EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER

CHAPTER 1
Aristotle & Ptolemy
Nicolaus Copernicus
Sir Isaac Newton
Albert Einstein
Edwin Hubble
Theories on the Origin of the Universe
Geocentric Theory.
An astronomer in 1543 with his theory of Heliocentricism.
In 1687, he describes the universe as a static, steady-state, infinite universe. In
his description of the universe, matter on a large scale is uniformly distributed,
and the universe is gravitationally balanced but essentially unstable.
He assumed that it was a static, dynamically stable universe, which was neither
expanding nor contracting.
In 1929, he showed that the universe was not static.

Big Bang Theory

o The best-supported theory of our universe's origin.
 Describes the universe as expanding, having originated from an infinitely tiny and infinitely dense point
around 14 billion years ago (gigayears ago of Gya).
 According to the theory, matter was not present at the beginning of time, there was only pure energy
compressed in a single point called the singularity.
 A Belgian-Roman Catholic priest named Georges Lemaitre first suggested the Big Bang Theory in
1927, later supported by Edwin Hubble through his observation of galactic redshifts in 1929 and the
discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB).
 The big bang was a violent explosion which caused the inflation and expansion of the universe. At that
moment, the universe was extremely hot that matter could not yet exist. In a fraction of a second, four
fundamental forces were formed:
1. Gravity — Attraction between bodies.
2. Electromagnetic Force — Binds atoms into molecules.
3. Strong Nuclear Force — Binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
4. Weak Nuclear Force — Breaks down the atom's nucleus and produces radioactive decay.
 After three minutes, with the universe continuously expanding, it began to cool down, allowing the
protons and neutrons to fuse and form the nucleus of hydrogen and helium atoms.
 About 300,000 years later, temperatures became cool enough for H 2 and He atoms to completely form.
At that point, photons escaped and light existed for the very first time.
 After 300 million years, stars and galaxies begun to form as hydrogen and helium coalesce with the aid
of gravity.
 The overall composition of the universe transitioned from light elements to heavier elements from the
supernova as the temperature cooled down. This made solid particles, in the form of nebula, to exist.
These nebulae would later on form the star systems and planets known today.

Origin of the Solar System

The Solar System

o Solar System — It is the collection of eight planets and their moons in orbit around the Sun, together
with small bodies in the form of asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
 The age of the Solar System and that of the planet Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old. This is
based on the age of meteorites which are believed to have been formed on the same time as the rest of
the Solar System.

Nebular Hypothesis
 In this theory, the whole Solar System starts as a large cloud of gas that contracts under self-gravity.
Conservation of angular momentum requires that a rotating disk form with a large concentration at the
center (the proto-Sun). Within the disk, planets form.
1. A flattened solar nebula disk exists after the cloud spins and contracts.
2. Condensation nuclei form clumps that grow into moon-sized planetesimals.
3. Solar wind from the star formation (Sun forming) blow out the rest of the gas.
4. Planetesimals collide and grow.
5. Planetesimals form the basic planets over a hundred million years.

o Protoplanetary disks are common, sometimes seen edge-on or sometimes nearly face-on.
Encounter Hypothesis
1. Rogue star passes close to the sun.
2. Gas is tidally removed from both the rogue star and the sun.
3. Rogue star material is less dense and becomes outer solar system planets; inner solar system material
is more dense and becomes terrestrial planets.

Large Scale Measures of the Solar System

 Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular momentum is held
by the outer planets.
 Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are in more or less on the same plane.
 All planets revolve around the sun.
 The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun.
 Most planets rotate in prograde motion; Venus and Neptune being the exceptions, rotating in retrograde.

Inner Planets
o They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles —
hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.

Outer Planets
o Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the dominance of gases and
their larger size.
o They rotate faster, have thick atmospheres, lower densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium
and ices (water, ammonia, methane).

