CHAPTER I: OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

Physical World is a one-semester course designed for elementary majors that

integrates physics and earth science. This course is a part of four-course set that explores

science concepts, processes and skills, along with nature of scientific practice, that are

included in state and national standards for elementary school science.

The first formal exposure to science that children have is in their elementary school

classrooms. Current state standards often require that elementary school teachers be

knowledgeable of a broad spectrum of scientific topics so that they can help their

students learn. For example, Illinois State Learning Goal 12 states that students should

“understand the fundamental concepts, principles and interconnections of life, physical

and earth sciences.” For elementary grades, these includes concepts as diverse as

motion, energy, force, weather, earthquakes, the order of the planets, and the phases

of moon, as well as basics of ecology.

For most pre-service elementary school teachers, the need to become familiar

with this diversity of subjects is not met by taking a subset courses offered in the scientific

disciplines. A student taking two semesters of biology to meet science distribution

requirement will be unfamiliar with the basics of astronomy or chemistry. An unbalanced

exposure to the range of scientific topics may well contribute to the belief among

elementary teachers, as defined by the 2000 National Survey of Science and

Mathematics Education (Smith, et al. 2002).

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 In order to strengthen prospective elementary school teachers’ knowledge of and

attitude towards science, a group of science and education faculty at the University of

Illinois at Chicago (UIC) and Chicago-area community colleges developed a set of new

science courses for elementary-education majors. The goal of theses courses is to help

prospective elementary school teachers become qualified for and comfortable in

teaching science in their classrooms, having experienced learning science in ways useful

for their future careers. The development of these courses was enhanced by

conversations with faculty at the University of Michigan at Dearborn, who have also

designed and implemented science courses for elementary education majors.

The course set consists of three lecture and lab courses, known as the “World”

courses. The three World courses are the Physical World, the Chemical World and the

Biological World. The cross-disciplinary nature of these courses is intentional and explicit;

each incorporates and integrates concepts drawn from earth science, environmental

science, biology, chemistry and physics. For example, the Physical World is not a

traditional physics course, but one that illustrates physics concepts using earth, biology

and astronomy; in other word, it both uses the world to illustrate physics and looks at the

world from a physics perspective.

The use of the word “World” thus has multiple purposes. In addition, it indicates the

relevancy of science to understanding the world around us, and signifies that earth

science concepts are explored in all three courses. For example, fossils are discussed in

the Biological World and minerals and global warming in the Chemical World.

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Activity #1.

Give and define ten words about Physical, Chemical and Biological World.

Physical World Chemical World Biological World

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 CHAPTER II. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Physics is everything else and can be applied to biology, chemistry and geology.

It derives its present name from the Greek word for nature; it was previously called natural

philosophy. Physics can be defined as the science that deals with the interaction of

matter and energy. It studies the fundamental building blocks of the universe and how

they interact. Physics is divided into branches:

• Mechanics – study of motion.

• Thermodynamics – study of heat and temperature.

• Electromagnetism – study of electricity and magnetism.

• Quantum mechanics – study of behavior of subatomic particles.

• Relativity – study of particles moving at any speed.

• Optics – study of light, lenses and colors.

• Wave mechanics – study of waves.

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History of Physics

• Pythagoras (570-490BC) – a2 + b2 = c2

• Leucippus (early 5th century BC) – oppose the idea of divine intervention in the

universe. He and his student Democritus were the first to develop a theory of

atomism.

• Plato – said that to have disliked Democritus so much, that he wished his books

burned. Nowadays, many consider Democritius to be the father of modern

science.

• Aristotle – promoted the concept of natural laws for physical phenomena, which

he attempted to explain with a theory of four elements, earth, water, air, and fire.

He had a geocentric view of the universe. Aristotelian physics became enormously

popular in Europe with the scientific and scholastic developments of the Middle

Ages and remained the mainstream scientific paradigm until the time of Galilei

and Newton.

• Aristarchus of Samos – proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, but

received little support from ancient astronomers, although his student Seleucus

was according to Plutarch (historian 46–120 AD) the first to prove the heliocentric

system through reasoning.

