-6m2.s-1
𝑔 𝑆𝑠 − 1 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑑
18 ν

For any temperature, T in 0C vs is in mm/s,

3𝑇 + 70 d is diameter of particle in mm when
2
𝑣𝑠 = 418 𝑆𝑠 − 1 𝑑 d < 0.1 mm and Re < 1
100
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Customary calculation procedure of
settling velocity for Type I particles
• Assume laminar conditions and to use Stokes’ law to calculate a
settling velocity. The Reynolds number is then checked using this
velocity. 𝑔 𝑆𝑠 − 1 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑑
18 ν
• If the Re is 1, the calculation is complete.

• If the Re is  1, the appropriate equation for CD is selected with this

estimate of the Re and Newton’s equation is used to estimate the
settling velocity. In turn, this velocity is used to check the Reynolds
number.

• The process is iterated until a convergent solution is achieved;

• i.e, the velocity yields a Re equal to that used in estimating the

settling velocity.
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Problems
1. Find the settling velocity of a silica particle of specific gravity
2.67, in water at 250C, if the diameter of particles is 0.004 cm

2. What is the settling velocity of a grit particle with a radius of

0.10 mm and a specific gravity of 2.65? The water
temperature is 220C.

3. Solve Qn 1. if the diameter of particles is 0.04 cm

4. Solve Qn 1. if the diameter of particles is 0.1 cm

5. Determine the terminal settling velocity of sand particle with

an average diameter of 0.5 mm and a density of 2600 kg/m3
settling in water at 200C. Density and viscosity values may be
found from table
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Types of Sedimentation tanks

• Fill and draw type

• Continuous flow
• rectangular horizontal flow
tank;
• circular, radial-flow tank;
• hopper-bottomed, upward
flow tank

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Horizontal Flow - Fill & Draw type
• The tank is filled with water and kept
undisturbed (no flow condition) for
several hours to allow settlement of
suspended particles.

• If Length, Breath and Height of the tank is

L,B and H. Time required for settlement:
Ts= H/vs

• Usual detention time @ 24 hour and

cleaning time 6-12 hour. Total operation
time: 30-36 h,

• Several such tank is required in a plant

so that when cleaning is done some other
hank can be operated
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Continuous horizontal flow
rectangular sedimentation tanks

McMahon, Glenda; Chatterton, Ken (2019): Plain (rectangular horizontal flow)

sedimentation tank. figshare. Figure. https://doi.org/10.17028/rd.lboro.7688240.v1 16
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Continuous horizontal flow circular
sedimentation tanks

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Rectangular sedimentation tanks

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Launders and outlet weirs

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Sludge scraper in Circular
sedimentation tanks

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Circular tank with v-notch outlet
wiers

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Animation – circular
sedimentation tank

Source: https://youtu.be/bBS2UcYaSOM

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Ideal Sedimentation tank –
Continuous horizontal flow
• Type I settling.
• Four zones in the basin: inlet, outlet,
sludge, and settling

• Even distribution of flow (uniform

horizontal velocity) entering the
settling zone
• Even distribution of flow leaving the settling zone.
• Uniform distribution of particles through the depth of the inlet zone end
of the settling zone
• Particles that enter the sludge zone are captured and remain in the
sludge zone
• Particles that enter the outlet zone are not removed from the water
(they escape the sedimentation tank).
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Sedimentation basics – up flow
Clarifier

• Particles fall downward

and the water rises
vertically.

• The rate at which the

particle is settling
downward is the particle-
settling velocity,

• Velocity of the liquid rising

is the overflow rate

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Sedimentation basics

• Particle settling velocity, 𝑣𝑠 𝑄

𝑣𝑜 =
• Velocity at which the tank is 𝐴𝑆
designed to operate, called the
overflow rate, 𝑣𝑜
• For a particle is to be removed
from the bottom of the clarifier and
not go out in the settled water,
then the particle settling velocity
must be greater than the liquid-
rise velocity (𝑣𝑠 > 𝑣𝑜 )
• If 𝑣𝑠 > 𝑣𝑜 then 100% removal
• 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜 then 0% removal
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Upflow Clarifier
• Liquid rise velocity is called an overflow rate.

• Overflow rate is used since the water is

flowing over the top of the tank into the weir
system.

