Stone as a Building Material

Composition of Stone
- Stones are made from rocks
- 3 types of rocks
 Igneous Rocks – forms when molten rock (lava or magma) cools and solidifies.
 Granite – used for building construction
 Diorite – used by ancient civilizations for decorative artwork and is still used for
art today
 Pumice – commonly used as an abrasive, used to smooth skin or scrape up grime
around the house.
 Sedimentary Rocks – originate when particles settle out of water or air, or by
precipitation of minerals from water. These rocks are formed through the compacting of
grains or pieces of any kind of existing rock material.
 Limestone - composed primarily of calcite, a calcium carbonate mineral with a
chemical composition of CaCO3. It usually forms in clear, calm, warm, shallow
marine waters.
 Conglomerate - made up of rounded clasts that are greater than two millimeters
in diameter. The spaces between the clasts are generally filled with sand- and
clay-size particles. The rock is bound together by a cement that is usually
composed of calcite or quartz.
 Siltstone – composed mainly of silt-sized particles. It forms where water, wind,
or ice deposit silt, and the silt is then compacted and cemented into a rock.
 Metamorphic Rocks – result when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or
reactive fluids, such as hot, mineral-laden water.
 Marble – metamorphism of limestone
 Quartzite – metamorphism of sandstone
 Slate – metamorphism of shale (Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that
forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles that we
commonly call "mud." This composition places shale in a category of
sedimentary rocks known as "mudstones.")
- Chemical
 Silicon (Silica SiO2)
 Stones from volcanoes
 Sandstone – primary source of silicon, easy to process
 Aluminum (Alumina AlO2)
 Aluminum is light, durable, and functional
 One of the key engineering materials of our time
 Calcium (calcium carbonate CaCO3)
 Limestone – came from bones of dead sea creatures and calcite shell fragments

 These elements and other minerals too are factors considered when choosing a type of
stone for building structures.
Properties of Stone as a Building Material
1. Structure
- Structured stones should be simply dressed and appropriate for super structure.
- Superstructure: the part of a building or construction entirely above its foundation or
basement.
- Stratified/unstratified
 Stratified: the layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in those igneous
rocks formed at the Earth’s surface
 Unstratified: crystalline in composition
- Stratified stones are easier to work with compared to unstratified stones and are preferred for
the building’s foundation.

2. Density
- Denser stones are stronger
- Stones having specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
- Specific gravity = relative density
 ratio between the density of an object, and a reference substance.
 object will sink or float in our reference substance. (collapse or not).

3. Appearance
- Stones with uniform color is durable.
- Grains are compact

4. Texture
- Fine grained stones are strong and durable

5. Strength
- Crushing strength is measured in terms of Newtons per square millimeter

6. Hardness
- Dorry’s Testing Machine
- Stones having coefficient of hardness of less than 14 should not be used for buildings.

7. Percentage Wear
- Measured by Attrition test
 Attrition test is conducted to determine the resistance power of stone against the
grinding action. This test is mainly conducted to find out the suitability of a particular
action.
 This test is mainly conducted to find out the suitability of a particular stone for road
construction.

8. Porosity and Absorption

- Absorption test, percentage or amount of water absorb in 24 hours
 The lesser the water, the better
 - Porosity, compactness of grains
 Grains more compact, less water absorbed.

9. Weathering
- Stones with good weathering resistance

10. Toughness
- Resistance to impact
- Measured by impact test
 Stones having toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. The
toughness index 13 to 19 is considered as medium tough and stones having toughness
index less than 13 are poor stones.

11. Resistance to Fire

12. Ease in Dressing

- Stones with lesser strength can be easily dressed
- Stones with enough strength is preferable than stones with high strength for building works

13. Seasoning
- Natural process
- Some stones hold moisture
- Removing moisture to improve strength
- This procedure is called seasoning
- This usually takes up 6-12 months

