UNIT-II :

TIMBER
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION - V
INTRODUCTION

• Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks.

•  It is also known as “lumber” in US and Canada.

• Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or firewood of growing trees. 

• It is a stage in the process of wood production.

• Timbers are used for the structural purpose.

•  Those woods which are adapted for building purposes are timbers.

• Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry.

• Timber is used for building houses and making furniture.

 CROSS SECTION OF WOOD

 "Bark" is a thin, rough and dense covering that

surrounds the trunk. ​

 The growth of wood takes place

continuously under the bark in the cambium layer
resulting ring knowns as "Annual ring". ​

 Width of ring depends on the rate of growth of the

tree. ​

  The number of rings approximately represents the

age of the tree. 
 "Pith" is the center of the log surrounded by the annual rings. 

 "Heartwood" is the inner part of the trunk is made of dead tissue which primary function is to
provide mechanical support to the tree.

 Heartwood that is the older wood is darker, drier and harder than the outer part.

 "Sapwood" is the outer part and it contains living cells. 

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

 It is natural material used in many forms for building construction.  

                             
 It is relatively light in weight and unlike steel, and easy
to cut.                                                       

 Good appearance

 Aesthetically appealing
                                        
 It is naturally anticorrosive                                                    

 It is safe to use and non- toxic                                                    

 Light in weight easy to handle and easily

joined.                                                         

 It is cost effective

                                                  
DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

 It is likely to crack, warp and decay , if not properly seasoned      

                                                   
 It is not suitable for cyclonic weather and for places subjected to the natural calamities 
                                                                        
 Weather can change their durability , stability and appearance  
                                                       
 It requires careful regular maintenance.  
                                                                         
 It is subjected to the risk of fire    
                                                                             
 If not locally available, it proves to be costly
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
1. Appearance and color : Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell and shining surface, a darker 
    color of wood indicates greater durability                                                                                                               

2. Hardness : A good quality of timber should be hard enough to resist deterioration                                                

3. Strength : It should have sufficient strength to resist heavy structural loads                                                          

4. Elasticity : It should have the property of elasticity to regain its original shape after removal of loads.

5. Durability : It should be able to resist attacks of fungi and worms and also atmospheric effects for a 
    longer period of time.              

6. Defects : Timber should be free from defects such as sap, dead knots, shakes, and other defects.
                        .
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER 

• Density 

• Moisture Content 

• Temperature 

• Position in tree 

• Condition of growth 

• Defects  
 DENSITY :

 Density of wood is defined as the mass or weight

per unit volume. 

 Moisture in wood has a very large effect on the

specific gravity as well as the density. 

 Timbers of young tree has a very low density,

therefore reduced stresses used for such
material. 

 Weight of timber reduced by drying while most

strength properties are increased. 

 The higher the density, so the higher it's

mechanical properties. 
 MOISTURE CONTENT :

 Moisture content in a living tree varies with the species. 

 Even in the same species, variation in moisture content depends on the

age & size of the tree and its location.

 Mechanical properties of wood influenced by moisture content but

modulus elasticity is less affected by changes in moisture

 Strength of wood increase as the moisture content decreases

 Moisture content determined by oven-dry method or by electric moisture-

meter method

 Drying of timber from the green condition as cut to constructional usable

content of say, 18% moisture content will cause shrinkage. 
TEMPERATURE : 

 Strength of timber decreases, together with increasing temperature 

 Permanent loss of strength may happen if wood is held at high temperature for a long
period. 

POSITION IN TREE : In the early tree's life, wood often tends to become stronger with
increasing distance from the pith

CONDITION OF GROWTH : Environmental factor such as height above the sea level,
temperature, type of soil, rainfall, spacing between the trees have effect on the strength of the
properties of the timber 
 Due to
Natural
Forces

During
Fungi
Conversion

DEFECTS IN TIMBER

During
Insects
Seasoning
 DEFECTS

Defects in timber due to Natural Forces :

• Chemical stain
• Wind cracks
• Deadwood
• Shakes
• Knots
• Twisted fibers
• Coarse grain
• Upsets
• Foxiness
• Rind galls
• Druxiness
• Burls
• Callus
• Water stain
1. Wind Cracks : If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds, the
outer surface shrinks and forms crack externally, which are called wind cracks.

