STUDENT’S PROFILE

JULIUS C. ABAO
BGT – AT – 1A

BLOCK II – BUILDING MATERIALS: STONES AND AGGREGATES

TUESDAY 1PM-3PM

PROF. MARCELINA P. PUGA

2nd Semester 2021-2022

 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Ayala Blvd. corner San Marcelino St. Ermita Manila
COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE and FINE ARTS
Graphics Department

Research
In
BMC
(Buildings Materials & Methods of Construction)
For

Block III – WOOD & WOOD PRODUCTS, GLASS & GLAZING AND OTHER
RELATED MATERIALS
A. Wood and Wood Products
B. Glass and Glazing, Fibers, Palm and Related materials
C. Paints, Oil, Glue/Adhesive and other Chemicals
D. Asphaltic- Water proofing clay and other waterproofing materials
E. Rubber and Synthetics

Submitted by: JULIUS C. ABAO

Course, Year, & Section: BGT – AT - 1A

Submitted to: PROF.MARCELINA P. PUGA

A. WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS

WOOD
-Hard, fibrous material formed by the accumulation of secondary xylem produced by the
vascular cambium. It is the principal strengthening tissue found in the stems and roots of
trees and shrubs.

-Wood is a versatile organic material, and the only renewable construction material.
Wooden structures have certain properties that make them durable and strong. With an
adequate fire-retardant treatment, wood can be a reliable construction material with a
long service life.

ANATOMY OF WOOD TREE

Visible Parts of a Tree

The three primary components of a tree are the roots, trunk, and crown.

Roots
- Roots are the tree’s anchor and hold the tree erect. They absorb water and
minerals from the earth, which are transported through straw-like vessels up
through the trunk of the tree to the crown.

Trunk
- The trunk, also called the bole, connects the roots to the crown and is usually
thought to be the portion without limbs. You can use wood from any part of a tree
for carving; however, most carving wood comes from the trunk of the tree.
Crown
- The crown consists of the limbs, branches, twigs, and leaves of the tree. Food,
called sap, is produced in the leaves through the process of photosynthesis.

INTERNAL WOOD STRUCTURES

The roots, trunk, and crown are the visible components of a tree, but studying a tree’s
internal characteristics gives us a better understanding of the tree’s structure.

Pith
- At the very center of the tree is the pith, which is the oldest part of the tree. The
pith, together with the tree’s first few annual rings, is called juvenile wood. The pith
area has a greater tendency to crack than the rest of the wood in a tree.

Annual Rings
- Radiating out from the pith are the annual rings. Each ring has two components:
early wood (also called spring wood) and late wood (also called summer wood).

Cambium Layer
- The cambium layer is located between the bark and the wood. This is where cell
division takes place, and when the cells divide, they become either wood cells or
bark cells.

Bark
- The bark is the tree’s protective covering—its skin. Bark is made up of living and
dead cells, which keep moisture and gases contained in the tree. Bark also helps
the tree resist attacks by insects and micro-organisms and protects the tree from
damaging weather conditions.

Heartwood and Sapwood

- As a tree grows, there comes a time when the entire trunk of the tree is not required
to supply water to the leaves. When this occurs, the vessels in the center of the
tree fill with extractives, minerals, and tannins. This filled area then becomes what
is known as heartwood.
The heartwood no longer conducts water, but, being filled with extractives and minerals
gives strength to the tree. It becomes the tree’s vertebrae. The area which is still
conducting water to the leaves is known as sapwood. As the tree grows in diameter, with
the addition of new sapwood each year, the heartwood area will also expand because
each tree only requires a certain number of sapwood rings to supply water to the leaves.
The number of sapwood rings will vary from one tree species to another. Catalpa trees
only require a couple of sapwood rings, where walnut trees will have 10 to 20 sapwood
rings.

GRAIN STRUCTURE
As the cambium grows, it generates two types of wood cells. Most of these are
long, narrow longitudinal cells that align themselves with the axis of the trunk, limb, or
root. These are what give the wood its grain. The cambium also produces a smaller
number of ray cells that line up in rays extending out from the pith, perpendicular to the
axis (medullary rays).

TEXTURE OR SURFACE
Woods with large pores that are easily visible to the naked eye are said to have
an open grain. Those with smaller pores, to small to see clearly, have a closed grain.
Open-grain woods appear coarser than closed-grain woods because the surface isn't as
smooth. When the wood is sawn and the pores are split, the open pores create tiny valleys
and rifts. Oftentimes these pores must be filled before the wood is finished so the finish
will dry to a smooth, flat surface.
TYPES OF WOODS

Softwoods
- Provide most of our structural and framing lumber, sheathing, roofing, and sub-
flooring comes from a conifer, which usually remains evergreen. They are usually
lighter in color.

