Module Three:
gas) and nonvolatile dust (silicate minerals and carbon
THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
(PROPERTIES AND CURRENT INFORMATION OF
THE SOLAR SYSTEM)
* The Solar System shows remarkable regularities in some
its observable properties. These regularities are observed
in the motion and location of the planets and their
satellites. Among these observed regularities are the
following:
1. The orbits of all planets are almost in the same plane.
2. The planetary orbits are nearly circular.
3. The orbits of the planets are nearly in the same plane as
the rotation of the sun.
4. All planets revolve around the sun in counterclockwise
direction.
5. The distances of the planets from the sun can be
expressed in a similar relationship called Bode’s Law,
named after German astronomer Johann Bode.
6. The satellite system of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly
identical in their arrangements with the Solar System. The
distances of the satellite from the planets follow Bode’s
Law.
7. The satellites and planets contain almost all the
rotational motion of the Solar System.
8. The Solar System also contains asteroids and comets.
Properties of the Solar System
1) Asteroids - Are made up of rocks and are sometimes
referred to as minor planets in many ways.
 They are atmosphere-free and they orbit around
the sun.
 They tend to congregate in what is known as
main asteroid belt.
 Ceres – first known asteroid.
 Main Belt Asteroids – Are located between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
2) Comets - Are composed mainly of ice (frozen water and
grains).
 They only become active when their orbits take
them near the sun.
 The sun’s heat causes the frozen gas to
sublimate, jet of streams.
 These vapor jets create a spectacular tail
streaming out from the sun.
Comets originate from two regions of the
outer Solar System:
A. Kuiper Belt – It is often called the Solar Systems “final
frontier”.
 Outermost region of the Solar System
 Short period comets (orbit around the sun in less
than 200 years).
 Example: Halley’s Comet
B. Oort Cloud – It is located farther than the Kuiper Belt
and, therefore, remained unexplored.
 Long-period comets (orbits ranging from 200
years up to millions of years)
3) Planets - It is an astronomical body orbiting a star or
stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by
its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause
thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighboring
region of planetesimals.
The planets are grouped into two categories
based on composition:
A. Terrestrial Planets / Earth-like Planets / Inner Planets /
Rocky Planets – Are composed mostly of dense, rocky, and
metallic materials.
 Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
B. Jovian Planets / Jupiter-like Planets / Outer Planets / Gas
Planets – Are made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Our solar system consists of our star, the Sun, and
everything bound to it by gravity – the planets Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune;
dwarf planets such as Pluto; dozens of moons; and
millions of asteroids, comets, and meteoroids.
Thermonuclear reactions turn hydrogen into helium in
the Sun’s interior and produce light and heat for a solar
system of 8 planets, moons, dwarf planets, meteoroids,
comets, asteroids, etc.
1. Our solar system is believed to be about 4.6 billion
years old. It's thought to have arisen from a cloud of gas
and dust in space. The original cloud was spinning, and
this spin caused it to flatten out into a disk shape. The sun
and planets are believed to have formed out of this disk,
which is why, today, the planets still orbit in a single plane
around our sun. It makes sense that most large planets in
our solar system stay near the ecliptic plane.
As the cloud spins faster and faster, it collapses into a disk,
which is the maximal balance between gravitational
collapse and centrifugal force created by rapid spin.
Earth-sun plane is called the ecliptic. Most major planets
in our solar system stay within 3 degrees of the ecliptic.
Mercury is the exception; its orbit is inclined to the
ecliptic by 7 degrees. The dwarf planet Pluto is a widely
known exception to this rule. Its orbit is inclined to the
ecliptic by more than 17 degrees.
Started big shapeless blob our nebula because in our
universe the total amount of spinning in any isolated
system always stays the same, so meaning to say clouds
loses it loft.
Because in our universe the total amount of spinning in
any isolated system always stays the same, so meaning to
say clouds loses it loft. Angular momentum is conserved.
2. However, angular momentum is always conserved.
That's why planets all follow the same orbit, and why
almost all of them rotate in the same direction.
In our solar system, Venus and Neptune have nearly
circular orbits with eccentricities of 0.007 and 0.009,