• Referred to as the surface loading rate

and has units of m3/d ·m2

• Flow of water (m3/d) being applied to a

surface area (m2)

• In the design of the upflow clarifier, the

surface area of the top of the cone that
achieves the separation velocity sets the top
of the cone and the placement of the weirs
for overflow of the clear water.
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Sedimentation theory – Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank
• Flow rate along the depth are Q Q
same.
𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
• Depth of tank, H, Width, B and
Settling
Length, L 𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑣𝑜 𝑣
Inlet
Zone
Zone 𝑠 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜
• Cross sectional area Acs= B x H 𝑣𝑑
• Surface area of the tank H 𝑣𝑠 Outlet
Zone
ASA=LXB 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜
• Volumetric flow rate of water, Q
Sludge Zone
• Volume of tank, V L
Detention time, 𝒕𝒐 , time for
• Horizontal discharge velocity of horizontal flow, duration of water
water detained in the tank or time available for
𝑄 particle to settle
𝑣𝑑 = 𝐿 𝐿𝐵𝐻 𝑉
𝐻𝐵 𝑡𝑜 = = =
𝑣𝑑 𝑄 𝑄 27
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Sedimentation theory - Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank
Time required for settlement of Q Q
particle through depth H,
𝐻 𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
𝑡𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑣𝑜
Settling
𝑣𝑠 Inlet
Zone
Zone 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜
Condition for removal of 𝑣𝑑
H 𝑣𝑠 Outlet
particles by settling Zone

𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑠
Sludge Zone
𝑉 L
𝐻 𝑉 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 = 𝐻
= 𝑄 Also, 𝑡𝑜 =
𝑣𝑠 𝑄 𝑣𝑠

𝑣𝑑 𝐿
𝑸 𝑸 And 𝑣 =
𝒗𝒔 = = 𝑠 𝐻
𝑳𝑩 𝑨𝑺𝑨 29
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Sedimentation theory - Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank
For a given dimension of the tank, (𝑄/𝐴𝑆𝐴) is the overflow
rate (𝑣𝑜 ).
The overflow rate is the critical design parameter that
determines the removal efficiency of settling tanks.

Over flow rate or Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) (hydraulic

surface loading or simply surface loading, m3/m2.day), 𝑣𝑜
𝑄 𝑄
𝑣𝑜 = =
𝐿𝐵 𝐴𝑆𝐴
For discrete or unhindered settling , efficiency of removal is
solely a function overflow rate and not depth

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Sedimentation theory - Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank

𝑣𝑑 h1
𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑠1
𝑣𝑑
H 𝑣𝑠2 Outlet
Zone
h ℎ
= 𝐻 𝑣𝑜 (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑠2 < 𝑣𝑜 ) ℎ 𝐻
=
𝑣𝑠2 𝑣𝑜
Sludge Zone
L
• If 𝑣𝑠1 <𝑣𝑜 then it will settle to a height, h1 instead of H and escape.

• If a particle enters at height h, even if 𝑣𝑠2 <𝑣𝑜 then it will settle

through a height, h, and will be removed. Also any particle entering
ℎ
at that height having settling velocity ≥ 𝑣𝑜 will be captured.
𝐻 31
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Sedimentation theory– Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank

• If the settling velocity of a particle is equal to or greater than the overflow rate,100 % of
the particles will be captured in a horizontal sedimentation tank.
• Consider particles having a settling velocity of 0.5 vo entering uniformly into the settling
zone.
• Figure shows that 50 percent of these particles (those below half the depth of the tank)
will be removed.
• Likewise, one-fourth of the particles having a settling velocity of 0.25 vo will be
removed.
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Sedimentation theory– Ideal
rectangular sedimentation tank
• Partial removal of lighter particles (in ideal horizontal flow
rectangular tanks)

• It causes partial removal of lighter particles( 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜 ) in

addition to heavier particles ( 𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑣𝑜 )

• Ratio of particle removed (or settled), xr or xo = ℎ/𝐻

𝑣𝑠
𝑥𝑜 = ℎ/𝐻 =
𝑣𝑜
𝑣
• Percent of lighter particles ( 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑣𝑜 ) removed, Pe = 𝑣𝑠 ×
𝑜
100
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Size weight composition and
removal
• Actual suspension of particles inlet in
to a settling tank will be various sizes
and densities
• Hence a settling column analysis is
done from which a cumulative
distribution function can be derived
• Wt. fraction of removal of particles
𝑥 𝑣
having velocity 𝑣𝑠 <𝑣𝑜 will be ‫׬‬0 𝑜 𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑣
• Total wt. fraction removed by
sedimentation can be given by If the continuous curve is
1 𝑥𝑜 considered in discrete ranges of ∆𝑥
𝑅 = (1 − 𝑥𝑜 ) + න 𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑥 1
𝑣𝑜 0 then 𝑅 = (1 − 𝑥𝑜 ) + σ 𝑣𝑠 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑜
(1 − 𝑥𝑜 )represents that fraction which
has 𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑣𝑜
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Ex.1

• A water treatment plant has a flow rate of 0.6 m 3/sec. The settling
basin at the plant has an effective settling volume that is 20 m long,
3 m tall and 6 m wide.
• Will particles that have a settling velocity of 0.004 m/sec be
completely removed? If not, what percent of the particles will be
removed?

vo = Q/A = 0.6 m3/sec / (20 m x 6 m) = 0.005 m/sec

Since vo (0.005) is greater than the settling velocity of the particle of
interest, they will not be completely removed.
The percent of particles which will be removed may be found using the
following formula:
Percent removed = (vs / v0) x 100
= (0.004/0.005) 100 = 80 %
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Ex.1a
• How big would the basin need to be to remove 100% of the particles
that have a settling velocity of 0.004 m/sec?

vs = Q / A
0.004 = 0.6 / A
A = 150 m2
If the basin keeps the same width (6 m):
A = 150 m2 = 6m x L

L = 25 m

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Ex 2

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Ex 3.

