Wood &Timber

Introduction to Wood/Timber
• Wood is a naturally occurring, biological material. It is
probably the world’s oldest structural material.

• Since it is easy to produce and handle, it is a widely used

construction material.

• The annual production of wood is about 1 billion metric

tons.

• Wood has good structural properties, is aesthetically

appealing and relatively cheap. Though it is vulnerable to
fire and decay through biological attack, it can last for a
long time if properly maintained.
Introduction to Wood/Timber
Wood is more complex than many other materials because:
• There are at least 30,000 species of trees, and this
alone leads to a tremendous variation in the properties
of wood.
• Wood is a composite material, with a variety of
properties at different scales.
• It has a lot of flaws and imperfections, which can
control its structural behavior.
• It is anisotropic because of the way in which a tree
grows.
Introduction to Wood/Timber
Trees are divided into two broad classes:
• Hardwoods: Tropical, broad-leaved trees, deciduous (shed
leaves annually), porous (contain vessel elements). Examples:
Teak, Sal, Oak.

• Softwoods: Conifers, have needle- or scale-like evergreen

leaves, non-porous. Examples: Fir, Pine, Cedar.
Introduction to Wood/Timber
 Applications of Wood/Timber
Traditional Buildings

Norway

Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kerala/Tamilnadu.

17th century.
Applications of Wood/Timber
Traditional Buildings: Composite Construction with Masonry

Liuheta pagoda, Hangzhou, China

Present form dates to 1152.

Bourges, France.
15th century.
Applications of Wood/Timber
Commercial buildings (USA)
Applications of Wood/Timber
Rafter-type roof
Applications of Wood/Timber
Marine/Waterfront Structures
Applications of Wood/Timber
Access Road and Post Structures
Applications of Wood/Timber
Formwork and scaffolding
Structure of Wood/Timber
Macroscopic level
Outer bark: dense rough
layer of protection.
Inner bark: transports sap
from leaves to growing
parts of the tree.
Cambium: layer of tissue,
one to ten cells thick,
between bark and wood.
Rays: small amount of
cells that grow in the
horizontal direction

Sapwood: wood on the

outside, conducts
moisture from roots,
stores food.
Heartwood: inner core,
nonliving, more resistant
to decay, drier and harder.
Structure of Wood/Timber
Macroscopic level
The annual rings are the most distinct
feature of a tree trunk.

As the cells of the cambium grow and divide

during the growing season, they form a ring
of cells around the trunk.

In spring, during the period of rapid growth,

these cells are larger with thin walls, and are
referred to as springwood or earlywood.

Later in the growing season, the cells are

smaller and with thicker walls, and therefore
harder and stronger. This is called
summerwood or latewood.
Structure of Wood/Timber
Macroscopic level
Green or live knot
Radial growth of the truck must accommodate existing
branches of the tree.

This is achieved by the structure known as the knot.

If the cambium of the branch is still alive when it fuses

with that of the trunk, there is continuity in growth, and a
green or live knot is formed.

If the cambium of the branch is dead, there is absence

Black or dead knot of continuity, and the trunk grows around the dead
branch and even the bark. Here, a black or dead knot is
formed. Such knots may drop out of the plank on
sawing.
Structure of Wood/Timber
Microstructure: Cells
• Wood may be modelled crudely as a bundle of aligned tubular cellulose
cells or fibres, glued together.
• The middle lamella bonds the neighbouring cells.
• The primary wall is thin with randomly oriented microfibrils.
• The secondary wall has a thin outer layer, a thick middle layer and a thin
inner layer. These layers have microfibrils oriented in different directions.

Cellulose cell model Transmission electron micrograph

of a cell wall cross-section
Structure of Wood/Timber
Microstructure: Cells
• In softwoods, 90% of the
volume consists of
longitudinally oriented cells
called tracheids; the remaining
are transversely oriented cells
called parenchyma.

• In hardwoods, the
microstructure is more complex
as they contain, in addition to
the tracheids and parenchyma,
fibres and pores.
Tracheids Internal cell walls
of earlywood
tracheids
Processing of Wood/Timber
• Sawing of logs into suitable pieces of timber is called
conversion.
• Conversion losses vary from 30-50%.
• After sawing, the timber is graded depending on type,
grain direction, knots, sapwood, worm holes, etc.
• In the USA and other countries, timber for construction is
stress-graded based on strength, stiffness and uniformity
of size.
• Non-destructive tests may be used to verify the
mechanical integrity.
Properties of Wood/Timber
Orthotropic Nature
• Due to the way trees grow, wood
is highly orthotropic in nature.
• The properties are different along
the longitudinal, radial and
tangential directions.
• Nine independent constants are
needed to describe the elastic
behaviour of wood.