respectively, while Mercury has the most elliptical orbit
with an eccentricity of 0.206.
Perihelion
Aphelion.
To be perfect circle a planet have zero eccentricity
Eccentric- not placed centrally or not having its axis or
other part placed centrally.
In our solar system, Venus and Neptune have nearly
circular orbits with eccentricities of 0.007 and 0.009,
respectively, while Mercury has the most elliptical orbit
with an eccentricity of 0.206. Perihelion and aphelion.
They have this generally stretched of circle which is
technical led called as an ellipse. How stretched it could
be? It depends on the eccentrity that the planets possess
An ellipse is symmetrical shape close to oval.
To be perfect circle a planet have zero eccentricity
Eccentric- not placed centrally or not having its axis or
other part placed centrally.
Mass of planet, orbital velocity, distance from the star
that could match the gravitational influence of that star.
A slight changes of this variable would derail the planet
maintaining perfectly circular.
3. 1.997 km/s sun's rotation
It makes sense that most large planets in our solar system
stay near the ecliptic plane (The ecliptic is an imaginary
line that marks the path of the sun. The signs of the Zodiac
come from the constellations that lie along this line.). ...
The sun and planets are believed to have formed out of
this disk, which is why, today, the planets still orbit in a
single plane around our sun
Most major planets in our solar system stay within 3
degrees of the ecliptic. Mercury is the exception; its orbit
is inclined to the ecliptic by 7 degrees.
The dwarf planet Pluto is a widely known exception to this
rule. Its orbit is inclined to the ecliptic by more than 17
degrees.
4. "When a galaxy or a planetary system forms, its
material takes the shape of a disk. Most of the material
orbits and rotates in one direction. This uniformity of
motion (in which an object changes its position over time)
is due to the collapse of a gas cloud. The nature of the
collapse is explained by the principle called conservation
of angular momentum.
Counterclockwise - This is due to the initial conditions in
the cloud of gas and dust from which our solar system
formed. As this gas and dust cloud began to collapse it
also began to rotate.
Most of the objects in our solar system, including the Sun,
planets, and asteroids, all rotate counter-clockwise. This
is due to the initial conditions in the cloud of gas and dust
from which our solar system formed. As this gas and dust
cloud began to collapse it also began to rotate.
5. Named after German astronomer Johann Bode.
Empirical rule giving the approximate distances of planets
from the Sun. Bode's law was used to determine 7th of
the eight planet distances from the sun
It was first announced in 1766 by the German astronomer
Johann Daniel Titius but was popularized only from 1772
by his countryman Johann Elert Bode. Once suspected to
have some significance regarding the formation of the
solar system, Bode’s law is now generally regarded as a
numerological curiosity with no known justification.
AND IN BETWEEN OF MARS AND JUPITER THERE IS SPACE
ASTEROID BELT AND IN BEFORE THEY FOUND CERES IN
1801AFTER 30 YRS LATER AFTER CERE WAS DISCOVERED.
WHAT DOES THIS NUMBER AN THEY DETERMINE FAR OR
CLOSER THAN THE ARTH PLANET IS TO THE SUN.
6. 79 moons
Jupiter has 53 named moons and another 26 awaiting
official names. Combined, scientists now think Jupiter has
79 moons.
Saturn is the new moon king. A team led by Carnegie's
Scott S. Sheppard has found 20 new moons orbiting
Saturn. This brings the ringed planet's total number of
moons to 82, surpassing Jupiter, which has 79.
Jupiter 11.19 diameter
Saturn 9.40
7. Gravitational pull
A satellite maintains its orbit by balancing two factors: its
velocity (the speed it takes to travel in a straight line) and
the gravitational pull that Earth has on it. A satellite
orbiting closer to the Earth requires more velocity to
resist the stronger gravitational pull.
Retrograde motion in astronomy is, in general, orbital or
rotational motion of an object in the direction opposite
the rotation of its primary, that is, the central object (right
figure). It may also describe other motions such as
precession or nutation of an object's rotational axis.
Prograde or direct motion is more normal motion in the
same direction as the primary rotates. However,
"retrograde" and "prograde" can also refer to an object
other than the primary if so described. The direction of
rotation is determined by an inertial frame of reference,
such as distant fixed stars.
8. Asteroids and comets have a few things in common.
They are both celestial bodies orbiting our Sun, and they
both can have unusual orbits, sometimes straying close to
Earth or the other planets. They are both “leftovers” —
made from materials from the formation of our Solar