• Instead, based on previous work by Hipparchus (190–120 BC), Ptolemy (90–168

AD), one of the leading minds of the Roman Empire, perfected the geocentric

system, so that accurate predictions of planetary movements became possible.

This was in essence a model with many adjustable parameters.

• Archimedes of Syracuse – Law of buoyance, Archimedes’ Screw Pump

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• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) – Heliocentric.

• Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) – Precise planetary data.

• Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) – “Music of the spheres”.

• Galilei Galileo (1564–1642) – Birth of modern science, use of telescope.

• Isaac Newton (1643–1727) – Classical Mechanics. (Inertia, acceleration)

• Otto von Guerricke (1650) – Vacuum pump.

• Alexandra Volta (1824) – Battery.

• Wilhelm Ro¨ntgen (1895) – X-Rays.

• Joseph John Thomson – Electron

• Marie Sklodowska-Curie and Piere Curie – isolated radioactive elements radium

and polonium.

• Albert Einstein – Theory of Relativity.

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Measurement

Measurement is the process of getting the quantity of a specific property of

matter. It is associated with the word’s accuracy and precision. These two pertains to the

closeness of the measurement but there is a difference between the two. Accuracy

indicates how close the observed value is to the “true” value. Precision indicates how

each measurement is close to each other.

Before, we have our own system of measuring. The method of measurement is

fairly constant: using body parts as their basis for measuring. But this method created

confusions among people because of the differences of the dimensions of people’s

bodies. Body parts of rulers, like kings and pharaohs, became the basis of measurement.

But in due time, this also became a source of confusion since standards changed as rulers

are replaced by someone.

There are two systems of measurement today: the English and Metric system

• English system - derived from the ancient units of measurement.

• Metric system - use only one unit for each property accompanied by certain

prefixes.

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Page | 8
Significant Figures

Significant figures are used to indicate the amount of information that is reliable

when discussing a measurement.

Rules:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 99 – 2 significant figures.

2. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 2002 – 4 significant figures.

3. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point but to the left of non-zero digits are not

significant.

Example: 0.012 – 2 significant figures

4. Zeroes to the right of non-zero digits but to the left of a known decimal point are

not significant.

Example: 123, 000 – 3 significant figures

5. Zeroes after the decimal point but to the right of non-zero digits are always

significant.

Example: 678.000 – 6 significant figures

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Scientific Notation

It is a simple and easy way of writing down very small and very large

numbers using powers of ten.

• General rule: the base should contain only one figure to the left of the decimal

point.

• The exponent tells the number of times the decimal point is moved from its

original place to the right or to the left.

• The exponent is negative if the decimal point is moved from left to right.

• The exponent is positive if the decimal point is moved from right to left.

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Activity #2.

I. Make a summary of the history of physics.

II. Determine the number of significant figures below:

1. 3445.000

2. 145000

3. 923

4. 100000002

5. 38.000

6. 9151793587

7. 20000001

8. 0.00000000000023

9. 46500000000000

10. 0.00000000090003

11. 3335

12. 782784790917

13. 253754768653672

14. 9

15. 100001

16. 43

17. 111

18. 0.00000003709

19. 0.000008278009

20. 158

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 CHAPTER III. MOTION

One of the branches of physics is mechanics and it deals with the study of

motion. Motion is an everyday phenomenon. Every day we encounter people

rushing through the streets. We see vehicles rolling down the highway. In these

scenes, motion plays a major role. Motion is an act or process of moving or

changing position. Motion involves distance, displacement, speed, velocity and

acceleration.

Aristotle had many contributions to the study of the physics. On the nature

of matter, Aristotle said that matter is composed of four elements; the air, water,

earth and fire. On the nature of motion, he said that we have two types of

motion: the natural and unnatural motion.

In natural motion, objects move towards their natural resting position.