- Softwood trees are known as a gymnosperm.

- Gymnosperms reproduce by forming cones which emit pollen to be spread by the

wind to other trees.

Hardwoods
- Give us most of our flooring and some of the finest woods for furniture, traditional
interior paneling and cabinetwork comes from a deciduous tree which loses its
leaves annually.

- They are usually much darker in color.

- It is an angiosperm, a plant that produces seeds with some sort of covering such
as a shell or a fruit.

- Angiosperms usually form flowers to reproduce.

- Hardwoods tend to be slower growing, and are therefore usually denser.

Hardwood is commonly more expensive than softwood.

WOODS IN THE PHILLIPINES

1. NARRA (PterocarpusIndicus)
- Grain is usually interlocked, and can sometimes be wavy. With an uneven medium
to coarse texture with good natural luster.
 - It has good weathering characteristics and is typically very durable regarding decay
resistance.

Properties:
- Narra turns, glues, and finishes well.
- Easy to work with

Color: Heartwood can vary widely in color, ranging from a golden yellow to a reddish
brown. Pale yellow sapwood is clearly demarcated from the heartwood.

2. YAKAL
- Yakal is harder and heavier than apitong or tangile. It is heavy and has a fine texture. It
lasts long even when kept in the open under bad weather. It is not often attacked by
termites.

Properties:

Color: It is yellowish in color

3. GUIJO
- Its grain is crossed with a distinct ―ribbon‖ figure when cut into 4 parts [quartered]. The
texture of the wood is fine and glossy.

Properties:
- The wood holds nails and glues well. It does not last long when in contact with the
ground and when exposed to weather, but it lasts long when used for interior work.

Color:
Its sapwood is four to five centimeters thick and is light gray in color.

4. TANGUILE
- The texture is fine like that of mahogany. It has no distinct smell. It is a hard and
comparatively light wood.

- Properties:
- It glues fast and takes any stain easily. When used indoors, it lasts long. It does
not last long when exposed to the ground or bad weather. It‘s not attacked by
termites.

- Color: Its sapwood is light colored and sharply marked off from the heartwood
which is red
COMPARISON CHART
HARDWOOD VERSUS SOFTWOOD COMPARISON CHART
Hardwood
Definition Comes from angiosperm trees
that are not monocots; trees are
usually broad-leaved. Has vessel
elements that transport water
throughout the wood; under a
microscope, these elements
appear as pores.
Uses hardwoods are more likely to be
found in high-quality furniture,
decks, flooring, and construction
that needs to last.
Examples Examples of hardwood trees
include alder, balsa, beech,
hickory, mahogany, maple, oak,
teak, and walnut.
Density Most hardwoods have a higher
density than most softwoods.
Cost Hardwood is typically more
expensive than softwood.
Growth Hardwood has a slower growth
rate.
Shedding Hardwoods shed their leaves over
of leaves a period of time in autumn and
winter.
Fire More
Resistance
Softwood
Comes from gymnosperm trees which
usually have needles and cones.
Medullary rays and tracheids transport
water and produce sap. When viewed
under a microscope, softwoods have
no visible pores because of tracheids.
About 80% of all timber comes from
softwood. Softwoods have a wide
range of applications and are found in
building components (e.g., windows,
doors), furniture, medium-density
fiberboard (MDF), paper, Christmas
trees, and much more.
Examples of softwood trees are cedar,
Douglas fir, juniper, pine, redwood,
spruce, and yew.
Most softwoods have a lower density
than most hardwoods.
Softwood is typically less expensive
compared to hardwood.
Softwood has a faster rate of growth.
Softwoods tend to keep their needles
throughout the year.
Poor
EXAMPLES OF HARDWOOD AND SOFTWOOD

1. WHITE ASH
Classification: Hardwood

Characteristics: Ash timber is not ordinarily very large. The wood is comparatively light
for its strength and is straight grained.
Properties: It can be planed and shaped with average ease. Percentage of breaking
from bending is low. Splitting due to nailing is average. Glue-holding strength is
average.
Color: Pale brown in the heartwood and nearly white in the sapwood.
Source: Principally Great Lakes states, also New England and Central states
Availability: Veneer, rare; lumber, plentiful
Uses: Long tool handles such as shovels, rakes, hoes and pitch forks. Kitchen
equipment such as cabinets, tables and chairs. Boxes, upholstered frames, house trim,
doors, boat ribs and billiard tables.