Cosmic Debris
 The Solar System is littered with several kinds of space debris such as asteroids, comets, and meteoroids.
Asteroids
Meteors
o Minor planets — are small rocky worlds, most of
o Shooting stars — they are not stars but small
which orbit the sun in a belt between the orbits
bits of rock and metal colliding with the Earth's
of Mars and Jupiter.
atmosphere and bursting into incandescent
o Astronomers recognize the asteroids as debris
vapor because of friction with the air about 80
left over from the failure of a planet to form at a km above the ground.
distance of about 3AU from the Sun.
o Technically, the word meteor refers to the streak
o Made up of rocky and metallic materials.
of light in the sky. In space, before its fiery
o Generally irregular in shape and covered with plunge, the object is called — Meteoroid.
craters. o Any part of a meteoroid that survives its fiery
passage to the Earth's surface is called —
Meteorite.
Comets o Most meteoroids are specks of dust, grains of
o Brightest that can be seen with the naked eye sand, or tiny pebbles. Almost all the meteors
and are impressively beautiful objects. The you see in the sky are produced by the
nuclei of comets are ice-rich bodies, similar in meteoroids that weigh less than 1 gram.
size to asteroids.
o Like asteroids, comets are understood to be left
over from the origin of the planets and provide Planetisimals
evidence that at least some parts of the Solar o 1 km, massive enough to exert gravitational pull.
nebula had abundant icy materials.
o Can withstand harder collision/crash.
o Since 1992, astronomers have discovered more
o Leftover planetisimals are still around: asteroids
than a thousand small, dark, icy bodies orbiting
the outer fringes of the Solar System beyond
Neptune. This collection of objects is called the
Kuiper Belt.

Life on Earth
Earth
 Third planet from the sun in the solar system.
 The only planet that can sustain life.
Important Requirements that are Necessary to Support Life on Earth
1. Existence of Liquid
2. Available Heat Source
o 2 Sources of Heat that Help Support Life on Earth :
1. Internal heating of Earth.
2. External heating of the sun.
o Radiogenic Heat
3. Existence of Atmosphere
o The atmosphere is a vital part of photosynthesis.
o Photosynthesis regulates the amount and flow of the gases.
o Any planet that extremely lacks an atmosphere can be in freezing point and would experience
unpredicted weather and climates.

Goldilocks Zone
 The habitable zone around a star is essentially the region in which liquid water can be present on a planet's
surface. Within this zone, life can grow.
 It is a zone where life can exist. In the case of Earth, its position is right exactly on the habitable zone of the
sun. The present location of Mars (too cold) and Venus (too hot) lie outside the zone.

Earth as a System

What is a System?
 A system is any organized entity that consists of interrelated and interacting components.
 The Earth's system is essentially a closed system.
 A closed system is a system which there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.
 The earth receives energy from the Sun and returns some of this energy to space.

Earth as a Closed System

 The resources used can never be regenerated, and the waste produced cannot really be disposed.
 Once used up, the mineral resources are transformed into something else, maintaining the amount of
matter within this closed system.

Atmosphere Biosphere
o Is the gaseous blanket of air that envelops, o Includes all life forms on Earth: the people,
shields, and insulates Earth. animals, plants, and all other living things.
o The atmosphere is generally composed of 78% o It covers all ecosystems.
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and the
remaining 0.10% is made up of different trace
gases.

Hydrosphere Lithosphere
o Is the combined mass of water found on, under, o Consists of all the solid earth — landform,
and above the surface of Earth, such as oceans, minerals, rocks, and soils.
lakes, rivers, glaciers, and water in the soil,
atmosphere, and organisms.
o Also composed of frozen liquid which is part of
the cryosphere.

CHAPTER 2
Rocks and Minerals

 Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.

 A rock is a raw material
 A stone is a term commonly used for rocks that have been trimmed or polished for human use.

Characteristics of Minerals
Naturally-occurring Minerals exist naturally.
Inorganic Minerals do not contain carbon. It was not made by living organisms.
Solid
Definite Chemical The chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula
Composition with the elements and compounds in specific ratios.
Ordered Internal Structure The atoms in minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive geometric pattern or
crystal structure.
o Substances that fulfill all requirements but do not have an ordered internal structure are called
mineraloids.

Crystal Systems
Structure Example
Isometric Fluorite
Tetragonal Wulfenite
Orthorhombic Tanzanite
Monoclinic Azurite
Triclinic Amazonite
Hexagonal Emerald
Trigonal Rhodochrosite

Physical Properties of Minerals

Crystal Form and Habit

Minerals form a definite structure which crystallizes into a specific crystal form. The outward appearance of
the mineral's crystal form on the other hand is its habit. It can be described as:
o Granular o Geode o Reniform o Prismatic
o Dendritic o Fibrous o Lamellar

Cleavage and Fracture 1.

