Timber I

Timber I
1. Wood structure
2. Grows rings
3. Softwood and hardwood
4. Moisture
5. Properties
6. Distortion
7. Conversion
8. Use
9. Deterioration
10. Preservation
11. Structural use
12. Stress grading
13. Timber products
 1. Wood structure
Tree trunk:
1) Bark
Protects interior of tree trunk

2) Sapwood
Living cells - carry water and nutrients
New sapwood is formed as the tree grows

3) Heartwood
Inner-most sapwood cells die, get blocked
and become heartwood
Central part of the tree trunk
Helps support the tree
More resistant to decay and insect attack. Sapwood

Annual or growth rings Heartwood

• Spring: rapid growth, large and thin-walled cells
• Later in the season: Slower growth, smaller and
thicker-walled cells
1. Wood structure

Growth rings

Late wood

Growth ring
Early wood

Rays
Example (21” diameter)

1900
Seedling, difficult time
competing with surrounding
trees (20 rings/inch)

1936
Area selectively logged
More, but not full sun, faster
growth,
rings tighten up as some of its
surrounding trees grew up (8
rings/inch)

1970s
area completely cleared,
plenty of sunshine, even
faster growth
(4 rings/inch)
Example (21” diameter)

A close neighbour to the

previous tree, same size:

1975
sprouted when the farmstead
was cleared, spent entire life in
full sunshine.
(3 rings to the inch)
3. Softwood and hardwood

Terms softwood and hardwood

do not refer to the hardness or softness of the wood
but to the type of water-conducting cells in the tree.

Softwoods and hardwoods have distinct internal structures

Softwood Hardwood
3. Softwood and hardwood

Softwoods Hardwoods
3. Softwood and hardwood
Softwoods Hardwoods
 Coniferous (cone-producing),  Broad-leaved trees, e.g. balsa or oak
e.g. pine  Cell types:
 Vertical cells 2 to 4 mm long, 30 μm a) Fibre cells:
wide Vertical cells 1 to 2 mm long, 15 μm
 open channel, thin cell wall wide.
 Purpose of cells: support and food Thick-walled cells with narrow
conduction central channel
 Grow relatively quickly Support only
b) Vessels: Carrying food
 Grow more slowly
 Harder, denser, stronger, more durable.
 4. Moisture

>28% ~28% <15%

Unseasoned / Green Partially seasoned Seasoned timber

timber timber
Free water in the cell voids Free water loss Water loss in cell walls
(moving nutrients) No shrinkage Shrinkage
Fibre saturation point

Free water in cell voids Bound water in cell walls

4. Moisture

Seasoning:

Air seasoning
Left to dry in covered outside area.
Moisture content: 15%
 too high for internal purposes.

Kiln seasoning
Humidity reduced gradually
Moisture content: 12%
 5. Properties
• Density
Depends on the thickness of the fibre walls in relation to the size of
the cells' hollow centre
- Low density: cells with very thin walls and large hollow
- High density: cells with thick walls and narrow hollow.
Radial
shrinkage

• Shrinkage:
Tangential: 5%
Radial: 3%
Longitudinal
Longitudinal: <0.1% shrinkage

 Timber is most be stable in the

longitudinal direction
Distortion after seasoning
Tangential
shrinkage
6. Distortion
Factors effecting distortion of timber

• Method of conversion (cutting)

• Species of timber
• Slope of grain
• Stacking procedure
• Moisture changes
7. Conversion

Through and through Quarter sawn

• Easy, cheap • More expensive
• Shrinkage  large distort • Shrinkage  small distortion

Sawing patterns can vary

8. Use

>60% of wood: planks and boards

for house framing, flooring,
weatherboards, furniture, toys, tools,
boxes, …
~ 25% paper, cardboard, building boards
~ 5% electricity and telephone poles, fence
posts, underground mine props (support
structures)
~ 5% large timber pieces, e.g. railway
sleepers and bridge girders
< 5% thin veneers to make plywood or
decorative purposes
Firewood
 4. Moisture

>28% ~28% <15%

Unseasoned / Green Partially seasoned Seasoned timber

timber timber
Free water in the cell voids Free water loss Water loss in cell walls
(moving nutrients) No shrinkage Shrinkage
Fibre saturation point

Free water in cell voids Bound water in cell walls

9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot Wet / White rot Insects

 9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot

• Cellulose destroyed, wood breaks
into small cubes

(Cellulose)

www.uky.edu
 9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot

• Cellulose destroyed, wood breaks
into small cubes
• 20-50% moisture content
• In areas without satisfactory
ventilation

• Cut out and burn affected areas
+ 600mm ‘sound’ timber around

forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu/microbes.htm
 9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot

• Cellulose destroyed, wood breaks
into small cubes
• 20-50% moisture content
• In areas without satisfactory
ventilation

• Cut out and burn affected areas
+ 600mm ‘sound’ timber around

www.safeguardeurope.com
 9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot

• Cellulose destroyed, wood breaks
into small cubes
• 40-50% moisture content
• In areas without satisfactory
ventilation