2.BIRCH (Yellow Birch or Swamp Birch)

Classification: Hardwood
Characteristics: close-grained, uniformly textured wood
Properties: very strong, hard, heavy, stiff, shock resistant wood.
Color: whitish sapwood while the heartwood is in shades of brown with a reddish tinge
Source: Canada and the Great Lakes states and
New England to North Carolina
Availability: abundant

Uses: furniture, interior sash and doors, kitchen, cabinets and fixtures
3.MAHOGANY

Classification: Hardwood
Characteristics: Open grain with a silky texture and is of medium weight. It is a very
traditional, versatile and popular type of wood. It is also a popular choice for use on
veneer.
Properties: Easily worked with both hands and machine tools; fastens well with nails,
screws and glue; takes finishes well; resists warping and doesn‘t shrink or swell to any
great extent when exposed to changing temperature and climatic conditions. It bends
well, resists splitting, and is considered a strong wood.
Color: ranges in color from light pink to a rich golden brown or amber, although some
pieces are a much deeper red or brown. There
is no distinct line between the heartwood and the sapwood.
Source: Central and South America
Availability: lumber and veneer are both available
Uses: home and office furnishings, radio and television cabinets, widely used in boat
building.

4.MAPLE

Classification: Hardwood
Characteristics: close, straight-grained;
Properties: heavy, hard, strong and tough; good resistance to abrasion and
indentation
Color: cream to light reddish-brown heartwood, thin white sapwood tinged with
reddish-brown.
Source: Lake states, Northwest United States and Canada
Availability: plain maple, plentiful
Uses: Ceiling, flooring, paneling, stairway and furniture

Source: Lake states, Northwest United States and Canada

Availability: plain maple, plentiful
Uses: Ceiling, flooring, paneling, stairway and furniture

5.OAK

Classification: Hardwood
Properties: It bends well, carves well, has excellent nail- and screw-holding properties.
It is stiff, heavy, and has good shock resistance Both types plane easily, turn well and are
adapted to many types of finish.
WHITE OAK
Characteristics: A grain pattern with more pronounced and longer rays than red oak;
closer grained than red oak; pores are angular and very numerous; filled with glistening
substances called Tyloses, which makes this wood more particularly suitable for
watertight containers (where water resistance is required).
Color: From light brown with a grayish tinge in the heartwood to shades of ocher in the
sapwood.
Source: Eastern United States especially in the
Central States
Availability: Veneer, plentiful; lumber, available
Uses: Nearly all common uses of hardwood
especially where strength and durability are required.

6.EASTERN PINE
Classification: Softwood
Characteristics: A hardy, valuable tree.
Properties: It stands the weather exceptionally well, has small shrinkage, glues well,
nails and screws well, takes paint well, and is soft, strong and easily worked with hand
tools. It resists warping and is moderately light in weight.
Color: Heartwood is light brown, sometimes with a slightly reddish hue; sapwood is a
pale yellow to nearly white. Color tends to darken with age.
Source: Eastern North America
Availability: Abundant
Uses: It has been used for everything in house construction. It is also used for
furniture, woodenware, caskets, crates, boxes and matchsticks.

7.SPRUCE

Classification: Softwood
Characteristics: lightweight, soft, close-grained, uniformly textured wood which is
odorless and tasteless. The absence of large knots makes it valuable in dimension
stock.
Properties: It is very strong, soft, easily worked wood. It has high nail-holding ability,
glues well, holds paint well and
shrinks and warps little when properly seasoned. Sitka spruce has the highest strength
and weight ratio of any wood in the world.
Color: Ranges from cream/white to yellow; heartwood can also exhibit a subtle pinkish
red hue in some instances. Sapwood not clearly demarcated from heartwood.
Source: northern North America, from the Great Lakes to the Arctic tree line.
Uses: ladders, scaffolding, sail masts, window frames, flooring and piano sounding
boards.

8.CEDAR
Classification: Softwood
Properties: low in stiffness, weak in bending, low in shock resistance, low in shrinkage
and resists warping and checking. It‘s also very durable.
Western Red Cedar
Source: Pacific Northwest from Alaska to northern California
Color: From pure white sapwood to reddish brown heartwood
Characteristics: grows to height of 150 to 175 ft., works easily, free from pitch, paints
and glues well.
Uses: Bevel Siding, light framing, flooring, canoes
Availability: plentiful

9.CHERRY (Wild Black Cherry or Rum Cherry)

Classification: Hardwood
Characteristics: Hard, straight, close-grained wood, strong and fine texture.
Properties: Shock resistant, polishes very smoothly and finishes well. Its nail- and
screw-holding power is high and
it glues well. When finished with oil, it takes on a characteristic cherry color, ranging
from reddish tan to reddish brown.
Color: the sapwood is yellowish white while the heartwood is reddish to brown
Source: production of Wild Black Cherry is abundant in Pennsylvania to West Virginia
Availability: plentiful
Uses: fine furniture, woodwork, engravers‘ blocks.