Aristotle said that if you let a stone drop, it will drop straight to the ground without

any force of whatsoever because it is made up of earth and it will naturally

come to rest with the center of the universe. Smoke on the other hand will

naturally move upward because it is made up of air. The motion of an object will

depend on its nature.

Unnatural motion or violent motion are those where objects has to be

applied with an outside force in order for it to move. For example, a table needs

to be pushed in order for it to move along the floor. A stone needs to be thrown

upward in order for it to move upward.

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 Scalar and Vector Quantity

• Scalar quantity – those quantities which do not involve any direction. Mass,

length, height, distance, volume and speed are examples of scalar quantity.

• Vector quantity – those quantities where direction is involved. Weight, velocity,

acceleration are examples of vector quantity.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

• Newton’s First Law of Motion

This law states that “an object in its initial state of motion, whether at rest or

moving with constant velocity, will keep its initial state of motion, until some

unbalanced outside force, will compel the object to change that state.” The first

law of motion implies that things cannot start, stop, or change direction all by

themselves. It requires some force from the outside to cause such a change. This

property of massive bodies to resist changes in their state of motion is called

inertia. Newton’s first law is also known as the law of inertia.

• Newton’s Second Law of Motion

This law states that “the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the

force applied to it.” The second law of motion describes what happens to the

massive body when acted upon by an external force. The 2nd law of motion

states that the force acting on the body is equal to the product of its mass and

acceleration. Newton’s second law of motion is also known as the law of

acceleration.

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• Newton’s Third Law of Motion

This law states that “for every force applied, there is an equal force but in the

opposite direction”. The third law of motion describes what happens to the body

when it exerts a force on another body. Newton’s third law of motion is also

known as the law of action and reaction.

Activity #3.

Make a video presentation that shows the application of the following:

• Law of Inertia

• Law of Acceleration

• Law of Action and Reaction

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 CHAPTER IV. SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

In Physics, the terms speed and velocity are quite different. In this chapter, we

will focus in the concept of scalar and vector quantities. Scalar quantities are those

quantities with magnitude only like distance, speed and length while vector quantities

are those quantities with both magnitude and direction like displacement, velocity and

acceleration.

Distance and Displacement

Distance and displacement are two different quantities in physics. Distance is a

scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.

Distance – total length of path of an object transvers as it moves from one point to

another. It is the interval between two distinct points.

Distance = AB + BC

Point A Point B

Point C

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Displacement – straight line from the origin to the point of destination an object

transvers regardless the path taken. Distance between the initial point and final point of

the object.

Displacement = a2 + b2

Sample problem. A man walks due north with a distance of 3 km. Then, he faced due

east and walks another 4 km.

1. What is the distance the man travelled?

2. What is his displacement?

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Solution:

1. Distance = AB + BC

Distance = 3km + 4km = 7km

2. Displacement = a2 + b2

Displacement = (3km)2 + (4km)2

Displacement = 9km + 16km

Displacement =√ 25km

Displacement = 5km north to east

Speed and Velocity

Speed and velocity are two similar quantities in terms of magnitude. The only

difference is that speed is scalar quantity while velocity is a vector quantity.

Speed – how fast an object is moving.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Speed = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Velocity – rate at which an object changes its position.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Velocity = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

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Sample problem. Calculate the speed a vehicle with a distance of 60 meters in 6

seconds.

Solution:

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
Speed = = = 10 meter per second
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

Acceleration

Acceleration is the physical quantity of the change in velocity per unit time

interval. It is an example of vector quantity.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
Acceleration = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Sample problem. A car starts to move and reaches the velocity 80 meter per second in

10 seconds. Calculate the acceleration of this car.

Solution:

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝟖𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅

Acceleration = = = 8 m/s2
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

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Activity #4.

Solve the following:

1. What is the speed of the car if it travels 0.4 km. in 20 seconds?

2. What is your speed if you move 0.05 km in 0.17 minutes?

3. A bus travels 24 km in 4 minutes. Calculate the speed of the bus.

4. How much time will take for a bug to travel 0.075 km across the floor if it is

travelling 4m/s?