• Cut out and burn affected areas
+ 600mm ‘sound’ timber around

www.ewoodcare.com
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Wet / White rot

• Cellulose and lignins destroyed,
wood becomes soft and fibrous

(Cellulose + Lignin)

(Cellulose)

www.uky.edu
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Wet / White rot

• Cellulose and lignins destroyed,
wood becomes soft and fibrous
• >50% moisture content
• In very damp areas ,
E.g. basements and cellars

• Cut out and burn affected areas
only

www.maintainyourchurch.org.uk
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Insects
• E.g.: beetles
• Life cycle: egg, caterpillar
(larva), chrisalis, adult beetle
• Most damage caused by
larvae
• Visible: flight holes
• Does not need very high
moisture content
• Usually attack sapwood
(not so often heartwood)

• Cut out and burn affected
areas only
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Insects
• E.g.: beetles
• Life cycle: egg, caterpillar
(larva), chrisalis, adult beetle
• Most damage caused by
larvae
• Visible: flight holes
• Does not need very high
moisture content
• Usually attack sapwood
(not so often heartwood)

• Cut out and burn affected
areas only
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Insects
• E.g.: beetles
• Life cycle: egg, caterpillar
(larva), chrisalis, adult beetle
• Most damage caused by
larvae
• Visible: flight holes
• Does not need very high
moisture content
• Usually attack sapwood
(not so often heartwood)

• Cut out and burn affected
areas only
9. Deterioration

Deterioration

Insects

Types of Wood Boring Insect

1. Common furniture beetle (woodworm)
2. House long horn beetle
3. Death watch beetle
4. Powderpost beetle
5. Wood-boring weevil
1) Common furniture beetle (‘woodworm’)
• Attacks sapwood of softwoods and European hardwoods
(e.g. oak and elm)
• Round holes 1-2mm diameter and egg shaped pellets of
bore dust.
• Infests timbers with moisture contents typical of most well
ventilated roofs (moderate severity and low activity). (Severe
active infestation indicates dampness problem.)
• Usually dies out when central heating is installed in existing
buildings.
• Rarely causes structural weakening.
2) House long horn beetle
• Attacks softwoods. Most commonly found in roof timbers
• Circular holes 1-2mm diameter
• Not significantly encouraged by damp conditions.
• Usually found in roof timbers, can result in structural
weakening.
3) Death watch beetle
• Attacks damp or decayed hardwoods that has experienced
some form of decay or rot in the past. More likely to infest
where ventilation is poor.
• The beetle is much larger than the Furniture Beetle and
therefore causes damage more quickly. Larger holes, ca.
3mm diameter.
4) Wood-boring weevil
• Attacks only damp, decayed timber (softwoods and
hardwoods), usually secondary to fungal decay.
• Commonly found in poorly ventilated floors, cellars
• Holes are oval shaped (as opposed to the round holes of
the furniture beetle) with finer bore dust.
5) Powder post beetle
• Only attacks the sapwood of recently seasoned hardwoods
(e.g. Oak and Elm) with high starch content. Does not attack
softwood timbers so most modern structural timbers are
unaffected.
• Holes 1-2mm diameter
• Feeds on the starch in hardwood timbers and naturally dies
out after 10-5 years when the starch content is depleted.
• Causes severe damage in 2-4 years.
• Infests timber components usually before delivery to site
Type Timbers attached Holes
Common furniture Sapwood or softwoods Circular,
beetle and European 1-2mm
hardwoods
House long horn beetle Sapwoods of softwoods Oval,
6-10mm

Death watch beetle Sapwood and hardwood Circular,

of decayed hardwoods, 2-3mm
occasionally softwoods
Powderpost beetle Sapwood of coarse- Circular,
pored hardwoods 1-2mm
Wood-boring weevil Damp, decayed Oval,
softwoods and 1-2mm
hardwoods
10. Preservation

Deterioration

Dry / Brown rot Wet / White rot Insects

1. Preservatives

2. Fire resistance
10. Preservation

2. Fire resistance

• Outside layer of wood burns fast

• Inside of large sections burn slow (charcoal is excellent insulator)
 sacrificial layer designed for timber structures
(e.g. char can penetrate 40 mm in a 1 hour fire reaching 1000°C)
 flame spread remains a hazard through a building!
(surface treatments, flame-retardants)

Char

Interior insulated
by char
 11. Structural use

Strength
• Relatively high
• Variable (±20%)
• Strength of individual pieces can be
greatly reduced by defects (i.e. knots)
• Long-term strength
• 40% lower than short-term strength
Black (dead) knot

600
Strength (N/mm )
2

500
400
300
200
100
0
Concrete

Sandstone

Granite
(Tension)

(High str.)
(Compr.)
Masonry

(Mild)
Steel
Timber
Timber

Steel

Green (live) knots

 11. Structural use

Strength Density
• Relatively high • Very low
• Variable (±20%)
• Strength of individual pieces can be
greatly reduced by defects (i.e. knots)
• Long-term strength
• 40% lower than short-term strength

600 70
Strength (N/mm )
2

500 60

Density (kN/m )
2
400 50
40
300
30
200
20
100
10
0
0
Concrete

Sandstone

Granite
(Tension)