The manner in which a mineral breaks is dependent on its molecular bonding and structure. The tendency
of a mineral to break along the planes of weakness is known as the cleavage. It can be described both in
the number and directions of cleavage planes and its quality (excellent, good, poor, or absent).

Luster
The luster of a mineral describes the appearance of light as it is reflected off its surface.

Metallic Nonmetallic
o Hematite o Vitreous o Pearlescent o Greasy o Dull
o Resinous o Silky o Earthy
Color and Streak
o It is not a reliable feature for identifying minerals because it can be altered by chemical impurities within
its structure.
o Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form. It can be obtained by rubbing the mineral on an
abrasive ceramic tile called streak plate.

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is a measurement of the strength of the chemical bonds in its structure. It can be
measured by scratching it with another mineral or a reference material with known hardness. The Mobs
Scale of Hardness is a relative measure using common materials and standard minerals to represent a
specific hardness value.

Mobs Scale of Hardness

Mineral Hardness Common Object
Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Feldspar 6 Steel file (6.5)
 Apatite 5 Glass (5.5)
Fluorite 4 Iron nail (4.5)
Calcite 3 Copper penny (3.5)
Gypsum 2 Fingernail (2.5)
Talc 1

Density
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral. It is the weight of a mineral relative to the weight
of an equal volume. Most common minerals have a specific gravity of 2.7, while gold has 19.
Other properties with the corresponding minerals that exhibit these properties are as follows:
o Magnetism (magnetite)
o Taste (halite is salty)
o Effectiveness or reaction to acid (calcite and other carbonates will react with weak acid)
o Feel (talc is greasy)

Common rock-forming elements

o About 98% of Earth's crust is composed of eight elements.
Out of the thousands of identified minerals only about two dozen are considered common. Most of the common
rock-forming minerals are silicate minerals composed of primarily silicon and oxygen. Several rock-forming
minerals include:
o Plagioclase feldspar o Biotite o Calcite o Gypsum
o Potassium feldspar o Amphibole o Dolomite o Talc
o Quartz o Pyroxene o Hematite o Chlorite
o Muscovite o Olivine o Halite

The Rock Cycle

 A rock is a naturally-occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as natural glass or
organic matter.
 Rocks are found in the geosphere and lithosphere, which is derived from the Greek word lithos meaning
"stone." The lithosphere is the rigid, rocky, outermost part of the Earth, composed of the crust and
uppermost part of the upper mantle.
 Petrology is the term for the scientific study of rocks.

Minerals Rocks
 Made of one or more elements.  Formed from fragments of different mineral.
 Inorganic  Can contain organic matter even fossils.
 Feature a crystal form.  Do not have a consistent or definite shape.

Rock Cycle
 The rock cycle is a concept that describes the transition of rocks between the different rock types and
the processes involved.
 The rock cycle can vary. It does not follow a certain order. It is a never-ending cycle.

Process Definition Product Definition

An increase in the temperature
Melting which exceeds the melting point
of rocks.
A rock that was once a form of
rock but has changed to another
Crystallization due to heat, pressure, or some
other agent without passing
through a liquid state.
Transportation The breaking down of rocks
(physical and chemical
decomposition).
Weathering Geological process in which
earth materials are worn away
and transported by natural
forces by wind/water.
Magma Molten rock beneath the surface of
the earth.
Formed from the cooling and
solidification of lava or magma.
Igneous
Extrusive/volcanic rocks form on
Rocks
Earth's surface. Intrusive/Plutonic
rocks form below the earth.
Sediments "Sedentarious" — sitting. Produced
by the weathering and erosion of
other pre-existing rocks.
 Erosion Process by which sediments are
moved along from the source to
where they are deposited.
Clastic rocks are the product of
A process where unconsolidated lithification of sediments that have
materials are converted into Sedimentary been deposited, buried, and
Lithification
coherent solid rock, as by Rocks compacted over a long period of
compaction or cementation. time. Bioclastic rocks are a
compaction of animal or plant
remains.
Formed when pre-existing rocks
are altered by heat and pressure.
Foliated rocks are the product of
Metamorphic regional metamorphism where the
Metamorphism Change in the structure of rocks.
Rocks dominant altering factor is
pressure. Non-foliated rocks are
the product of contact
metamorphism where the dominant
altering factor is heat.