5. A roller coaster’s velocity at the top of a hill is 10 m/s. Two seconds later, it

reaches the bottom of the hill with a velocity of 26m/s. What is the acceleration

of the roller coaster?

6. Monica walks due south with a distance of 5m. Then, she walks another 7m due

east. Find the total distance and displacement of Monica.

7. A soccer ball is falling from rest from a height of 20 meters and acceleration of

20m/s2. How long does it take for the soccer ball to touch the ground? What is

the velocity of the soccer ball as it touches the ground?

8. What is the velocity of the bus if it is moving 14 km in 4 minutes?

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 CHAPTER V. FORCE

All motion is created by a force and it has size and direction. All forces are

exerted by one object to another. Physicists use the newton, a unit of the International

System (SI), for measuring force. A newton is the force needed to accelerate a body

weighing one kilogram by one m/s2. The formula F = ma is employed to calculate the

number of newtons required to increase or decrease the velocity of a given body.

The concept of force was explained in terms of Isaac Newton’s three laws of

motion set forth in his Principia Mathematica (1687). According to Newton’s first

principle, a body that is at rest or moving at a uniform rate in a straight line will remain in

that state until some force is applied to it.

The second law says that when an external force acts on a body, it produces an

acceleration of the body in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the

acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the external force and

inversely proportional to the quantity of matter in the body.

Newton’s third law states that when one body exerts a force on another body,

the second body exerts an equal force on the first body. This principle of action and

reaction explains why a force tends to deform a body whether or not it causes the

body to move. The deformation of a body can usually be neglected when

investigating its motion.

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Types of Forces

Air resistance force – friction between an object and the air. All matter is made from

atoms and molecules. The air is no exception. When something moves through the air, it

bumps into the atoms and molecules.

Applied force – when living creature puts pressure on an object.

Spring force – when an object is pushed together, then the pressures taken away it

pops back to its normal self.

Frictional force – present everywhere in our daily life. It is simply impossible to reduce it

completely. The causes of the resistive force of friction are molecular adhesion, surface

roughness and the plowing effect.

Gravitational force – Newton’s fiery of gravitational force: “Every particle of matter in

the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the

product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the

distance between them.”

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Electrical force – the attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged

objects.

Normal force – support force exerted upon an object which is in contact with another

stable object.

Activity #5.

Make a video presentation to show the different types of forces.

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 CHAPTER VI. ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work and it can be changed from one form to another.

Energy is classified into two: potential and kinetic energy. Potential energy is associated

with the relative position of an object while kinetic energy is associated with motion.

Energy exists in many forms such as chemical, radiant, mechanical, thermal,

electrical, solar, nuclear and wind.

• Chemical energy – released during chemical reaction.

• Radiant – from light and electromagnetic radiation.

• Mechanical – can be used to do work.

• Thermal – comes from the temperature of the heated substance.

• Electrical – result from moving charges.

• Solar – produced by the sun.

• Nuclear – released from nuclear fusion and fission process.

• Wind – uses wind to generate electricity.

These forms of energy can be converted to another form of energy. Examples of

changing one form of energy to another is our bodies convert chemical energy in our

food into mechanical energy for us to move, an electric fan transforms electrical energy

into kinetic energy and the sun transforms nuclear energy into heat and light energy.

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 The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can neither be created nor

destroyed. It can only change from one form of energy to another. It is also known as the

First Law of Thermodynamics. It deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the

concept of internal energy.

Activity #6.

Make your own activity or experiment where you can show the Law of Conservation of

Energy.

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 CHAPTER VII. HEAT AND WORK

We all know that energy is the ability to do work and it is existing in many forms.

Energy can also be transferred from one object to another. How energy is being

transferred? Energy can be transferred by heat and work.

Heat is the flow of energy between two objects, from the warmer one to the cooler

one, because of a difference in their temperatures. Heat transfer is classified into three:

convection, conduction and radiation.