(High str.)
(Compr.)
Masonry

(Mild)
Steel

Glass fibre
Timber

Bricks

Concrete

Aluminium

Concrete
Timber

Steel
Timber

Steel
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Visual grading Machine grading

www.timber.org.au
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Visual grading

Split Slope of grain

Shake Wane
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Visual grading

• Examined visually for defects,

E.g. knots, cracks, sloping grains, vanes, distortion, …
• Grades:
Softwood (BS 4978)
• SS (Special Structural) 50-60% strength of perfect timber
• GS (General Structural) 30-50% strength of perfect timber
• Reject
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Machine grading

• Each piece of timber is bent

• Stiffness is measured
• Stiffness is related to strength

All UK hardwood is visual graded

(BS 5756)
• HS = Hardwood structural
12. Stress grading

Grade timber BS 4978

BS 5756
(Visually or by machine) BS EN 14081

Assign a strength class BS EN 1912

Look up characteristic values for

BS EN 338
design (strength, stiffness etc.)
Strength classes
BS EN 338
Softwood
• C16 to C50 (typically C16 to C24)
Hardwood
• D18 to D70
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Visual grading

Visual grade
(GS = General Structural)
Standard graded
to (BS4978)
Strength class
assigned (C16)
Moisture condition
(Dry = MC<20%)
12. Stress grading

Stress grading

Machine grading

M = machine graded
Standard graded to
(BS EN 14081-1)

Strength class
assigned (C24)
Standard strength class
is from (BS EN 338)
Moisture condition
(Dry = MC<20%)
13. Timber products
Smooth Wire
side side
Fibreboards: Soft, medium, hardboard
• Wet process, wet fibres places on wire mesh
• Soft board – left to dry
• Medium and hardboards – pressed at room temperature
• Natural lignin glues the board together

Softboard

Medium board

Hardboard
13. Timber products

Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF)

• Dry process
• Glued together
• Can be shaped easily
• Dust is hazardous
• Can be made with glue suitable for wet environments
13. Timber products

Particleboard
• Glued together under pressure and elevated temperatures
• UF (Urea-formaldehyde) glue – moisture sensitive (swells)
• MF or MUF (Melamine urea formaldehyde) glue - more suitable for wet
environments (If in a wet environment, it needs the right glue!)
• Used for flooring and furniture
13. Timber products

Oriented Strand Board (OSB)

• Less glue
• Bigger ‘flakes’
• Properties can vary with direction
• Can be cheaper alternative to plywood
• Used as loadbearing e.g. floors, sheaving, sarking.
13. Timber products

Plywood
• Veneers of wood glued together
• Grain of each layer alternates – dimensional stability
• Strong

3 ply
5 ply

11 ply
13. Timber products

Structural timber products

• Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

• Cross laminated timber (CLT)
• Glue laminated timber (Glulam)
13. Timber products

Laminated veneer lumber

• ‘mega’ plywood
• Typically most of the veneers orientated same way
• Used to make beams
13. Timber products

Laminated veneer lumber

• ‘mega’ plywood
• Typically most of the veneers orientated same way
• Used to make beams

All grain directions aligned Some grain directions alternate

– maximise strength – provide dimensional stability

Cross section Cross section

13. Timber products

Cross laminated timber

• Large pieces of timber glued together, grain direction alternated
between layers.
• Creates panel products.
• Ideal for floor and wall construction.
13. Timber products

Cross laminated timber

• Large pieces of timber glued together, grain direction alternated
between layers.
• Creates panel products.
• Ideal for floor and wall construction.

Panel product (walls and floors)

Good dimensional stability
Reasonably good strength

Cross section
13. Timber products

Glue laminated timber

• Larger pieces of timber glues together, grain aligned.
• Create very large members
• Can be shaped and steam bent
• Connections are critical
13. Timber products

Glue laminated timber

• Larger pieces of timber glues together, grain aligned.
• Create very large members
• Can be shaped and steam bent
• Connections are critical

1D product, all grain directions aligned

for maximising strength

Cross section
13. Timber products

Indicative
Product characteristic Standard Notes
bending strength
Not load
Softboard 0.8 N/mm2 BS EN 622-4
bearing!
Medium 15 N/mm2 Heavy duty in
BS EN 12369-1
board dry conditions
32 N/mm2 Heavy duty in
Hardboard BS EN 12369-1
humid conditions
HLS in humid
MDF 21.0 N/mm2 BS EN 12369-1
conditions
Particle 16.7 N/mm2 Heavy duty in
BS EN 12369-1
board humid conditions
OSB/4 in humid
OSB 23.0 N/mm2 BS EN 12369-1
conditions
Plywood 3 to 80 N/mm2 BS EN 12369-2
Videos
• Strength grading: https://youtu.be/Hhc4LF-8fuM
• LVL manufacture: https://youtu.be/_0b9Za1cEBw
• CLT manufacture: https://youtu.be/BikISh6F1wo

Additional but very useful reading material:

TRADA “wood information sheets” accessible via the Construction
Information Service (UWE Library webpage > Databases > CIS)