Classification of Rocks
Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks are either crystalline, when they form from cooled magma or lava, or pyroclastic, when
they are made of consolidated eruption products like volcanic ash.
Crystalline Textures
Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks
o Diorite o Basalt
o Gabbro o Rhyolite
o Obsidian
o Granite
o Andesite
o Dunite

Porphyritic Texture
Pyroclastic
o Shows a mixture of rock fragments, pumice, and volcanic ash.
Color Index
o Used to identify the composition of most igneous rocks.

Felsic Composition Light colors.

Mafic or Ultramafic Composition Dark colors.
Intermediate Composition Intermediate colors.

Sedimentary Rocks
 Made of lithified sediments.
Clastic Texture Crystalline Texture Bioclastic Texture
o Quartz o Dolomite o Peat
o Feldspar o Gypsum o Bituminous coal
o Clay o Calcite o Coquina
o Halite

Metamorphic Rocks
Platy Crystalline
o Slaty o Quartzite
o Schistose o Marble
o Phyllitic o Limestone
o Gneissic

CHAPTER 3
Sources of Energy
 Energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to
heat, the object.
 "The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one to another."
 Solar energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy by plants. Consumers like humans can
transform chemical energy from plants into mechanical energy as they work.
 Electricity is the presence and flow of electric charge. It is a form of energy which can be generated from
almost any energy source.

Renewable Energy
 An energy source that can be easily replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.
Solar Energy From the sun.
Geothermal Energy From the heat inside the earth.
Wind Energy From the wind
Biomass From plants.
Hydropower From flowing water.

Non-renewable Energy
 An energy source that cannot be easily replenished.
Fossil Fuels Coal, petroleum, natural gas.
Nuclear Energy From splitting atoms.

Fossil Fuels
 Fossil Fuels are presently the world's primary energy source. It provides most of the energy that supports
transportation, electricity production, heating and cooling of buildings, and various industrial activities.

Coal
 A black combustible rock made up of elemental carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, mercury, and
varying amounts of sulfur.
 Formed from the remains of plants that once grew in swamps and adjacent forests millions of years
ago.
 Geologists classify coal to its carbon content, along with the temperature during formation. The higher
the grade of coal, the more versatile its uses.
 It is a highly abundant and cheap resource. Coal is extracted from the earth through underground
mining or surface mining.
 Coal provides 40% of the world's electricity.
 Coal is the most CO2 intensive fossil fuel when combusted because it is composed largely of carbon.
Sulfuric acid (SOx) is a leading cause of acid rain and Nitric acid (NOx) contributes to smog.

Types of Coals
Peat The partial decomposition of plant remains forms a brownish-black called peat.
Lignite 25%-35% carbon. Peat is buried by other sediments. As heat and pressure
increases, peat becomes lignite. Lignite is also called brown coal.
Sub-Bituminous Coal 35%-45% carbon.
Bituminous Coal 45%-86% carbon. Increased temperature and pressure turns lignite into
bituminous coal, which is 80% carbon. Bituminous coal is also called soft coal.
Anthracite Coal 86%-97% carbon. Under high temperature and pressure conditions, bituminous
coal eventually becomes anthracite, which is the hardest form of coal.

Uses of Coal Concerns with Coal

 Burned for heating or to produce electricity.  Mining practices
 Converted into coke for steelmaking.  Ecological impacts
 Converted to liquid or synthetic gas making it  Human safety
a replacement for natural gas or liquid fuels
for transportation.