• The way of sawing will affect the

properties of the timber, as well
as the decorative features.
Wood-Based Products
Plywood

Panels or sheets made from

wood by gluing together thin
veneers in layers. The layers
are placed such that the grains
of the successive plies are at
right angles to each other.
Wood-Based Products

Board Thickness (mm)

3-ply 3, 4, 5, 6

5-ply 5, 6, 8, 9

7-ply 9, 12, 15, 16

9-ply 12, 15, 16, 19

11-ply 19, 22, 25

Above 11-ply As ordered

Wood-Based Products
Plywood

Advantages:
• Can be produced in large sheets.
• Split-resistant
• Have same properties in both directions of sheet.
• Effect of knots are limited to one ply.
• Shrinkage and swelling are minimised.
Wood-Based Products
Particle Board
• Chips are soaked in water, dried, mixed with resin and
pressed together to form boards.
• Typical particle boards have three layers: the faces
consist of fine particles and the inner layer consists of
coarser material.

Other Composites
• Fibreboard
• Strandboard
• Cement bonded particle board
• Wood fiber – Thermoplastic composites
Physical Properties of Wood/Timber
Specific gravity or Relative density
• For all species of wood, the specific gravity of the cell wall
material itself is about 1.5.
• However, the specific gravity of wood varies from 0.04 (for
balsa wood) to about 1.4 (for lignum vitae).
• The differences in the relative densities between species is
related to the variations in the void space or porosity
associated with the geometry of the wood cells and their
grouping.
• Specific gravity is a good indication of the mechanical
properties.
• Within the same species, the mechanical properties vary
linearly with the specific gravity.
• Lower the specific gravity, easier it is to cut the wood with a
sharp tool.
Effects of Moisture Content on Wood/Timber
• The moisture content of green wood is high, varying from
60-200%.
• Green timber will yield moisture to the environment with
consequent changes in its dimensions.
• For every combination of relative humidity and temperature
of the environment there is an equilibrium moisture content
of the wood.
• Moist wood is more susceptible to attack by fungi.
• For all these reasons, it is desirable to dry timber before its
use.
Seasoning is the process of controlled drying to remove sap
and reduce moisture without causing cracks and distortion.
Effects of Moisture Content on Wood/Timber
• Moisture in wood exists in two forms:
• Free water within cell cavities
• Bound water adsorbed in the cell
walls

• As green wood dries, the free water

evaporates first. Fiber saturation point
is reached when all the free water has
been removed but the cell walls are still
saturated. This generally occurs at
moisture contents of 25-30%.

• Further removal of water compacts the

molecular structure, leading to
additional hydrogen bonding. Therefore,
the wood shrinks and becomes stronger.
This process is reversible.
Effects of Moisture Content on Wood/Timber
Shrinkage
• Changes in moisture content above the fibre saturation point do
not affect the dimensional stability of wood.
• Below the fibre saturation point, the
volumetric shrinkage of wood is
approximately proportional to the
volume of water lost.
• Shrinkage is not the same in all
directions.
Effects of Moisture Content on Wood/Timber
Shrinkage
• The longitudinal shrinkage is normally negligible.
• However, the values of
tangential and radial shrinkage
can be in the range of 3-12%.
Tangential shrinkage is higher
than radial shrinkage.
• For example, teak undergoes
radial, tangential and volumetric
shrinkage of about 3%, 6%
and 7%, respectively.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Elastic Modulus
• Wood is linear elastic only over a small strain range.
• In general, the elastic modulus is highest in the longitudinal
direction (parallel-to-grain) and lowest in the tangential
direction.
• Values of longitudinal elastic modulus ranges from 6 to 17
GPa. For example, teak has a Young's modulus of about
9.4 GPa in the green state and about 10.6 GPa for 12%
moisture content.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Tensile Strength
• The tensile strength parallel-to-grain is high, ranging from 70 to
150 MPa. The corresponding failure strain is small, in the order of
1%. Failure occurs within the secondary wall of the cells that form
the fibrils, with the breaking of primary bonds.
• The strength perpendicular-to-grain is smaller, in the order of 2 to
9 MPa. Failure occurs through the separation of the microfibrils
and breaking of secondary bonds. The strains can be high due to
the distortion of the cells.
• In bending, the modulus of rupture along the grain is in the range
of 40 to 100 MPa. Failure generally begins with crushing in the
compressive zone and ends with tensile rupture of the bottom
fibres. Teak has a modulus of rupture of about 80 MPa in the
green state and 100 MPa with a moisture content of 12%.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Compressive Strength
• The compressive strength parallel-to-grain is only about half
of the tensile strength, in the range of 25 to 60 MPa. Teak
has a parallel-to-grain compressive strength of about 40
MPa in the green state and about 60 MPa with a 12%
moisture content.
• In the longitudinal direction, failure occurs by the kinking of
the microfibrils and buckling of the cell walls.
• When compressed perpendicular to grain, the cells begin
collapse at a stress of 3-10 MPa.
After that the deformation continues until complete collapse
and a consequent
increase in load.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Shear Strength
• The shear strength of wood depends significantly on whether
primary or secondary bonds are broken during failure. Therefore,
the direction of the failure plane with respect to the grains
determines the strength.