When particles of matter are in direct contact, heat transfers by means of

conduction. The adjacent atoms of higher energy vibrate against one another, which

transfers the higher temperature to lower temperature. That is, atoms of higher intensity

and higher heat will vibrate, thereby moving the electrons to areas of lower intensity and

lower heat. Fluids and gases are less conductive than solids like metals due to the fact

that they are less dense, meaning that there is a larger distance between atoms.

Convection describes heat transfer between a surface and a liquid or gas in

motion. As the fluid or gas travels faster, the convective heat transfer increases. Two types

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of convection are natural convection and forced convection. In natural convection,

fluid motion results from the hot atoms in the fluid, where the hot atoms move upwards

toward the cooler atoms in the air--the fluid moves under the influence of gravity.

Examples of this include the rising clouds of cigarette smoke, or heat from the hood of a

car that rises upwards. In forced convection, the fluid is forced to travel over the surface

by a fan or pump or some other external source.

Radiation refers to the transfer of heat through empty space. This form of heat

transfer occurs without an intervening medium; radiation works even in and through a

perfect vacuum. For instance, energy from the sun travels through the vacuum of space

before the transfer of heat warms the Earth.

Work is a measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a

distance by an external force. The word “work” was first used in this sense by the French

mechanician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. He used the word “work” to characterize a

force acting through a distance.

Activity #7.

Give ten (each) examples of conduction, convection and radiation.

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 CHAPTER VIII. EARTH SCIENCE

Earth Science is concerned with the entire earth and its neighbor. It includes all

fields of natural science related to the planet Earth like astronomy, geology and

meteorology.

The Universe and Solar System

Universe – an enormous empty space that holds small particle to the biggest galaxy. Big

bang theory is the most accepted theory about the formation of the universe.

Solar system – group of planets, moons, and other celestial bodies like asteroids and

comets.

Theories about the Origin of the Solar System

• Ptolemaic system or geocentric system – the earth-centered system. It is proposed

by Claudius Ptolemy.

• Heliocentric system – the sun centered system. It is proposed by Nicolaus

Copernicus.

• Nebular Hypothesis – solar system was derived from condensation of an

enormously dispersed gaseous atmosphere surrounding the sun. It is proposed by

Immanuel Kant and Laplace.

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• Fission Theory – the sun burst open and planets and moons went on their respective

places and started orbiting the sun as the moon began orbiting the planets.

• Capture Theory – planets and moons were flying around, and some were

captured by our sun and began circling.

• Stellar Collision Theory – our planets, moons spun off from the collision between

stars.

• Gas Cloud Theory – gas clouds were captured by our sun but instead of being

drawn into it, they began whirling and pushing themselves into the planets and

moons.

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The Sun

Sun is referred as the star at the center of the solar system. Corona, limb, chromosphere

and photosphere are the regions of the sun.

• Corona – part which extends in all directions to a distance of a million miles more

where a halo of faint silver-white light is seen surrounding the sun.

• Limb - main body with a dark edge whose interior could be the source of light.

• Chromosphere - brilliant red ring that flashes, also made up of a layer of gas 8000

miles thick on the surface.

• Photosphere - a very thin layer of with brilliantly glowing gas of about 100 miles

deep.

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The Moon

Moon - the earth’s natural satellite.

• Perigee- when the moon is closest to the earth about 356, 000 km away.

• Apogee – when the moon is farthest to the Earth, about 406,700 km. away

Theories about the Origin of the Moon

a) It broke from the Earth and started to revolve around it.

b) Moon was once an independent planet traveling around the sun.

c) Earth and moon were formed at the same time from whirling of cloud of gas and

condensed into 2 separate bodies.

Phases of the Moon

• Waning – happens after the full moon ends.

• Waxing - happens after the new moon ends.

• New Moon – occurs when the side facing the earth is in shadow and no visible

moon is observed.

• First Quarter – made up of half lighted side of the moon and termed that the moon

has traveled one quarter of its orbit.

• Full Moon - the last phase of the moon where the whole face of the lighted side is

clearly observed.

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• Last Quarter – the moon phase between the full phase and the new phase when

the moon is perpendicular to a line drawn through Earth and Sun.