System 4.5 billion years ago.
Comets spend most of their lives far away from the Sun in
the distant reaches of the solar system. They primarily
originate from two regions: the Kuiper Belt (Astronomer
Gerard Kuiper) (beyond Neptune and it is 30 astronomical
units away from the sun) Kuiper belt contains 100 million
comets, and the Oort cloud (Jan Oort)
Gerard Kuiper & Jon Oort
Asteroids -Are made up of rocks and are sometimes
referred to as minor planets in many ways.
-They are atmosphere-free and they orbit around the sun.
-They tend to congregate in what is known as main
asteroid belt.
·Ceres- first known asteroid.
·Main Belt Asteroids- Are located between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter.
So basically asteroids are just comet without the ice. Just
dust, rock and metals, they formed in between mars and
Jupiter (region called asteroid belt) 65 million years ago
this cause massive explosion and this cause of the
extinction of dinosaur.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and
Federal Emergency Management Agency (laser, bomb,
and magpadala ng spacecraft)
Ceres is the largest object in the main asteroid belt that
lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. With a
diameter of 940 km, Ceres is both the largest of the
asteroids and the only dwarf planet inside Neptune's
orbit. It is the 25th-largest body in the Solar System within
the orbit of Neptune.
The largest of these, known as Ceres, is not only the
largest minor planet in the Inner solar system, but also the
only body in this region to be designated as a "dwarf
planet" by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).
Due to its size and shape, when it was first observed,
Ceres was thought to be a planet.
Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its
orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other
asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about
25% of the belt's total mass.
Comets - are basically big balls of dust, rock and metals,
surrounded by thick icy shell orbiting around our sun.
When interact with this its ice sublimates meaning from
solid state to gaseous state.
-Are composed mainly of ice (frozen water and gas) and
nonvolatile dust (silicate minerals and carbon grains).
-They only become active when their orbits take them
near the sun. The sun’s heat causes the frozen gas to
sublimate, jet of streams. These vapor jets create a
spectacular tail streaming out from the sun.
Edge of Neptune or beyond Neptune why there?
§It is often called the Solar Systems “final frontier”.
§Outermost region of the Solar System
§Short period comets (orbit around the sun in less than
200 years).
The Oort cloud lies far beyond Pluto and the most distant
edges of the Kuiper Belt. While the planets of our solar
system orbit in a flat plane, the Oort cloud is believed to
be a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun, planets and
Kuiper Belt Objects.
§It is located farther than the Kuiper Belt and, therefore,
remained unexplored.
§Long-period comets (orbits ranging from 200 years up to
millions of years)
Asteroid- so basically asteroids are just comet without the
ice. Just dust, rock and metals, they formed in between
mars and Jupiter (region calle asteroid belt) 65 million
years ago this cause massive explosion and this cause of
the extinction of dinosaur.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and
Federal Emergency Management Agency (laser, bomb,
and magpadala ng spacecraft)
What is a NEO?
A NEO (Near Earth Object) is an asteroid or comet that
comes within 50 million km (30 million miles) of Earth’s
orbit. They are considered the objects that represent a
possible danger to the Earth. NEOs consist of NEAs (Near
Earth Asteroids) and NECs (Near Earth Comets). There are
far more NEAs than NECs (discovered as of 2018: more
than 18,000 NEAs and about 100 NECs).
What is a PHA?
A PHA (Potentially Hazardous Asteroid) is a NEA larger
than about 140 meters whose orbit can bring it within 7.5
million km (4.5 million mi; 0.05 AU) of Earth’s orbit.
Meteoroid- piece of rocky space debris floating around
the solar system. Their size is usually like pebble. Some of
them came from asteroid, moon or even mars.
Meteors- these are Metroid’s that hits earth's
atmosphere we know these as shooting shooting stars.
When it burns of the atmosphere it causes like flash of
light.
Meteorites- so these are meteoroids that passes on earth
(pumasok SA earth and hit the surface of the earth. They
are hard to monitor because they're too small. Even they
are small they are still dangerous because they still travel
in high velocity
Planets – It is an astronomical body orbiting a star or
stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by
its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause
thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighboring
region of planetesimals

