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LECTURE 1
TIMBER DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
 Timber is a living thing and so, it has unique
structure and mode of growth - characteristics
and properties are more complex than concrete,
steel and brickwork.
 The characteristics and properties are influenced
from:
 moisture content
 grain direction
 The duration of the application of the load
 The method adopted to grade the timber.

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Current scenario in timber

construction
 very limited usage as building material
and far from satisfactory
 Large quantity are mostly limited to
temporary structures such as formwork
and structures of minor importance such
as roof truss.
 Timber being used in a manner not in
accordance to good timber practice i.e
not utilizing proper treatment, seasoning
and good design/detailing practice

The
outcome of
timber
industries

Tarzan suffers the Too many deforestation

consequences of deforestation without replanting

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To reduce the uncertainty in the utilisation of

timber in construction, need timber/timber
product;
 Less variability in strength and
dimension
 Less effect of strength reducing
characteristics on the strength
properties of timber
 stringent manufacturing
process and the product can
be certified

Terms for timber

 Timber
– normal size of sawn structural
members.
– contains macroscopic defects
(cracks, knots etc.) of different
shapes, sizes and orientation.

 Wood – specimens of small in size

and clear from any defects 
always known as small clear
specimen.

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The structure of timber

A tree has three subsystems:
Roots, trunk and crown;
 Roots-spreading through the
soil as well as acting as a
foundation enable the
growing tree to withstand
wind forces. They absorb
moisture containing minerals
from the soil and transfer it
via the trunk to the crown

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Tree

Cont..
 Trunk provides rigidity, mechanical
strength and height to maintain the
crown. Also transport moisture and
minerals up to the crown and sap
down from the crown
 Crown provides as large as possible a
catchments area covered by leaves.
This produce chemical reactions that
form sugar and cellulose which cause
the growth of the tree

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As engineer we are mainly concern

with the trunk of the tree.

The cross-
section of a
trunk

Composition of wood
 Long thin tabular cells made up of cellulose
and bound together by substance called
lignin.
 Cells oriented in the direction of the axis of
the trunk except for cells called rays run
radially across the trunk.
 A tree produces new layer of wood under
the bark in the early part of every growing
seasons and the layer is called annular rings,
annual rings or growth rings. The age of a
tree may be determined by counting its
growth ring

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 In temperate countries, a tree produces a new layer at early part

of growth seasons and ceases at the end of growth seasons or
during winter months (eccentric rings)
 In tropical countries, trees growth throughout the year- more
uniform wood cells
 Annular ring is divided into two layers: inner layer made up
relatively large cavities called springwood and outer layer of thick
walls and small cavities called summerwood.

The timber itself can be

differentiated into sapwood and
heartwood
Sapwood
 The annular band of cross- sapwood
section nearest to the bark
 The living part of the trunk,
where xylem cells are still
living heartwood
 Sapwood is lighter in color
compared to heartwood
and is 25 – 170 mm wide
depending on species e.g of sapwood trees:
 Sapwood acts a medium
Jelutong, Rubberwood
of transportation for sap and Ramin
from roots to the leaves

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Cont..
Heartwood
 The central core of the wood which is inside
the sapwood is heartwood.
 The physiological dead part of the xylem

 Cells are lignified and presence of

extractives.
 Heartwood functions mainly to give
mechanical support or stiffness to the trunk

Sapwood has lower natural resistance to

attacks by fungi and insect and accepts
preservative more easily than heartwood

Types of wood
Hardwoods and softwoods
 The terms ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’  not indicate softness or
hardness of particular timbers.
 In fact, some hardwoods are softer and lighter than softwoods.
The main differences between hardwoods and softwoods are
botanical, and relate to the way the tree grows and the timber is
laid down:
– leaves – Hardwoods have broad leaves and lose their leaves at the end of
growing seasons, while softwoods are conifers and have more needle-like
leaves and generally evergreen
– colour – Hardwoods often have darker coloured wood, while softwoods are
invariably light in colour. (Note that there are a number of species of
hardwoods with light coloured woods.)
– density – Most hardwoods have thicker cell walls than softwoods. Hardwoods
often have higher densities than softwoods. Again this is not a definitive test,
but it does reflect most of the Australian and Malaysian species.

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Characteristics of
softwood
 Quick growth rate, trees
can be felled after 30 years
resulting in low density
timber with relatively low
strength.
 Generally poor durability
qualities unless treated with
preservatives
 Due to speed of felling, they
are readily available and
comparatively cheap-i.e
rubber trees.
Characteristics of
hardwood
 Slow growth rate, takes
time to mature – over 100
years results in higher
density and strength.
 Generally good durability
less dependency on
preservatives
 More expensive than
softwood

Microstructure of
softwood and hardwoods

tracheids

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Microstructure of softwood
 Softwood derives its strength from
a matrix of cellulose and
hemicellulose molecules bound
together with lignin.
 Consists of single cells called
tracheids, which are like straws in
plan
 Tracheids function as conduction
and support
 The remainder are parenchyma,
ray, resin and pith cells that
primarily store and transit food.
 Rays run in radial direction and
allow the convection of liquids to
where they are needed
•The tracheids' vertical orientation with the trees' trunk explains the
bending strength of wood "parallel with the grain direction" and its
susceptibility to splitting "perpendicular to the grain direction."
•Per unit of weight, softwood is stronger than steel.