2. Shakes in Timber : Shakes are nothing but cracks which separate the wood fibers partly or completely.
Different shakes are formed in different conditions as follows:

i. Cup shakes are formed due to the non-uniform

growth of a tree or excessive bending by cyclones
or winds.
ii.    Heart shakes, the other type of shakes which develop in maturity
approaching trees whose inner part is under shrinkage

iii.   Ring shakes are similar to cup shakes, but they completely separate the
annual
     rings.

iv.  Star shakes are formed due to extreme heat or severe frost action.
They develop wider cracks on the outside of timber from bark to the
sapwood.

v.   Radial shakes are developed radially from pith to the bark.

3. Twisted Fibers : When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high-speed
winds, the fibers of wood gets twisted. This type of wood is not suitable for
sawing. So, this can be used for making poles, posts, etc.

4. Upsets : Upsets, a defect of timber in which the fibers of the wood are
crushed and compressed by fast blowing winds or inappropriate chopping
of trees.

5. Rind Galls : Rind galls are curved swellings of trees which are
formed at a point where a branch of the tress is improperly removed or
fell down.
6. Burls : Burls are uneven projections on the body of the tree during its
growth. These are mainly due to the effect of shocks and injuries received
by the tree during its young age.

7. Water Stain : When the wood is in contact with water for some time,
the water will damage the color of the wood and forms a stain on its
surface. This defect is called as water stain.

8. Chemical Stain : Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action

of any external chemical agents like reaction by the gases present in the
atmosphere etc. The stain area gets discolored in this defect.
9. Dead Wood
The wood obtained from the cutting of the dead tree is light in weight
and is actually defected. It is reddish in color and its strength is very
less.

10. Knots in Timber

The central part or stem of a tree is majorly used in the conversion
of timber. Branches from the stem are removed, and the whole
rounded stem is taken. But the base of branches forms a mark on the
stem, which results in dark-colored stains on the surface after
conversion. This dark-colored stains are due to the continuity of
wood fibers. These dark-colored rings are known as knots.

11. Coarse Grain Defect in Timber

The age of a tree can be known by the number of annual rings. For
fast-growing trees, the gap between the annual rings is very large.
This type of tree is called as coarse-grained tress
12. Timber Foxiness
When the timber is stored without proper ventilation, the trees growing near
the banks of water bodies and over matured trees may exhibit this type of
defect. Foxiness is generally indicated by red or yellow spots.

13. Druxiness
Druxiness is a defect of timber in which the top surface of timber indicates
white spots. These spots will give the access to fungi.

14. Callus
The wound of the tree is covered by soft skin, which is called a callus.
 Defects in timber due to Fungi :

1. Dry rot : It is caused by a certain type of fungi that eats wood for their living.
They make food by converting timber into dry powder form. This occurs mainly
when there is no ventilation of air or if the wood improperly seasoned.

2. Wet Rot : Wet rot is caused by fungi that decompose the timber and
convert it into a grayish-brown powder form. Wet rot causing fungi growths
mainly when there are alternate dry and wet conditions of timber.

3. Brown Rot :The cellulose compounds of the wood are consumed by certain
types of fungi, which then makes the wood brownish, and this defect is called
brown rot.
4. White Rot : Some types of fungi attack lignin of timber and leaves cellulose
compounds; hence the wood will turn into white color, which is called white rot.

5. Blue Stain in Timber

Blue stain is a defect caused by some kind of fungi, which makes the timber
bluish.

6. Heart Rot in Timber

Heart rot is generated in the trees when fungi attack the heartwood through its
newly formed branch. This type of fungi makes the tree hollow by consuming
heartwood. This defect is known as heart rot.
 Defects in timber due to Insects :

1. Termites :Termites also known as white ants which form a colony inside
the timber and eat the core part of the timber rapidly. They do not disturb the
outer layer of timber, so one cannot identify their presence. The trees in
tropical and sub-tropical regions are mostly affected by these termites.

2. Beetles : Beetles are a type of insects that destroy the sapwood of the tree
and make a tunnel-like hole from the bark. Usually, the diameter of the hole
is around 2 mm. They convert sapwood into powder form, and larvae of these
beetles use these holes.