Comets - are basically big balls of dust, rock and metals,

surrounded by thick icy shell orbiting around our sun.
When interact with this its ice sublimates meaning from
solid state to gaseous state.
We now know already about star and galaxy, including
our own Milky Way galaxy now it’s to talk about our
location with this structure. About 4.5 billion years ago.
The solar system is located in the Milky Way’s Orion
cluster
-The collection of eight planets and their moons in orbit
around the sun, together with smaller bodies in the form
of asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
In the origin of the universe, there was an era when stars
and galaxies began to form.
A galaxy is defined as gravitationally-bound system of
stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, and dark matter.
Milky Way is one of the billion galaxies in the observable
universe. The observable refers to the region of the
universe from Earth’s vantage point
Humans are humans wave looked into the sky for
portents of the future. The sun the moon, the stars,
planets, they all used for prognostication. Foretelling,
prophecy
The collection of eight planets and their moons in orbit
around the sun, together with smaller bodies in the form
of asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
BUT before we deepened our thoughts about the objects
in the solar system let’s find out first. Where is the
location of the solar system?
The solar system is located in the Milky Way’s Orion
cluster. Only 15% of the stars in the galaxy host planetary
systems. One of those stars is our SUN.
Our solar system is one of the 500 known solar system in
the Milky Way. And are discovering new ones every year.
Given how many they have found in our own
neighborhood of the Milky Way galaxy, scientists
estimate that there may be tens of billions of solar
systems in our galaxy, perhaps even as many as 100
billion.
51 Pegasi
70 Virginis
47 Ursae Majoris
Upsilon Andromeda
UY Scuti
UY Scuti is the largest star in the universe and dwarfs all
other stars. The sun may appear to be the largest star in
the sky but that's just because it's the closest. On a stellar
scale, it's really quite average — about half of the known
stars are larger; half are smaller. The largest known star
in the universe is UY Scotia, a hyper giant with a radius
around 1,700 times larger than the sun. And it's not alone
in dwarfing Earth's dominant star.
Is the sun the biggest star?
Although the Sun appears larger to us than any other star,
there are many stars which are much larger. The Sun
appears so large compared to the other stars because it
is so much closer to us than any other star. The Sun is just
an average sized star.
The planets are divided into 2 categories according to
composition. Terrestrial inner planets
(Mercury,venus,earth mars they are made of rocky
material, surface are solid, they don't have ring system,
few moon and relatively small) and Jovian Jupiter and
saturn (gas giant made of helium) and Uranus and
neptunes Ice giants they have multiple moons
Mercury- smallest planet, shortest orbit
Venus is the hottest planet 867 degrees Fahrenheit due
to the atmosphere of carbon dioxide and extensive lava
flows
Earth - water system of the planet in sustaining the life
Mars - might have supported life -
Outer planets. Rather than having thin atmospheres
around relatively large rocky bodies, the Jovian planets
have relatively small, dense cores surrounded by massive
layers of gas. Made almost entirely of hydrogen and
helium, these planets do not have solid surfaces.
napakalaki - immense
Largest planet - Jupiter, largest Jovian planet
Saturn - second largest planet - most beautiful planet
Pluto is no longer part of solar system. Because it has not
cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, Pluto is
considered a dwarf planet. It orbits in a disc-like zone
beyond the orbit of Neptune called the Kuiper belt, a
distant region populated with frozen bodies left over
from the solar system's formation
CERES- SPACECRAFT NAMED DAW. 900 KM
VESTA- DAWN
According to the International Astronomical Union, which
sets definitions for planetary science, a dwarf planet is a
celestial body that -orbits the sun, has enough mass to
assume a nearly round shape, has not cleared the
neighborhood around its orbit and is not a moon.
The only difference between a planet and a dwarf planet
is the area surrounding each celestial body. A dwarf
planet has not cleared the area around its orbit, while a
planet has. Since the new definition, three objects in our
solar system have been classified as dwarf planets: Pluto,
Ceres and Eris.
Go astronomy.com
There are more than 200 moons. There are more than
200 moons in our solar system. Most orbit the giant
planets — with Saturn and Jupiter leading moon counts
— but even smaller worlds like Pluto can have five moons
in orbit. Moons come in many shapes, sizes and types.
Moons – also known as natural satellites – orbit planets
and asteroids in our solar system. Earth has one moon,
and there are more than 200 moons in our solar system.