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Astronomical Studies about the Earth

• Aristarchus- Greek advocator of heliocentric universe as suggested by Aristotle.

• 6th Century B.C. Pythagoras suggested that Earth rotates upon an axis and

revolves around the sun.

• Cladius Ptolemy, mathematician of Alexandria– earth as the center of the

universe.

Size and Shape of the Earth

• Through deep well in Syene and Alexandria, Erastosthenes found the angle to be

a little more than 7 degrees which is almost 1/50th of a complete circle.

• The estimate circumference of the Earth is 43, 200 km. Shape of the Earth is oblate

spheroid. Its diameter at the equator is about 43.2 km greater than the diameter

at the poles.

Earth System: The Four Spheres of the Earth

Geosphere

A good analogy about earth’s interior is a piece of boiled egg. If we cut a boiled egg

into half, we will see that it is composed of three parts: the egg shell, egg white and egg

yolk. It is similar to the three parts of the Earth’s interior which is the crust, mantle and core.

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 • Crust – there are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the

ocean basins, and the thick continental crust that underlies the continents. These

two different types of crust are made up of different types of rock. The thin oceanic

crust is composed of basalt and the thick continental crust is composed of granite.

• Mantle – it is composed mainly of rocks. Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and

brittle, while rocks in the lower mantle is hot and soft. Rocks in the upper mantle

are brittle enough to break under stress and can produce earthquakes. Rocks in

the lower mantle are soft and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking.

• Core – it is composed of iron and nickel alloy. The core is earth’s source of internal

heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat as they break

down into more stable substance. The core is divided into two zones. The outer

core is liquid because the temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel

alloy. The inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer

core.

Hydrosphere

It is the liquid component of the earth which circulates among oceans, continents,

glaciers and the atmosphere. The ocean makes up the 71 percent of Earth and contains

97.5 percent of water. Although small proportion, freshwater is essential to life on Earth.

Lakes, rivers, and clear sparkling streams are the most visible reservoirs of continental

water. The ground water, compose the upper few kilometers of the geosphere, is much

more abundant.

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Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and smaller amounts of

argon, carbon dioxide and other gases. The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on

temperature. These layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and

thermosphere.

• Troposphere – the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains

most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow. The top of the troposphere is called the

tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7-10 km above the Earth's

surface. It is highest (about 17-18 km) near the equator.

• Stratosphere - This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It

contains much of the ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with

height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by

this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere is highest over the summer pole, and

lowest over the winter pole.

• Mesosphere - The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here

the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -

90°C at the "mesopause".

• Thermosphere - it lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures

again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption

of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The region of the

atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the

energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them

into "ions" with a positive charge.

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 • Exosphere - The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains

mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely

collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some

of them escape right out into space.

Biosphere

It is the part where life inhabits. It produces the succession of life forms needed to

keep the planet habitable. Plants and animals also live on the Earth’s surface. Organisms

breath air, require water and thrive in a relatively narrow temperature range. Terrestrial

organisms ultimately depend on soil, which is part of geosphere. Plants and animals alter

and form the environment they live in. Living organisms contribute to the evolution of the

modern atmosphere.

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Activity #8.

Give ten examples on how the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere are

connected to each other.

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 CHAPTER IX. ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is a branch of science that deals with the heavenly bodies like planets,

comets, asteroids and other objects in the solar system.

Planets

Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around the sun and rotate around their axes.

Planets are classified into two: the terrestrial planets and jovian planets.

• Terrestrial planets – composed of rocks, metals with high densities, slow in motion

• Jovian planets – composed of gases, with low densities but fast in rotation.

Terrestrial Planets

• Mercury – planets nearest to the Sun and the second smallest planet. It is the

fastest planet with revolution of 87.97 days shorter than any other planets.

• Venus - stargazers refer to Venus as the Earth’s twin, it is the brightest of all the

planets. It takes 225 days for it to orbit the Sun. It is named after the Roman goddess

of beauty.