3. Marine Borers in Timber

Marine borers are found near coastal areas. They do not consume wood, but
they make large holes of diameter up to 25mm in the timber to live inside it.
They excavated up to 60mm deep in the wood. The wood attacked by marine
borers is of less strength and discolored. They can attack all types of trees
present in their region.
Defects in Timber During Seasoning :

1. Bow : When the converted timber is stored for a longer time, some timber planks
may have a curve along its length, which is known as Bow.

2. Cup
If the timber planks curve along its width, then it is called Cupping of timber.

3. Check
Check is the formation of a crack in the wood, which will separate the wood
fibers. They form due to over seasoning of timber.

4. Split
Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other end, which will split
the wood into a number of pieces.
5. Twist
Twist forms when the timber piece is distorted spirally along its length. It looks like a
propeller blade after twisting

6. Honeycombing
Honey combing occurs in the inner part of the timber, which cannot be identified by
just seeing. It is mainly due to stresses developed during the drying of timber.

7. Case Hardening
Case is nothing but the top surface of wood, which dries rapidly during seasoning,
but the inner part didn’t. Then this defect is called as case hardening.
8. Collapse : During drying, some parts of the wood may dry rapidly while some
may not. Because of this, improper drying shrinkage of wood occurs, that results in
the defect called collapse.

9. Warp
Warping is the loss of shape of wood due to stresses developed during drying. Cupping
bowing, twisting of wood come under warping.

10. Radial Shakes

Radial shakes develop after the tree being felled down and exposed to the sun for
seasoning. In this case, the cracks run radially from bark to the pith through annual
rings.
Defects in Timber During Conversion :

1. Diagonal Grain Defect in Timber

During the conversion of timber, different cutting saws are used. The cutting
should be done properly. If there is any improper cutting by the saw, then a
diagonal grains will appear

2. Torn Grain
In the conversion, many tools are used. If any of the tools or any other heavy
things are dropped accidentally on the finished surface of timber it will cause
small depression, which is called torn grain.
3. Chip Mark
When the timber is cut through the planning machine, the parts of the machine may
form chip marks on it. Usually, they are indicated by chips on the finished surface.

4. Wane
The edge part of the timber log contains a rounded edge on one side because of its
original rounded surface. This rounded edge is called wane.
Approach to timber roofing system :  
• Timber has been the traditional material for
building roofs as far back as early Saxon
times and beyond.   
                                        
• It is still the roof material of choice for
housebuilders and self-builders, irrespective of
whether they are building in traditional or
contemporary styles, or whether they are
creating pitched or flat
roofs.                                                                 
                                  
• It is also bio-
degradable.                                                       
                    
• The popularity of timber as a roofing material is
because it has been hitherto widely available, is
generally light and easy to work with, has an
excellent strength-to-weight ratio, can be an
economic choice, usually has pleasing looks and
can be an environmentally-friendly option when
sustainably sourced.

• Historically, timber was the most abundant

and suitable material from which to
build the roof structure. The roof covering was
the dominant factor in determining the form of
the roof. ​
ROOF TRUSSES  

 To span large distances (that is the distance between the

supports to the roof construction), rafters can be formed
into triangular structures called trusses.

 This is achieved by connecting the lower ends of rafters

at the eaves with a timber beam, thereby forming a
triangle. The timber beam ties together the rafters and
prevents
them splaying.                                                                     
                 
 Rather than creating this arrangement on-site from
individual timber lengths (which is the traditional method
and is easily done although more time consuming and
may result in
oversized timbers),                                                             
                                                                                            
                            
Role of timber in construction  
The use of timber in construction is a gift of nature to humanity cos with it, almost
everything is possible.                                                                                                           
                                                          
 In construction, timber is used for :

1. Timber is used for formwork: Formwork is a necessary part of all civil works especially
for the construction of structural elements like beams, column, slabs, etc. In fact, aside
from Pneumatic or tubery form works, timber is very vital. Timber usually forms the shape
of these structural elements.        

2. Timber In roofing: Purlins, King post, wall plate, are all important elements of the roof
structure which are often
constructed with timber.                                                                                                        
                                  
3. Tructs and Braces: In the design of drainage, lintels (other form of beams). The most
common Structs are usually made of timber. 
4. Furniture: Furniture is also a part of construction, in fact the best
furniture today cannot be made without incorporating
timber into the system.                                                                         
                                                                                                            
    5. Furniture is also a part of construction, in fact the best furniture
today cannot be made without incorporating timber into
the system.                                                                                          
                                                         ​
THANK YOU !

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