EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE
Mundig
THE EARTH
EARTH
- Is the third planet from the sun. It is the only planet
known to have an atmosphere containing free oxygen,
oceans of liquid water on its surface, and, of course,
life.
- Earth is the fifth largest of the planets in the solar
system.
- *Circumference – is the distance around a circle. The
earth’s circumference around the equator is 40,076 km.
the earth’s circumference around the poles is 40,008
km. Thus, the earth is not exactly round. There is a
slight flattening at the poles or a slight bulging at the
equator. Hence, we call the shape of the earth as an
oblate spheroid.
- The earth on the average is 93 million miles from the
sun. Its orbit is elliptical, so that there are times that it is
2% nearer to the sun (perihelion) and 2% farther from
the sun (aphelion).
- Earth’s perihelion occurs around January 3
- Earth’s aphelion occurs around July 4
10 Need-to-Know Things About Earth
1. If the sun were as tall as a typical front door, Earth would be
the size of a nickel.
2. Earth is the third planet from the sun at a distance of about
150 million km (93 million miles) or one AU. Spacecraft study
Earth from above.
3. One day on Earth takes 24 hours. Earth makes a complete
orbit around the sun (a year in Earth time) in about 365 days.
4. Earth is a rocky planet, also known as a terrestrial planet,
with a solid and dynamic surface of mountains, valleys,
canyons, plains and so much more.
5. The Earth's atmosphere is made up of 78% Nitrogen (N2),
21% Oxygen (O2) and 1% other ingredients -- the perfect
balance for us to breathe and live. Many planets have
atmospheres, but only Earth's is breathable.
6. Earth has one moon. Another name for a moon is satellite.
7. Earth has no rings.
8. Many orbiting spacecraft study the Earth from above as a
whole system and together aid in understanding our home
planet.
9. Earth is the perfect place for life.
10. Earth's atmosphere protects us from incoming meteoroids,
most of which break up in our atmosphere before they can
strike the surface as meteorites.
Rotation
- is the Earth's spin about its internal axis, which is tilted
at 23.5 degrees from perpendicular to the plane of our
orbit.
- The axis is the imaginary line that passes through the
center of the earth. The earth’s axis is not upright but is
slightly inclined. Inclination causes the occurrence of
seasons on
earth.
- One rotation
takes 1 day = 24
hours)
- The earth
rotates in a west
to east direction.
Prepared by: Nazibah C.
Revolution
 is the Earth's orbital motion around the Sun.
 Counter clockwise
1 revolution takes 1
year = 365.25 days
 Our orbit around the
Sun is elliptical;
The Tilt of the Earth's Axis
- When the Earth's North Pole is tilted directly
towards the Sun, the latter is highest in the sky (in
the northern hemisphere), which is what we called
the summer solstice.
- When the North Pole is tilted directly away from
the Sun, the latter is lowest in the sky (in the
northern hemisphere), which is the winter solstice.
- As before, the intermediate positions are the
vernal/spring and autumnal/ fall equinoxes.
THE EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
The Earth and the moon directly influence each other.
Moon - is the single natural satellite of the planet Earth.
- It is the Earth's nearest neighbor in space
- The Moon doesn’t shine on its own, it reflects
sunlight.
When the moon is closest to Earth it is called Perigee.
When the
moon is
farther
from Earth
it is called
Apogee.
Others Members of the Earth System
1. Meteoroids - are debris of little chunked of rocks in space.
Meteoroids are smaller asteroids.
2. Meteors - are shooting stars formed from asteroids as they
fall in the atmosphere they cause friction.
3. Meteorites are pieces of meteors that have survived the
journey to hit the ground (Earth) causing an impact of a
meteor.
Meteor Crater - is a crater created by an impact of a meteor.
4. Asteroids (Planetoid or Minor Planets) are small bodies that
are believed to be left over from the beginning of the solar
system 4.6 billion years ago.
- More than 300,000 asteroids have been identified.
5. Asteroid Belt - lies between Mars and Jupiter. They are
thought of as remnants of a ―failed planet‖—one that did
not form due to disturbance from Jupiter’s gravity.
6. Comet is a small celestial body consisting mostly of dust and
gases moving an elongated elliptical or nearly parabolic
orbit around the sun or another star. Comets are enormous
"snowballs' of frozen gases mostly carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor and contain very little solid material.
EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE
SCIENTIFIC MODELS
A model is something scientists use to represent an object
or event in order to make it easier to study.
1. Physical models are models that you can see or touch.
For example, a map is a physical model of Earth.
2. Mathematical model is made up of data and
mathematical equations. Meteorologists often use
mathematical models called climate models to help them
study the Earth’s climate.
LATITUDE and LONGITUDE
The equator is a circle halfway between the North and
South Poles. It divides Earth into two hemispheres, or
halves—the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemisphere.
System – is a set of interconnected components that are
interacting to form a unified whole.
1. Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that
 The present atmosphere is composed of 78%
 Atmospheric Layers:
LATITUDE
Lines of latitude, or Parallels, are imaginary lines on Earth’s
surface that are parallel to the equator.
Latitude is the distance north or south from the equator.
Latitude is measured in degrees. The equator represents 0°
latitude. The North Pole is 90° north latitude and the South
Pole is 90° south latitude. North latitudes are in the
Northern Hemisphere and south latitudes are in the
Southern Hemisphere.
LONGITUDE
Lines of longitude, or Meridians, are imaginary lines that
link the geographic poles. The prime meridian is the line
that represents 0° longitude. The Prime Meridian is found in
Greenwich, England.
Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime
meridian. Like latitude, longitude is measured in degrees.
Together, the prime meridian and the 180° meridian divide
the Earth into Western and Eastern Hemispheres.
FINDING DIRECTIONS ON EARTH
What Is a Map?
A map is a model that shows the features of an object.
Most maps that people use show the features of Earth’s
surface.
Reference points are certain locations that never change.
They can be used to define directions. Earth has two
reference points. They are located where the Earth’s axis of
rotation passes through the Earth’s surface. The reference
points are called the North Pole and the South Pole.
USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
Lines of latitude and longitude cross to form a grid. This
grid is shown on maps and globes. You can use the lines of
latitude and longitude to tell someone the location of any
point on the Earth’s surface.
Prepared by: Nazibah C. Mundig
THE EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
envelopes the lithosphere.
nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% Argon, &
trace amount of other gases.
a. Troposphere – layer that is nearest to the earth’s
surface. It is the densest layer since it contains
about 75% of the atmospheric gases.
b. Stratosphere – layer immediately above the
troposphere. The Ozone layer is found within this
layer. Ozone layer is an unstable bluish gas
composed of three atoms of oxygen (O3) that
absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
– Greenhouse effect – natural warming of the
earth due to presence of atmospheric
gases. This is a natural thermal insulation
that raises global temperature. Naturally
occurring greenhouse gases present in the
air, hold the heat for a certain period of
time.
– *Greenhouse gases – are heat-trapping
gases. Examples of greenhouse gases are
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),
Nitrous Oxide (NO3) and
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC).
– *Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) – is a synthetic
chemical substance that contains chlorine
and bromine. Its trade name is Freon.
Freon is a nonflammable, noncorrosive,
chemically stable and inexpensive super
coolant. A molecule of CFC can destroy 100
thousand molecules of ozone.
c. Mesosphere – layer above the stratosphere. It is a
layer where meteors burn up while entering the
earth’s atmosphere.
d. Thermosphere – starts just above the mesosphere.
This layer contains tiny fraction of the atmospheric gases.
e. Ionosphere – at the lower region of the
thermosphere, blending with the upper region of
the mesosphere is a layer rich with charged
particles or ions. This layer is called ionosphere.
Ionosphere plays an important role in radio and
telecommunication operations on earth.
f. Exosphere – a thin transition layer into outer space
where atoms and molecules tend to flee off
because of a little gravity holding them in this
region. It consists of light gases like hydrogen and
helium.
EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE Prepared by: Nazibah C. Mundig