• Earth – the only planet known to support living organisms. One earth day is equal

to twenty-four hours and it revolves around the Sun for 365 ¼ days,

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 • Mars - Earth’s closest celestial neighbor beyond the solar orbit also known as the

Red Planet. It spins 24 hours, 37 minutes. It takes 687 earth days for Mars to revolve

around the Sun, twice the season on Earth. Mars has two moons, Phobos (Greek

word for fear) and Deimos (Greek word for terror).

Jovian Planets

• Jupiter - the giant member of the planetary system with 318 times more mass than

earth. Its diameter is 11 times greater than Earth yet it rotates quickly. A day in

Jupiter is 9 hours and 55 minutes, making it fastest rotating planet and it revolves

around the sun for 11.86 years. Jupiter has 16 known moons.

• Saturn – it is the second largest planet in the solar system. It has a rotation of 10

hours and 39 minutes. It has a cloudy hydrogen atmosphere mixed with methane

and ammonia like Jupiter. It has a magnificent system of countless ice-coated

rings.

• Uranus – it is the third largest planet in the solar system. It takes 84 earth years for

the planet to orbit the sun and 17 hours and 15 minutes to rotate in its axis. It has

11 dark rings surrounding it.

• Neptune – it has the fastest winds in the solar system: up to 2,000 km/hr. It is also

blue in color due to methane gas in its atmosphere. Neptune takes 166 years to

orbit the sun and has 8 moons.

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Other Celestial Bodies

• Comets – a bright object with a tail travelling in the sky. It has a core that is made

up of 25 % dust and chunks of rocky and metallic materials. Comets are fragile

and have been observing breaking up into fragments as it travels.

• Asteroids – other irregularly shaped celestial bodies, other than the planets and

their moon, that revolves around the Sun. Asteroids were little pieces of a planet

that was broken up by the gravitational force of Jupiter. They are too little to

combine to form even a small planet.

• Meteors – also known as the “shooting stars” or “falling stars”. They are lump of

irregularly shaped masses of metals or rocks that are speeding around in space.

• Meteorites - a moving meteor that penetrates the atmosphere and becomes

heated from air resistance that makes them glow. It is a piece of meteor that

landed on Earth.

• Stars – are heavenly bodies with central heat and pressure that energy us

generated in their interiors by nuclear reactions. Alpha Centauri is the brightest

star in the constellation.

• Constellation - group of stars which form a pattern named after ancient gods,

heroes, animals or mythological beings.

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 Activity #9.

I. Fill in the blanks. Wrong spelling is wrong. USE CAPITAL LETTERS ONLY.

1. _________________________ is the liquid component of the earth which circulates

among oceans, continents, glaciers and the atmosphere.

2. _____________________ are lump of irregularly shaped masses of metals or rocks that

are speeding around in space.

3. __________ is the only natural satellite of the Earth.

4. _____________________ is the study of the origin, history, structure and composition of

the earth.

5. ______________ is a bright object with a tail travelling in the sky.

6. ____________________is the solid part of the Earth.

7. The region above the stratosphere is called the____________________.

8. It takes 687 earth days for ___________ to revolve around the Sun, twice the season on

Earth.

9. The shape of the Earth is ________________________.

10. Mars is the fastest planet with revolution of ________ days shorter than any other

planets.

11. _________________ are celestial bodies that revolve around the sun and rotate around

their axes.

12. The region above about 500 km is called the _________________.

13. _____________ takes 84 earth years for the planet to orbit the sun and 17 hours and 15

minutes to rotate in its axis.

14. The top of the troposphere is called the ________________.

15. ______________________ is the brightest star in the constellation.

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II. Answer the following. Wrong spelling is wrong.

Layers of the Atmosphere (IN ORDER)

Phases of the Moon

Regions of the Sun

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 CHAPTER X. GEOLOGY.

Geology is a branch of science that deals with the study of the origin, history,

structure and composition of the earth. The geosphere is the solid part of the earth and

it includes the rocks and minerals of the earth.