Application in Building Construction

1. Basalt
- Basalt stone, which is also known as traps, is commonly used in road construction, as
aggregate in concrete production, rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls, and
dams. The basalt stone structure is medium to fine grained and compact.
- Basalt has good resistant to weather, impervious to moisture, very hard, and very difficult to
dress in fine shapes. The color of basalt changes from dark gray to black.
2. Granite
- The application of granite in building construction involves bridge piers, retaining walls,
dams, curbs, stone columns, as coarse aggregate in concrete, ballast for railways, as damp-
proof course and external cladding of walls, and monumental utilizations. The structure of
granite is crystalline, fine to coarse grain.
- It also has low absorption value, least porosity, good resistance to frost and weathering but it
has poor resistance to fire. It takes polish well, and the color varies from light gray to pink.
The polished granite can be used as table tops, cladding for columns and walls.
3. Sandstone
- Sandstones in combination with silica cement are used in the construction of heavy
structures. It is also employed in masonry works, dams, bridge piers, and river walls.
 4. Slate
- Slate shows great variation in its building properties which depend on the thickness of the
sheets and the color of the rock. It is used as roofing tiles, slabs, and pavements. It consists of
quartz, mica, and clay minerals.
5. Limestone
- All Limestone are not useful for building construction. Undesirable types are rich in clay or
are considerably soft and practically not suitable for construction works. However, dense,
compact, and fine textured types which are free from cavities and cracks can be easily
dressed and take a very fine polish. Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as
a base material for cement. The use of limestone as facing stones should be avoided in areas
where the air is polluted with industrial gases and also in coastal regions where saltish winds
can attack them.
6. Laterite
- Laterite is used as building stone, but its outer surface needs to be plastered. It contains a high
percentage of iron oxide and can be easily cut into blocks.
- Laterite color may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and grey.
7. Marble
- It is used for facing and ornamental works in columns, flooring, and steps. Marble stones are
quite strong, uniform in texture, least porous, and take an excellent polish. It can be easily cut
and carved into different shapes. Marble is available in different colors like white and pink.
8. Gneiss
- This type of stone is used for minor construction since the presence of deleterious substances
in its constituents makes it undesirable for building construction. However, hard varieties of
gneiss stone may be employed in construction works. It has fine to coarse grains, and its color
may be light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray and dark grey.
9. Quartzite
- It is used as building blocks, slabs, and as aggregate for concrete. The structure of quartzite is
fine to coarse grain and mostly granular and branded, and mainly composed of feldspar and
mica in small quantities.
- They are available in different colors like white, gray, yellowish.
10. Travertine
- It is used for paving, garden paths, and courtyards.
- The stone is characterized by pitted holes and troughs in its surface which means that it has a
porous surface and concentric texture. It can be polished to a smooth, shiny finish, and comes
in a variety of colors from grey to coral-red.

Stone Masonry
- a type of building masonry construction that uses stones and mortar. This construction
technique is used for building foundations, floors, retaining walls, arches, walls and columns.
The stones used for masonry construction are natural rocks. These natural rocks are cut and
dressed into proper shape in order to use it in masonry construction. Stones are one of the
most durable and strong building materials.
- Rubble Masonry
 Uses stones of irregular shape and size
  The strength of rubble masonry depends on the following.
 Quality of mortar
 Frequent use of through stone in masonry.
 Proper filling of mortar between stones
 Types of Rubble Masonry
 Coursed Rubble Masonry
 In coursed rubble masonry construction, the stones in a particular
course are in equal heights. The stones hence used possess different
sizes. In this type, all the courses do not have same height. This type
is commonly employed in the construction of public buildings,
abutments, residential buildings and piers of ordinary bridges.
 Un-Coursed Rubble Masonry
 An un-coursed rubble masonry is the cheapest and roughest form of
stone masonry construction. These construction use stones of varied
shape and size. The stones are directly taken from the quarry called
as undressed stone blocks. The courses are not maintained regulary
in this method of construction. Initially larger stones are laid first.
The spaces between them are filled with spalls or sneeks. This is
divided into two types:
o Random Un-Coursed Rubble Masonry – In this type, the
weak corners and edges of the stone are removed with the
help of a mason’s hammer. At the quoins and jambs, bigger
stones are employed in order to increase the strength of the
masonry.
o Square Un-Coursed Rubble Masonry - the stones are
made roughly square shape and used in construction. The
facing stones are provided a hammer-dressed finish. Larger
stones are used as quoins. Chips are not used as bedding.
 Dry Rubble Masonry
 These are rubble masonry construction performed without the use of
mortar. Small spaces are filled with smaller stone pieces. It is used in
pitching the earthen dams and the canal slopes.
 Polygonal Rubble Masonry
 stones for masonry are roughly shaped into irregular polygons. The
stones are then arranged in such a way that it avoids vertical joints in
the face work. Break the joints as possible. Use of stone chips to
support the stones.
 Flint Rubble Masonry
 In areas where flint is available plenty, a flint rubble masonry is
employed. Flints are irregularly shaped nodules of silica. They are
extremely hard but brittle in nature. The thickness of the Flintstones
varies from 8 to 15cm. Their length varies from 15 to 30cm.

- Ashlar Masonry
 square or rectangular blocks that are used are dressed and have an extremely fine bed
and end joints.
 Types of Ashlar Masonry
 Ashlar Fine
 In ashlar fine masonry construction, each stone is cut into uniform
size and shape, almost rectangular in shape. This shape hence
provides perfect horizontal and vertical joints with the adjacent
stones. An ashlar fine masonry construction is very costly.
 Ashlar Block-In Course
 This type is a combination of ashlar masonry and rubble masonry.
The faces work of the masonry stones is either rough tooled or
hammer dressed stones. The backing of the wall may be done in
rubble masonry
 Ashlar Chamfered
 the sides of the stones are chamfered or beveled at an angle of 45
degrees by means of a chisel at a depth of 25mm.
 Ashlar Rough Tooled
 This type has stones whose sides are finely chisel-dressed. The face
of the stones is made rough by means of tools. Around the perimeter
of the rough dressed face of each stone, a strip of 25mm width is
provided.
 Ashlar Quarry Faced
 This masonry type has a 25 mm wide strip made by a chisel placed
around the perimeter of every stone. The remaining portion of the
face is left in the same form as it is received.