Microstructure of
hardwood
 More complex than softwood.
 With additional thick walled cells
called fibres providing the
structural support and thin walled
cells called vessels providing
medium for food conduction
 Also consists of distributed
parenchyma cells, and ray cells
wide enough in some species to
be seen easily with the naked eye.

•The fibre's vertical orientation with the trunk explains the high
bending strength of hardwoods "parallel with the grain direction"
and its susceptibility to splitting "perpendicular to the grain
direction."

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Physical Properties of
timber
 Moisture content – behaviour of timber unlike other material
significantly influenced by the existence and variation of its
moisture. The moisture content as determined by oven drying of
a test piece

w = 100 (m1 – m2)/m2

Where:
m1 is the mass of the test piece before drying (in g)
m2 is the mass of the test piece after drying (in g)

 Moisture contained in “green” timber is held both within the cells

(free water) and within the cell walls (bound water)
 The condition in which all free water has been removed but the
cell walls are still saturated is known as the fibre saturation point
(FSP)

 At levels of moisture above FSP, the

physical and mechanical properties remain
constants.
 Variations of moisture below FSP cause
considerable changes to properties such as
weight, strength, elasticity and shrinkage
and durability.
 Equilibrium MC at room temperature in
timber/wood can be achieved by seasoning
it after being cut from tree.

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Seasoning- is the control

drying.
Methods:
 Air seasoning
in which the timber is stacked and
layered with air-space in open sided
sheds to promote natural drying
Relatively inexpensive with very little loss
in the quality of timber
Disadvantage- space is unavailable for
long period and limited control in the
space between the layers and the stacks.

•Kiln drying
 Timber is dried out in a heated,
ventilated and humidified oven.
 Requires specialist equipment and
more expensive in terms of energy
input
 Offer control environment to
achieve the required reduction in
moisture content much quicker.

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Timber defects
 Defects in timber
whether natural or
caused during
conversion or
seasoning, will have
an effect on structural
strength as well as
fixing, stability,
durability and finished
appearance of timber

Types of defects

 Natural defects – occurs during growing period

 Chemical defects- occurs when timber is used in
unsuitable positions or in association with other
materials. Timbers such as oak and western red
cedar contain tannic acid and other chemicals
which corrode metals.
 Conversion defects – due to unsound practice in the
use of milling techniques or to undue economy in
attempting to use every possible piece of timber
converted from trunk
 Seasoning defects –related to the movement occurs
in timber due to change in moisture

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Seasoning Defects in
timber
 Caused by differential drying out due to
uneven exposure to drying agents such as
wind, sun and applied heat can results in a
number of defects

Distortion due to
differential directional
shrinkage

Seasoning defects

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Natural and conversion

defects

Can engineer recognize the

timber grade/species/quality ??

Grain - // or 

Irregular growth of timber

-The effect is lesser if axially loading but poor
Mixed species in bending resistance
Strong in parallel to grain
Weak in tension perpendicular to grain

Sapwood and heartwood wane

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warp
Slope of grain

Checks/cracks

Need to understand these facts in design for

long life of timber structures

 Density – best single indicator of the properties of timber and major

factor determining its strength. Specific gravity or relative density is
a measure of timber’s solid substance. Basic specific gravity of timber
is expressed at certain moisture content and generally ranges from
0.29 to 0.81.
 Grain- often used in reference to annual rings and to indicate the
direction of fibers. Timber grain angle can be estimated by visual
inspection or using Scriber (MS554). grain is the longitudinal
direction of the main elements of timber, these main elements being
fibres or tracheids and vessels in the case of hardwood.
 It can be done by seasoning in air for several days at room temp or
in a kiln. MC can be measured using weight difference method or
using moisture meter. MC can affect the physical and mechanical
properties of wood

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Scriber-to determine slope of

grain

Slope of the
grain
 Depends on the
way timber is cut

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Slope of grain
Cont..
Variation due to :
 Poor cutting

 Irregular growth of
timber
 The effect is lesser if
axially loaded but
poor in deflection

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Other factors

 Position in tree and condition of

growth - high density near the butt
and near the pith and low near the top
and away from pith. Timber structure
from trees depends on soil type, tree
spacing, sunlight, temp
 Defects

Timber building

Architect Wooi Lok Kuang

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Dewan Filharmonik - Petronas

Engineered Wood Products

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Laminated veneer lumber(LVL)

Glued laminated timber (GLULAM)

Parallel grain Finger Glued and

lumber jointing pressed

Japan expo
centre Germany large
pool

Canada train station

Library in
Australia

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Iconic Structures in Other Countries

Leornado da Vinci bridge in Norway LeMay America’s Car Museum, Tacoma, USA
Source : News Straits Times Source : Western Wood Structure Inc.

Iconic Structures in Other Countries

Krovajah Zavidovichi, Bosnia Herzegovina

Source : Krovaja Homes

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Exterior exposure

Fire Performance

The glulam-made framework of the Zion Baptist Church, McCormick Place, Chicago, USA after fire.
Georgia, USA withstood flames remarkably well. Source : American Institute of Timber Construction
Source : American Institute of Timber Construction

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