2. Hydrosphere
 It is the liquid portion of the earth which includes
bodies of water found over and under the earth’s
surface.
 About 2/3 of the earth’s surface is covered with
water. Of this, 97% is seawater and only about
3% is fresh water.

3. Geosphere
 It is the solid portion of the earth which consists
of three parts: the dense core, the less dense
mantle and the crust.

4. Biosphere
 The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the
rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and
from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep
sea. MINERALS & ROCKS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH MINERAL — a naturally occurring (not man-made or

machine generated), inorganic (not a byproduct of living
Earth consists of three concentric layers: the Crust, Mantle, things) solid with an orderly crystalline structure and a
and Core. definite chemical composition
a. Crust – is the thinnest and the outermost layer of the – Minerals are the basic building blocks of rocks.
Earth that extends from the surface to about 32 km – Some examples of minerals are Quartz, Calcite,
below. It is divided into two parts: Fluorite, Talc, Topaz and Diamond.
 Continental crust – it consists mostly of granite and
other light silicate minerals. Location: Land masses
or dry surface area of the Earth
 Oceanic crust – are made up mostly of a dark,
dense volcanic rock called basalt. Location: under
the ocean floor
10 Elements that compose the Earth’s crust:
Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium,
Potassium, Magnesium, Titanium, Hydrogen

b. Mantle – below the crust is the mantle, which extends

to about 2900 km from the Earth’s surface.
 Lithosphere - the solid outer layer of the Earth
above the asthenosphere, consisting of the crust Properties of a mineral:
and upper mantle. 50 – 100 km thick 1. Hardness – refers to the mineral’s resistance to being
*Mohorovičić Discontinuity – boundary between the scratch.
crust and the mantle
Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch resistance of
 Asthenosphere – a soft weak layer beneath the
various minerals from a scale of 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest)
lithosphere, made up of hot molten materials. It
2. Streak – the color of a mineral in its powdered form.
facilitates the movement of lithospheric plates.
Parts of the Mantle:
 Upper mantle – extends from the Moho to a depth
of about 400 km and it is composed of iron and
magnesium silicates, such as the minerals olivine,
pyroxene, and amphibole.
 Lower mantle – is the mantle below 670 kilometer.
3. Luster – refers to the shininess of a mineral
It may consist of magnesium, silicon, and iron and
4. Cleavage – describes how a mineral tends to break along
is denser than the upper mantle due to the increase
preferred planes determined by its molecular structure.
in pressure.
*Gutenberg Discontinuity – boundary between the
mantle and the core.