• Shear parallel-to-grain is common, and involves the breaking of

secondary bonds. The corresponding strength is in the range of
5 to 15 MPa. The value for teak is about 9 MPa in the green
state and about 13 MPa with a moisture content of 12%.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Variability
• The properties of wood vary considerably due its nature.

• The coefficient of variation of the tensile strength is in the order

of 25%. That of other properties can range from 10 to 35%.

• Due to the high variability, the safe (or characteristic) strength

used in structural design is much lower than the mean strength.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Effect of Temperature
• The mechanical properties of wood
generally decrease when heated and
increase when cooled. This effect is
reversible.
• At high temperatures, there is a permanent
deterioration of wood.

permanent effect on reversible effect

modulus of rupture of temperature
on modulus of
elasticity,
modulus of
rupture and
compressive
strength at
different
moisture
contents
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Creep
• Creep deformations are
significant in wood.

• Creep increases with

temperature and
moisture content.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Thermal conductivity
• The conductivity of structural softwood timber at 12%
moisture content is in the range of 0.1 to 1.4 W/(m-K),
compared with 216 for aluminum, 45 for steel, 0.9 for
concrete, 1 for glass, 0.7 for plaster, and 0.036 for mineral
wool.
• Conductivity increases with moisture content, temperature
or specific gravity.
• Since the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of wood
are low, it does not absorb or release heat quickly. Due to
this wood does not feel hot or cold to the touch as some
other materials.
Mechanical Properties of Wood/Timber
Thermal expansion
• The parallel-to-grain values of the expansion coefficient
vary in the range of 30~45 × 10-6 /K.
• Thermal expansion coefficients across the grain are
proportional to specific gravity. They range from 5 to 10
times the parallel-to-grain coefficient.
Other Properties of Wood/Timber
Decay due to Fungi
• Wood that is always dry does not decay.
• When wood is constantly submerged in water, the
deterioration is slow since only some bacteria and fungi
can attack under water.
• Deterioration is more rapid in hot and wet climates than in
cool or dry climates.
• Early stages of decay are difficult to detect before
significant weight loss occurs.
• When weight loss reaches 5-10%, the mechanical
properties are reduced by 20-80%.
Other Properties of Wood/Timber
Insect Attack
• Wood is consumed by termites,
some beetles and wood wasps.

• Timber used in salt water can be

attacked by marine borers, such as
the shipworm and the gribble.
Other Properties of Wood/Timber
Fire
• Timber is a combustible material. However, the maintenance of
strength with temperature and time is better than steel.

• As the surface temperature increases beyond 100 ºC, volatile

gases are emitted. In excess of 250 ºC, there is sufficient build up
of these gases for timber to ignite in the presence of a flame. In
the absence of a flame, the temperature has to rise beyond
500 ºC for self-ignition to occur.

• Chemical bonds break and the microstructure degrades in the

temperature range of 175-350 ºC. The degradation of cellulose
results in the production of volatile gases and a reduction in the
degree of polymerisation.
Other Properties of Wood/Timber
Fire
• Due to pyrolisis there is
darkening of the timber
and emission of volatile
gases. Then, the reaction
becomes exothermic and
charring occurs.
• The volatiles cool the char
and block incoming
convective heat.
Formation of the char protects
• The surface is cracked the unburnt timber.
and material is lost Failure occurs only when the
gradually. unburnt section cannot sustain
the applied load.