• A suspension of sand like particles in water with particles

of diameter 0.10 mm and below is flowing into a settling
tank at 0.10 m3 /s. Assume g = 9.81 m/s2 , specific
gravity of particles = 2.65, and kinematic viscosity of
water =1.0105×10−2 cm2 /s.
• The minimum surface area (in m2 ) required for this
settling tank to remove particles of size 0.06 mm and
above with 100% efficiency is

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Design elements

• Overflow rate and surface loading

• Detention period and displacement efficiency

– Detention period
– Flowing through period

• Basin dimensions

• Inlet & outlet arrangement

• Sludge removal devices

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Design elements - Overflow rate and
surface loading

• Overflow rate: Volume of water passing through unit

horizontal surface area (ASA=LxB) per unit time (hour or
day) is called overflow rate. (equivalent to settling velocity vs or
vo) = Q/ASA

• Surface loading: settling velocity = overflow rate. vs = vo

=Q/ASA (cm/sec)
– This means rate of settling of suspended particles is equal to rate
of inflow of water in the tank

• Q/ASA is generally expressed as l/day/m2 or m3/day/m2

• 1 cm/s of vs = 864000 l/day/m2 or 864 m3/day/m2

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Design elements- Detention period

• Detention period (t0): Residence time of a water molecule

in the tank or the time required for one water molecule to
travel from inlet point to outlet point.(Average theoretical
time)
Plain ST 4 - 8 hrs
𝑉 𝐿𝐵𝐻
𝑡𝑜 = = (rectangular tank)
After Coagulation
2 to 4 hrs
𝑄 𝑄

• If circular tank with cone bottom of 1V:12H then

Volume, 𝑉 = (0.011𝑑 + 0.785𝐻) 𝑑2
H is side wall depth
H
2 d
(0.011𝑑 + 0.785𝐻) 𝑑
𝑡𝑜 =
𝑄 h= d/24

d/2
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Design elements - Flow through
period

• Flow through period (tf) Average time required for a

batch of water to pass through the settling tank is
influenced by short circuiting of water (which might be
controlled by concentration gradient of suspended
particles , wind speed etc.) and can be determined by
tracer test.

• So actual travel time by water is much less than

calculated value. ie. (tf < t0) or 𝑣𝑑 _(actual)>𝑣𝑑 _(theoretical)

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Design elements-Displacement
efficiency
• Ratio of Flow through period to detention period ηd= tf / t0

• The value of ηd varies within 0.25-0.5.

• A well designed ST should provide a flow through period

of at least 30% of detention period

• Actual design period normally used will twice the

theoretical design period

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Maximum Velocity of prevent bed uplift or
scour

8𝛽𝑔
Displacement velocity, 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑆𝑠 − 1 𝑑
𝑓
– 𝛽- 0.04 (unigranular sand) to 0.06 (non uniform or interlocking materials
– 𝑓- Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (0.025-0.03) for settling tanks

• In relation to settling velocity, vs, for fine light and flocculent solids,

8
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑓
• But a more practical relationship is
𝑣𝑑 = 10𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑑 𝐿
OR since =
𝑣𝑠 𝐻
𝐿 𝐴𝑠𝑎
= = 10
𝐻 𝐴𝑐𝑠
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Design elements -Basin
Dimensions
For rectangular Tanks
• L:B=3:1 to 5:1 (normally),
• Length upto 100m but typically 30m
• Width typically up to 12m
• H= 2.5 to 5 m preferably 3m (including sludge storage)
For Circular Tanks
• Diameter up to 60m but typically 30m provided (based on the
truss arrangement carrying scrapers)

• Horizontal velocity (vd = 0.2-0.4 m/min: to avoid uplift or

scouring), based on that B is selected.
• Bottom slopes 1% in rectangular tanks to 8% in circular tanks

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Design elements- Inlet and outlet
arrangements

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Non-Ideal Behavior of Settling
Tanks
• Turbulence

• Inlet Energy Dissipation

• Density Currents
• Temperature differentials and changes in solids concentration
are major causes of density currents

• Wind Effects

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Inlet structures - Baffles

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 BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

Thank You