Petroleum
 A naturally occurring liquid composed of complex hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations
underneath Earth's surface.
 The geological conditions that would eventually create petroleum formed millions of years ago, when
plants, algae, and plankton drifted in oceans and shallow areas. These organisms sank to the seafloor at
 the end of their life cycle. Over time, they were buried and crushed under millions of tons of sediments and
even more layers of plant debris.
 Petroleum or crude also contains trace elements of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen.
 It is found in underground geological formations called reservoirs. Petroleum is extracted most
commonly by drilling a well.
Petroleum Products Concerns with Petroleum Production
 Gasoline  Asphalt  Social and environmental challenges
 Diesel  Plastics  Land-disturbance
 Jet-fuel  Petrochemicals  Geopolitical tensions

Natural Gas
 Is a hydrocarbon made up of methane (CH 4) Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made up
of carbon and hydrogen atoms. This gas is lighter than air and is highly flammable.
 It was formed millions of years ago by heat and pressure when dead organisms sunk to the bottom of
the ocean and were buried under deposits of sedimentary rock.
 Natural gas is found in underground rocks called reservoirs. The rocks have tiny spaces called pores
that allow them to hold water, natural gas, and sometimes, oil. The natural gas is trapped underground by
impermeable rock called a cap rock.
 Natural gas can be categorized as dry or wet. Dry gas contains mostly methane. Wet gas contains
compounds such as ethane and butane in addition to methane.
 Natural gas liquids (NGLs): ethane, propane, butane, pentane — can be separated and sold
individually for various uses such as in refrigerants and to produce products like plastics.
 When natural gas is burned, there are fewer greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants when
compared to other fossil fuels.
Types of Natural Gas
Conventional Natural Gas Can be extracted through horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing.
Unconventional Natural Gas Shell gas, tight gas, sour gas, and coalbed methane which have specific
extraction techniques.
Associated Gas Can be found in reservoirs with oil.
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) Liquefied for shipping in large tankers across oceans.
Concerns with Natural Gas
o Natural gas is a source of CO2 Methane is a greenhouse gas having nearly 24 times the impact of CO2.
o Natural gas can escape through the atmosphere during the extraction and transportation process which
contributes to climate change.
o Natural gas leaks are also dangerous to nearby communities because it is a colorless, odorless, highly
toxic, and highly explosive gas.

Carbon Cycle – the series of processes by which carbon compounds are interconverted in the environment,
involving the incorporation of carbon into living tissue by photosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere
through respiration, the decay of dead organisms, and the burning of fossil fuels.

Nuclear Energy

 Nuclear energy is the energy held in the nucleus of an atom. It is released during a nuclear reaction (fission
or fusion), especially when used to generate electricity.
Nuclear Reaction
 Occurs when atoms of one species of a chemical element are transformed into atoms of another
species by nuclear change.
Fusion
o Is the combination of two light atoms to form a heavier atom.
o Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy.
Fission
o Is the splitting of heavy atoms into lighter atoms.
o The most commonly used element for nuclear fission is uranium, however other elements such as
plutonium and thorium can also be used.
o Nuclear energy through fission can release 1 million times more energy per atom than fossil fuels.

Nuclear Power Plants

 All of today's operating nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate electricity
 Nuclear power plants account for 11% of global electricity generation with 80% of that installed capacity
being in OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries.
 Nuclear plants have larger power generating capacity and low operating costs making it ideal for base
load generation.
 However, upfront capital costs are intensive and present financial risks to investors given the long time
frames power plants must operate to recover these costs.
Problems Associated with Nuclear Power Plants
1. The fuel rod should maintain a certain temperature; otherwise, it could generate temperatures high enough
to cause a meltdown or explosion of radioactive materials.
The Fukushima Daichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan experienced a meltdown in 2011 when a tsunami
destroyed the cooling system, sending radioactive particles in the atmosphere.
2. The generation of radioactive waste — these wastes need to be stored in deep underground chambers for a
very long period of time.
The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant was built in 1976 in Morong, Bataan. However because of issues on
safety, technology use, presence of potential geologic hazards near active faults and volcanoes, and the
occurrence of nuclear plant accidents such as Three Mile Accident and the Chernobyl disaster, it never came
operational.

Pros Cons
o Relatively low cost o Nuclear weapons proliferation
o Lower greenhouse gas emission o Nuclear waste
o Accidents and disasters

Geothermal Energy
 Earth's internal heat can be tapped to produce energy for human consumption.
 Geothermal energy is a source of energy from the Earth's internal heat.
 The temperature of the Earth gets warmer as you go deeper towards the core.
 The change of temperature with depth is called geothermal gradient which varies from 15 °C to 50 °C per
kilometer in the upper crust.
 The heat of the Earth is manifested at the surface as volcanic eruptions, geysers, and hot springs. An
example is Huakadalur Valley in Iceland.