Most of the major planets – all except Mercury and Venus
– have moons.
An asteroid is a large, irregularly shaped object in space
that orbits our Sun. If one of these giant rocks ends up on
a collision course with Earth, we are in for big trouble. An
asteroid is like a comet. However, while comets are
mostly made of ice, asteroids are made up of rock or even
metal.
Giuseppe Piazzi - POINT OF LIGHT OBSERVATION
“CERES”
CARBONACEOUS, SILICACIOUS, IRON NICKEL, OTHER
METALS
STAR LIKE - ASTEROIDS
Gap between mars and JUPITER - THEY WANT TO HAVE
PLANET IN THERE
Millions of kilometers apart - they are empty space. Yung
pelikpapanuod niyo ali ya totoo
Comets a celestial object consisting of a nucleus of ice and
dust and, when near the sun, a “tail” of gas and dust
particles pointing away from the sun.
Comets have been since antiquity; Comet Halley
Comets are balance mixture of rock and ice and by Ice
frozen water but also frozen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, methane ammonia.
Rock= gravel and dust
DIRTY SNOWBALLS
Elliptical orbits - brings comet near to the sun and where
the sun can warm them
As they heat the ice. It became gas - SUBLIMATION
Coma- GAS AROUND IN THE COMET IS COMA IN LATIN
WHICH MEANS HAIR
Nucleus- SOLID PART OF THE COMET
THE GAS AND DUST FORM TWO TAILS
Dust tails - the dust tail curves toward the orbital path
Ion tail- The gas or ion tail punts straight away from the
sun
The tail gets longer the closer to the sun.
The tails always directed away from the sun.
Why the tails directed away because of the solar wind.
Comets - are basically big balls of dust, rock and metals,
surrounded by thick icy shell orbiting around our sun.
When its ice interact with this sublimates meaning from
solid state to gaseous state.
Asteroid- so basically asteroids are just comet without the
ice. Just dust, rock and metals, they formed in between
mars and Jupiter (region calle asteroid belt) 65 million
years ago this cause massive explosion and this cause of
the extinction of dinosaur.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and
Federal Emergency Management Agency (laser, bomb,
and magpadala ng spacecraft)
What is a NEO?
A NEO (Near Earth Object) is an asteroid or comet that
comes within 50 million km (30 million miles) of Earth’s
orbit. They are considered the objects that represent a
possible danger to the Earth. NEOs consist of NEAs (Near
Earth Asteroids) and NECs (Near Earth Comets). There are
far more NEAs than NECs (discovered as of 2018: more
than 18,000 NEAs and about 100 NECs).
What is a PHA?
A PHA (Potentially Hazardous Asteroid) is a NEA larger
than about 140 meters whose orbit can bring it within 7.5
million km (4.5 million mi; 0.05 AU) of Earth’s orbit.
Meteoroid- piece of rocky space debris floating around
the solar system. Their size is usually like pebble. Some of
them came from asteroid, moon or even mars.
Meteors- these are Metroid’s that hits earth's
atmosphere we know these as shooting shooting stars.
When it burns of the atmosphere it causes like flash of
light. (PERSEID AUGUST - LEONIDS- NOVEMBER,
CARMELOPARDALIDS. EARTH ORBITAL MOTIONS - MORE
METEORS PWEDENG MAKITA. GEMINI SHOWER
DECEMBER
Meteorites- so these are meteoroids that passes on earth
(pumasok sa earth and hit the surface of the earth. They
are hard to monitor because they're too small. Even they
are small they are still dangerous because they still travel
in high velocity. BOLIDE, FIREBALL
According to NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
BOARROKOTH AND PLUTO - Both Arrokoth (recently
visited by NASA's New Horizons mission) and Pluto are in
the Kuiper Belt – a donut-shaped region of icy bodies
beyond the orbit of Neptune. There may be millions of
these icy objects, collectively referred to as Kuiper Belt
objects (KBOs) or trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), in this
distant region of our solar system.
Asteroid Belt - Collection of icy debris
The edge of the solar system gravitational and physical
ends of the sun
DESCARTES’ VORTEX THEORY Rene Descartes was French
philosopher and mathematician who first proposed a
model of for the origin of solar system.
He published a book named Le monde. He devised a
theory of vertices which postulated that the space is
entirely filled with matter (Matter is defined as anything
that has mass and takes up space (it has volume) in
various state whirling around the SUN. Descartes
attempted to figure out the enigma of gravity and the
necessity of medium
In space for any function to happen including the
gravitation with the vortex theory of colliding particle
which hypothesized that the collisions supply the force
that pushes the planets towards the sun. Cartesian
system was used order to determine the location or point
of the planets.
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the
object's interaction with another object. Whenever there
is an interaction between two objects, there is a force
upon each of the objects.
Solar System was formed into bodies with nearly circular
orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-
solar materials.
The orbits of the planets are the primary whirlpool
motion and the satellites the secondary whirlpool motion.
RENE DESCARTES
BUFFON’S COLLISION THEORY the planets were formed
by the collision of the sun with a giant comet (Comets are
cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust that orbit
the Sun. When frozen, they are the size of a small town.
When a comet's orbit brings it close to the Sun, it heats
up and spews dust and gases into a giant glowing head
larger than most planets.)
The resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the
same direction as they revolved around the sun.
Planets were formed from debris after the sun's collision
with a giant comet.
GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC
KANT-LAPLACE NEBULAR THEORY Nebula (a cloud of gas
and dust in outer space, visible in the night sky either as
an indistinct bright patch or as a dark silhouette against
other luminous matter.) Nebula collapses because of
gravitational force, and contracts as it spins more rapidly.
Other than that it is also with the (Irregularities in the
density of the gas causes a net gravitational force that
pulls the gas molecules closer together. Some
astronomers think that a gravitational or magnetic
disturbance causes the nebula to collapse. As the gases
collect, they lose potential energy, which results in an
increase in temperature.)
The spinning cloud flattens with bulges at the center. As
the collapse continues, the bulges became the sun and
planets.
The simplistic nebular theory that explains how the sun
and the planet were created in a single process was very
attractive but it had a major flaw.
It assumed that the angular momentum of the system
was in the sun, which is not the case. Only 0.5 % of the
total angular momentum was contain in the sun’s spin.
The remainder was in the planetary orbit.
There have been attempts to explain the major flaw but
these were unsuccessful.
IMMANUEL KANT
PIERRE SIMON LAPLACE
Here is the diagram of what we believe on what
happened in solar nebular theory. Here with picture a, b,
c, d
First picture here is we have spinning gas and clouds
started to contract (all materials, even small particles
started to come together with the help of gravity and
here gravity started to attract particles even the smallest
particles and when it began to contract it starts to flatten
out.
Second picture we really have thin disc of gas and dust
remain and that thin disc continue revolving around that
star forming at the center star starts to ignite and this is
where the sun was born.
Third noong nabuo yung sun hindi tapos kasi may debris
pa diyan na mga particles and that remaining particles
started accumulate or ignite and became the planet.
Planets are form at the same time from the same cloud
(the cloud we are referring here is the nebula cloud of gas
and dust where stars begin as the star. stars starting to
ignite
The Solar System was formed as a result of the
condensation of hydrogen gas and
Dust referred to as interstellar gas (The gas between stars
is mostly hydrogen and helium scattered at varying
densities) and dust cloud. Something must have
happened to trigger the condensation of the gas and dust
cloud.
An explosion of a star (supernova) might have caused the
dust and gas cloud to
Collapse, forming the sun and planets. Without this
violent disturbance, the gas and dust
Cloud would remain an expanded and uncondensed
cloud.
The gas and dust cloud collapsed due to the force of
gravity. The center compressed
Enough to become a protostar, leaving the outer material
suspended around the center.
As the cloud continues to shrink, its rotational speed
increase and becomes a rapidly
Rotating disk. The contraction coverts gravitational
energy into heat energy, and causes
The center of the glow. When the temperature is
sufficient enough, a nuclear reaction
Begins at the core of the protostar, and later becomes the
sun.
A mechanism to transfer the angular momentum from a
preexisting star involves the
Loss of ionized material and the strong stellar magnetic
field. Ionized materials move
Outward and locks to a magnetic field. Forming the sun
requires inward movement while
The magnetic field requires outward movement.
The remaining gas and dust cloud form disk shaped
bodies called solar nebulae due to
Rotation.
According to the solar nebular theory, the formation of
the planets involves different
Stages, in contrast to the single process of nebular theory.
a) Accretion of gain-sized particles to form centimeter-
sized particles which would
Later grow to several kilometers in diameter. The objects
formed called
Planetesimals.
b) The formation of more massive objects from coalescing
planetesimals. The
Massive objects are referred to as protoplanets. These
would later become the
Planets.
Emanuel Swedenborg
JEANS-JEFFREY’S TIDAL THEORY This hypothesis is based
on dualist approach (there are two heavenly bodies from
which are originated that theory is dualistic theory)