Minerals are building blocks of rocks. It is a naturally occurring inorganic element

or compound having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical

composition, crystal form, and physical properties.

Minerals Groups

• Silicate minerals - have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental

building block. Examples: Feldspar, quartz, muscovite, hornblende

• Non-silicate minerals – without silicon Examples: Carbonate, sulfides, sulfates,

native elements, halides.

Rocks is an aggregate of one or more minerals, or a body of undifferentiated

mineral matter. It is a hard and solid earth’s material. Some rocks are composed of two

or more minerals. Rocks are classified into three: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rock.

• Igneous rocks - formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma, either at the

Earth's surface or within the crust.

Examples: Andesite, basalt, diorite, gabbro, granite, obsidian, pegmatite,

peridotite, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, tuff

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• Sedimentary rocks - formed when eroded particles (sediments) of other rocks have

been deposited (on the ocean floor, stream/lake beds, etc.) and compacted, or

by the precipitation of minerals / mineraloids from water.

Examples: Breccia, chert, coal, conglomerate, flint, iron ore, limestone, oil shale,

rock salt, sandstone, shale, siltstone

• Metamorphic rocks - formed when existing rocks have undergone pressure and /

or temperature changes so that their original mineralogy has been changed.

Examples: Quartzite, slate, marble, gneiss, schist, serpentinite.

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Activity #10.

Explain the Rock Cycle in your own words.

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 CHAPTER XI. METEOROLOGY

Meteorology is a branch of science that deals with the Earth’s atmosphere and its

related phenomena. It deals with the study of atmospheric phenomena like weather and

climate.

The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and smaller amounts of

argon, carbon dioxide and other gases. The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on

temperature. These layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and

thermosphere.

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Weather and Climate

Weather – conditions of the atmosphere over a short period of time. It can change within

minutes or hours. Weather is what you see outside on any day.

Elements of Weather

• Wind – movement of air in the atmosphere. Wind can be measure using a wind

vane or weather vane and anemometer. Wind vane or weather vane is used to

measure the direction of the wind while anemometer is used to measure the

strength of the wind. Monsoons are seasonal rain and wind pattern. Northeast

monsoon or the Hanging Amihan is a cool and dry northeast wind while southwest

monsoon or Hanging Habagat is characterized by frequent heavy rainfall and

humid weather.

• Pressure – weight of the atmosphere. When air rises, pressure falls and when air

sinks, pressure increases. Barometer is the tool used to measure the pressure of the

atmosphere.

• Precipitation – form of water that falls to the Earth’s surface. Rain, sleet, snow and

hail are forms of precipitation. Pressure can be measured using a barometer.

• Humidity – amount of water vapor in the air. It is the moisture or wetness in the

atmosphere. Hygrometer is the tool used to measure humidity.

• Temperature – hotness or coldness of the air.

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Climate – how the atmosphere behaves over a long period of time and space. To study

climate, scientist study precipitation and temperature of an area for a period of 30 years.

Latitude and altitude are the factors that affect climate. Latitude is an imaginary line that

circles the Earth and parallel to the equator. The rays of the sun are stronger at the

equator that’s why equatorial region is warmer than polar regions. Altitude is the height

above the sea level. The higher a place above the sea level, the colder it is.

Climate Zones

• Polar zones – located near the poles. This climate zone has low temperature all

year round. The little precipitations they get is in the form of snow. Arctic, Alaska,

Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Sweden and Finland are some of the countries in this

zone.

• Tropical zones – located near the equator. High temperature but different form of

precipitation. Most nations have a dry season and a wet season when most of the

annual rainfall occurs. Philippines, Ecuador, Cambodia, Malaysia, Peru, Singapore

and Myanmar are some of the countries in this zone.

• Temperate zones – located between the equator and the poles. United State of

America, Japan, New Zealand Canada and Europe are some of the countries in

this zone.

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Activity #11.

For this activity, you will experience to become a Weather Forecaster. Make a video and

make a report of the weather and climate in your barangay. Provide pieces of evidence

while doing the activity.

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