Geothermal Power Plants

1. Water in underground reservoirs is heated to high temperatures by magma. Production wells drilled up to
10,000 ft. below the Earth's surface tap into the hot fluid.
2. Under its own pressure the fluid flows in the wells towards the surface. As it travels, the pressure lessens
causing a small amount to become steam.
3. Three types of steam are formed:
1. High-pressure steam
2. Standard-pressure steam
3. Low-pressure team
4. All steam created in the plant is sent to a turbine on site. The force of the steam spins the turbine's blades
which turns a shaft connected to an electrical generator. An electrical charge is created and directed to a
transformer where the voltage is increased and sent down to power lines.
5. Any fluid not flushed into steam returns into the underground reservoir where in time, they will be reheated
and reused.

Hydroelectric Energy
 Water and gravity generate energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy Energy of an object at rest in a higher elevation.

Kinetic Energy Forms when potential energy is moved to lower elevation.

Hydropower
 The power generated by the energy from falling water or fast running water.
 Hydroelectricity is the conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity.
 It is considered a renewable energy source because the water cycle is constantly renewed by the sun.
 Modern hydro plants produce electricity using turbines and generators. The mechanical energy created
by moving water spins rotors on a turbine that is connected to an electromagnetic generator.
 Hydropower holds the largest share of worldwide electricity production.
Benefits of Hydropower Concerns with Hydropower
o Cost-competitive o Changing wildlife habitats.
o Reliable o Blocking fish passage.
Types of Hydroelectricity Production
Dams
o Hydro dams utilize the potential energy from dammed water to produce electricity.
o A large barrier constructed to raise the level of water and control its flow. The elevation created by the
dam creates gravitational force when water is released. Some dams also contain an additional reservoir
where water is stored to the higher reservoir for release when electricity is in demand — pumped
storage hydro.
Large Hydro < 30 mW Small Hydro 100 kW-30 mW Micro Hydro > 100 kW
Run of River
 Run of river still uses turbines and generators but relies on natural water flow rates of rivers diverting
just a portion of the water through turbines.
 It is subject to water river variability, it is more intermittent than dammed hydro.

Wind and Solar Energy

 Wind and Solar power systems generate electricity without producing any pollution.

Wind
Gust Short high-speed wind i.e., strong wind for a very short time.
Breeze Light gentle wind.
Gale Very strong wind.
Storm Weather condition with very strong wind.
Hurricane Strong winds that are the most common means of destruction.

Wind Power
 Mechanical power can be produced from wind floes or air currents. Since ancient times, it has been
used to turn windmills and wind pumps and to sail large ships across oceans.
 Wind is harnessed using mounted turbines attached to towers with heights ranging from 20-100 meters.
 Modern day systems usually have tree long blades that spin and cause the turbine to generate
electricity.
 A collection of wind turbines is called a Wind Farm. It is connected to an electric power transmission
network or power grid.
 Wind farms are built onshore in flat areas, usually near coastal lines. In other countries, offshore wind
farms are developed due to stronger and steadier offshore winds compared on land.
Solar Energy
 The amount of solar energy Earth receives in every hour is more than enough to satisfy global energy
requirements for a year.
 Plants directly use this energy for photosynthesis.
 Animals and humans use this energy by consuming plants and by absorbing vitamin D.
 Converting solar energy into electricity requires a solar collector.

Biomass
 Defined as biological material derived from living or recently deceased organisms.
 Plant or animal material used for energy production, heat production, or in various industrial processes
as raw material for a range of products.
Biomass Energy
 It is the oldest source of energy.
 It is considered as a renewable type of energy.
 Energy that comes from organic material e.g., plants, wood, and waste.

Pros Cons
o Renewable o Environmental damage
o Reduced dependence on fossil fuels o Expensive
o Carbon neutral o Stinky
o Waste reduction
o Abundant availability

Biomass Power Plants

 Generates electricity using the heat generated by the combustion of organic materials such as plant
residues, household waste, and the biogas resulting from waste fermentation.