So si James taga ang proponent netong theory pero

there's a little bit of clarification sa thoery kaya papasok si
harold jeffrey kasi so james parang unrealistic so harold
tried to correct those unrealistic fact.

Here we have two heavenly bodies which is the sun and

number two is intruding star what happened is that this
intruding star came close to the sun. As we all know if an
object has more mass or weight its gravitational
attraction or the power of gravity will be more (if mass
increases the force of gravity increases. One tongue
shape matter came out and start revolving around the
sun. Due to rotation, gravitational attraction.
Solidification process happened. In the Jeans-Jeffrey’s
tidal hypothesis, the Sun (A) is approached by another
star (B), which pulls a tongue of matter off the solar
surface After the wandering star recedes, the tongue of
matter breaks up into drops which form planets revolving
around the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is in the
position of the thickest part of the cigar-shaped tongue.

The planets were formed from the

Substance that was torn out of the sun.

As a speeding massive star passed near the

Sun, it pulled off material due to gravitational

Attraction. The torn-off material subsequently

Condensed to form the planets.

The Jeans-Jeffrey’s tidal hypothesis, championed by

James Jeans and Harold Jeffrey’s, explained the origin of
the solar system as a result of a close encounter between
the Sun and a second star.

JAMES HOPWOOD JEANS & Harold Jeffrey’s

Chronological order of significant events.
But why do we have to study History of the earth?
Kasaysayan - saysay
The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in
Earth history. It subdivides all time into named units of
abstract time called—in descending order of duration—
eons( hundreds or thousands mill of years), eras(tens to
hundreds million years), periods(not more than
thousands of years, epochs(smallest division of geologic
time scale) it time where is here was described the
evolution of mammals and birds, and ages.
This is use to identify the major events in our earth's
History
Geologists have divided Earth's history into a series of
time intervals. These time intervals are not equal in length
like the hours in a day. Instead the time intervals are
variable in length. This is because geologic time is divided
using significant events in the history of the Earth.
The largest defined unit of time is the supereon,
composed of eons. Eons are divided into eras, which are
in turn divided into periods, epochs and ages. The terms
"eonothem", "erathem", "system", "series", and "stage"
are used to refer to the layers of rock that correspond to
these periods of geologic time in Earth's history.
How are scientist able to describe Earths history?
Geologists reconstruct the sequence of events from the
study of petrology, stratigraphy, and paleontology
Based on the information gathered from the study of
rocks’ composition and structure, rock, layers and fossils,
geologist developed the geologic time scale. It represents
the interval of time occupied meaningful time frame
within which events of the geologic past are arranged.
A person who studies human history and prehistory
through the excavation of sites and the analysis of
artifacts and other physical remains.
How do scientists determine the geologic time? Scientist
measure geologic time
Using two methods: relative dating and absolute dating
Absolute dating is the process of determining an age on a
specified time scale in archaeology and geology.
Radiometric dating - examines the ratio of one isotope to
another in rock to determine its age.
In geology and archaeology it is the finding of numeric age
of rocks and fossils using radiometric dating.
Archaeology - the study of human history and prehistory
through the excavation of sites and the analysis of
artifacts and other physical remains.
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope
dating is a technique which is used to date materials such
as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities
were selectively incorporated when they were formed.
This simply means that through relative dating, one can
find out which layer was formed first relative to the other
layers.
Relative Dating cannot tell exactly how many years have
passed since the event happened.
Accurate and precise each of the layers here is what you
called strata. Stratigraphy is scientific study about layers.
Geological activity and erosion by the Colorado River
created the Grand Canyon as we know it today. It is one
of the most studied landscapes in the world, with
extensive fossil records, a multitude of geologic features
and rich archeological history
Principle of Original Horizontality Sedimentary rocks are
deposited as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. Any
deviation from horizontality indicates that deformation
occurs after deposition.
Nicoloas steno
Physical weathering is caused by the effects of changing
temperature on rocks, causing the rock to break apart.
The process is sometimes assisted by water. Freeze-thaw
occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes
and expands, eventually breaking the rock apart. ...
Chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting
with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals
(clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur
particularly when the water is slightly acidic.
Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken
down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is
subsequently transported by the action of wind...
Sediment is solid material that is moved and deposited in
a new location. Sediment can consist of rocks and
minerals, as well as the remains of plants and animals. It
can be as small as a grain of sand or as large as a boulder.
... Erosion can move sediment through water, ice, or
wind.
Sedimentary rocks are deposited as horizontal or nearly
horizontal layers. Any deviation from horizontality
indicates that deformation occurs after deposition.
Principle of Superposition In the sequence of sedimentary
rocks, the layer at the bottom of the sequence is the
oldest, and the successively of higher levels are
successively younger.
Geologists use the law of superposition to determine the
relative ages of sedimentary to determine the relative
ages of sedimentary rocks from the sequence of rock
layers and the fossils within each layer.
New layers forms on top of previous layers.
Liquid rock that forms under Earth's surface. ...
Technically speaking, an intrusion is any formation of
intrusive igneous rock; rock formed from magma that
cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet. In
contrast, an extrusion consists of extrusive rock; rock
formed above the surface of the crust.
Liquid rock that forms under Earth's surface. ...
Technically speaking, an intrusion is any formation of
intrusive igneous rock; rock formed from magma that
cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet. In
contrast, an extrusion consists of extrusive rock; rock
formed above the surface of the crust.
While carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope (radioisotope).
Uranium-235 and uranium-238 occur naturally in the
Earth's crust. Both have long half-lives.

What type of rock is Supai Group?

It is composed of red mudstone, sandstone, and tan

limestone

Principle of Cross-cutting relationship Geologic features

like faults or igneous intrusions rocks are younger that the
rocks they cut across.

Any geologic feature that crosscuts or modifies another

feature must be younger than the rocks it cuts through

As a principle of geology that states that the geologic

feature which cuts another is the younger of the two
features. It is a relative dating technique in geology.

Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when
hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies.

Any rock derived from magma (molten silicate material)

that was poured out or ejected at Earth’s surface.

Intrusive rock, also called plutonic rock, igneous rock

formed from magma forced into older rocks at depths
within the Earth's crust, which then slowly solidifies below
the Earth's surface, though it may later be exposed by
erosion. Igneous intrusions form a variety of rock types.

Intrusive - granite

Basalt - extrusive rock

Principle of Inclusion If rocks or rock fragments must be

older than the rock layer where they were embedded.