c. Core – the innermost and the central region of the

earth’s interior.
Subdivided into 2 layers:
 Outer core - is a liquid/molten region compose of
Iron and Nickel in liquid form moving around the
inner core creating Earth’s magnetism;
Temperature: 2000 ˚C
 Inner Core – is a solid form or region compose of
Iron and Nickel in solid form; Temperature: about 5. Fracture – refers to the irregular breaks along the
5000 ˚C. preferred planes.
EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE
Mineral Groups (based on their chemical composition)
1. Silicates – minerals containing the two most abundant
elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon and oxygen.
a. When linked together, these two elements form
the silicon oxygen tetrahedron – the fundamental
building block of silicate minerals.
b. Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to
this group.
2. Oxides – minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2)-
combined with one or more metal ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the
form of the (SO4)- anion
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some
sulfides are sources of economically important metals such
as copper, lead, and zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2-
anion combined with other elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual
elements. It includes metals such as Gold and lead, semi-
metals such as arsenic and bismuth and non-metal such as
Diamond.
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements
combined with one or more metals
ROCK – is a consolidated aggregate of various types of
minerals or a consolidated aggregate of multiple individual
pieces (grains) of the same kind of mineral.
– Fundamental building materials of the lithosphere.
They are lifted, pushed down, and deformed by
large scale tectonic forces originating from the
lower mantle and asthenosphere. At the surface,
rocks are weathered and eroded to be deposited as
sediments elsewhere.
– Bedrock is a mass of consolidated rock that has not
been weathered.
Types of Rocks:
1. Igneous rock – are formed when molten rock material
cools and solidifies. Molten rock material below the earth’s
surface is called Magma, while molten rock material at the
surface is called Lava.
Two major categories:
A. Extrusive Igneous rock (Volcanic rock) – is
created when molten materials solidifies on earth’s
surface, therefore, this kinds of rock are made from
lava.
B. Intrusive Igneous rock (Plutonic rock) – is
formed when molten rock beneath the earth’s
surface (magma) changes to solid.
2. Sedimentary rock – These are rocks that formed through
the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of
sediments.
 *Compaction – is a process that squeezes or
compacts sediments.
 *Cementation – takes place when dissolved
minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the
sediments.
3. Metamorphic rock – are formed when heat and pressure
changes other types of rocks.
Important terms:
Weathering is a process in which rocks are broken down by
water, air, and living things.
Sediment is weathered pieces of Earth elements.
Erosion happens when water, wind, ice, or gravity move
sediment over the Earth’s surface. Over time, sediment that
has been eroded stops moving and is deposited. When
sediment stops moving, it is called deposition. Sediment can be
deposited in bodies of water and other low-lying areas.
Prepared by: Nazibah C. Mundig
THE ROCK CYCLE
Rock cycle
 It illustrates how geologic processes occurring both
at the surface and underneath the Earth’s surface
can change a rock from one type to another.
 Weathering, erosion, deposition, heat, and pressure
are some of the processes that are part of the rock
cycle.
EXOGENIC PROCESS
Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting and Sedimentation
Weathering, mass movement, and erosion are called
Exogenic (External) processes because they occur at or near
Earth's surface. External processes are responsible for
transforming solid rocks into sediment and are therefore a
basic part of the rock cycle.
Weathering – is a process which slowly break, disintegrate
and decomposes rocks.
Types of Weathering:
1. Mechanical weathering – is accomplished by physical
forces that break rock into smaller and smaller pieces
without changing the rock's minerals composition.
2. Chemical weathering – decomposes rocks through
chemical reactions that change the original rock-forming
minerals.
Erosion — the incorporation and transportation of material
by a mobile agent such as water, wind, or ice.
AGENTS OF EROSION
1. Running water – it encompasses both overland flow and
stream flow.
2. Ocean or sea waves
3. Glaciers — a moving body of ice on land that moves
downslope or outward from an area of accumulation
4. Wind - wind, just like flowing water, can carry sediments
such as: (1) bed load (consists of sand hopping and
bouncing through the process of saltation), and (2)
suspended load (clay and silt-sized particles held aloft).
5. Groundwater
Sinkholes (Dolines) – circular depressions which form
through dissolution of underlying soluble rocks or the
collapse of a cave’s roof.
6. Gravity
Mass wasting — the downslope movement of soil, rock,
and regolith under the direct influence of gravity. Factors
that control mass wasting processes include the slope angle
increases, the tendency to slide down the slope becomes
greater.