Any rock fragments that are included in rock must be

older than the rock in which they are included.
A fossil is a remnant or trace of organisms of a past
geologic age. When you visit a natural history museum,
you will find different types of fossils.
Why fossils important?
It unlocked the mysteries. There is big question Mark.
Dinosaur fossils have been found on every continent of
Earth, including Antarctica but most of the dinosaur
fossils and the greatest variety of species have been
found high in the deserts and badlands of North America,
China and Argentina.
Patagonian - America 2016
Megalosaurus - London crystal Palace Park
T-Rex tyrannosaurus Rex - Jurassic Park - western north
America- Tyrant Lizard King
Giganotosaurus
Fossilization is the process of an animal or plant becoming
preserved in a hard, petrified form. Fossilization often
results in the impression of an organism being left in a
rock. When a leaf or an animal skeleton becomes a fossil,
that's fossilization.
Fossils are rare except as captured in amber, trapped in
tar, dried out, or frozen as a preserved wooly mammoth.
Argentina this could be the oldest titanosaur.
Biggest Dinosaur. Ever Recorded
Iguanodon was an Ornithischian dinosaur. ...
Tyrannosaurus Rex was a Saurischian dinosaur. ...
Allosaurus was a Saurischian dinosaur. ...
These ostriches are actually sauropod dinosaurs!
Velociraptor was a dromaeosaurid. ...
Carnotaurus was a abelisaurid. ...
Albertosaurus was a Tyrannosaurus, and a close relative
of T.
True form fossils are the entire animals or plants trapped
and preserved in ice, tar, or other material, such as
remains of prehistoric elephants or mammoths that were
frozen in the Arctic tundra of Siberia and Alaska.
Resin
Are the entire animals or plants trapped and preserved in
ice, tar, or other material, such as remains of prehistoric
elephants or mammoths that were frozen in the Arctic
tundra of Siberia and Alaska.
TRACE/Ichnofossils, also known as trace fossils, are
geological records of the activities and behaviors of past
life. Some examples include rock evidence of nests,
burrows, footprints, and scat. These fossils are different
from body fossils that preserve the actual remains of a
body such as shells or bones.
What are the 5 trace fossils?
Tracks, burrows, eggshells, nests, tooth marks, gastroliths
(gizzard stones), and coprolites (fossil feces) are examples
of trace fossils or ichnofossils.
Fossil record of biological activity but not the preserved
remains of the plant or animal itself. Trace fossils contrast
with body fossils, which are the fossilized remains of parts
of organisms' bodies, usually altered by later chemical
activity or mineralization.
CAST are created when mold fossils get filled with
mineral. The minerals harden and form a replica of the
original fossil.
Are created when mold fossils get filled with mineral
The minerals harden and form a replica of the original
fossil.
Dinosaur fossils have been found on every continent of
Earth, including Antarctica but most of the dinosaur
fossils and the greatest variety of species have been
found high in the deserts and badlands of North America,
China and Argentina.
Patagotitan - America 2016
Megalosaurus - London crystal Palace Park
T-Rex tyrannosaurus Rex - Jurassic Park - western north
America- Tyrant Lizard King
Giganotosaurus
Fossilization is the process of an animal or plant becoming
preserved in a hard, petrified form. Fossilization often
results in the impression of an organism being left in a
rock. When a leaf or an animal skeleton becomes a fossil,
that's fossilization.
Fossils are rare except as captured in amber, trapped in
tar, dried out, or frozen as a preserved wooly mammoth.
Fossilization is the process of an animal or plant becoming
preserved in a hard, petrified form. Fossilization often
results in the impression of an organism being left in a
rock. When a leaf or an animal skeleton becomes a fossil,
that's fossilization.

Fossils are rare except as captured in amber, trapped in

tar, dried out, or frozen as a preserved wooly mammoth.

Or in short fossils are remain of once living organisms.

Most animals become fossilized by being buried in

sediment. For them to be fossilized, they have to be
buried and leave an imprint before they decompose.
Animals without skeletons are seldom fossilized, because
they decompose so quickly. Animals with hard skeletons
are much easier to fossilize.

Calcium carbonate or silica.

What minerals form fossils?

The most common method of fossilization is petrification

through a process called permineralisation. After a shell,
bone or tooth is buried in sediment, it may be exposed to
mineral-rich fluids moving through the porous rock
material and becomes filled with preserving minerals
such as calcium carbonate or silica.

MOLD FOSSILS

Are hollow impressions of a living thing in a rock.

Shape and surface marking of the organisms.

TRACE FOSSILS

Are impressions on rocks that showed various activities.

Fossils can be footprints, eggs, droppings, or nests of

animals.

The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law

of faunal succession, is based on the observation that
sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna,
and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a
specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide
horizontal distances

Using fossils determine the age of rocks

Fossils that help determine the age of other fossils and

rock found in the same sedimentary layer.

Are used to define and identify geologic period of earth’s

history.