10. CYPRESS

Classification: hardwood
Description: soft, even-textured, fine-grained, oily wood
Color: sapwood is reddish white while the heartwood is reddish
Properties: moderate strength, natural resistance to termites, slow-drying, shrinks
considerably in drying, does not warp nor check, nails and screws well, paint holding
quality is best, easily worked with hand tools
Source: Southeastern Coast of the United States
Uses: Tanks and vats, shipbuilding and pilings, freight cars, bridges, caskets, fruit and
vegetables boxes.

11.DOUGLAS FIR

Classification: softwood
Description: straight, close-grained, moderately dense
Color: sapwood is very narrow and almost oyster white in color while the heartwood is
orange-red
Properties: strong, tough, workability is good, has tendency to splinter, nail and screw-
holding power is reasonably good, good paint retention
Source: Pacific Northwest
Uses: heavy and light construction, veneer cores, house roof framing.

BENEFITS OF WOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Thermal Properties

- Wood does not experience a major expansion with heat. Also, the combination of
low thermal conductivity and high specific heat provides insulation

Acoustic Properties

- Wood can amplify or mitigate sound based on its orientation. Sound is

 - transmitted along the grain direction, and mitigated in the perpendicular direction.

Electrical Properties

- Dry wood is an excellent electrical insulator and it does not accumulates static
electricity. However, note that the electrical resistance of wood is inversely
proportional to its moisture content

Mechanical Properties

- Wood has a high strength and durability. It also has a high breaking length - the
length at which a material breaks under its own weight when hanging

Aesthetic Properties

- Wood is considered cozy, rustic and decorative. It also offers variety in color,
shape, smell, and texture. Wood can be painted to achieve the desired finishes.
With this kind of versatility, this material is also a great choice for building outdoor
furniture for your home's interior. If you're a DIY enthusiast, you can build simple
wood projects, whether for decor or practical use.

Maintenance
 - Wood doesn’t rust like metals, and it can be repaired and maintained. Old wood
can be restored, although the operation can be costly

Variety:

- There are more than 5000 species of wood, and the properties mentioned above
vary for each type.

WOOD PRODUCTS

- Solid wood products include lumber, veneer and plywood, furniture, poles, piling, mine
timbers, and posts; and composite wood products such as laminated timbers, insulation
board, hard-board, and particle board.

1.LUMBER

- Lumber, also known as timber, is wood that has been processed into beams and planks,
a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes
but has many other uses as well. Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced
on one or more of its faces.

2.VENEER

-A veneer is a very thin piece of wood that is attached to particle board or other types of
manufactured wood. Veneers are used to lessen the cost of a project without sacrificing
the overall appearance.
3.PLYWOOD
-Plywood is an engineered wood sheet material made up of fine layers or flimsy strands
of wood veneers attached together placing wood grains 90 degrees to one another. It is
one type of manufactured board which can be described as a mixture of Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF) and Chip Board (Particle Board). It is a complex material and attaches
resin and fiber sheets of wood.

Types of Plywood
Following are the different types of Plywood.

• Softwood Plywood
• Hardwood Plywood
• Tropical Plywood
• Aircraft Plywood
• Decorative Plywood
• Flexible Plywood
• Marine Plywood

4.FURNITURE
- Wood furniture means room furnishings, including cabinets (kitchen, bath and vanity),
tables, chairs, beds, sofas, shutters, art objects, wood paneling other than flat wood
paneling, wood flooring and any other coated furnishings made of wood, wood
composition or fabricated wood materials.
5.LAMINATED TIMBER

- Laminated timber is made by drying out pieces of wood and bonding them together with
moisture resistant glue. It's typically made with at least three pieces of stress graded
wood that are all the same size and thickness and is coated in a special water repellent
sealant.

OTHER WOOD PRODUCTS

,Doors ,Window frames and sills, Pianos Drum Sticks
Flooring
I-joists Organs and organ pedals Tambourines
LVL (laminated veneer lumber) Oboes Wood blocks
Parallel strand lumber Bagpipes Speaker cabinets
Finger-jointed lumber Banjos Amplifier cabinets
Machine stress-rated lumber Clarinets Metronomes
Coat racks Flutes/Fifes Xylophones
Furniture Mandolins Harmonicas
Dining room tables String bass Stage flooring
Upholstered furniture frames Violins Sandboxes and Backyard
play sets
Rocking chairs Violin bows Charcoal
End tables Cellos Tool handles
Coffee tables Bassoons Toilet plungers
Beds Drums Medicine cabinets
Bookcases Drum Sticks Parallel bars
Nightstands Tambourines Vineyard stakes
Bureaus Wood blocks Toys such as wooden
blocks
Landscape timbers Speaker cabinets Rulers
Highway guard rails Amplifier cabinets Birdhouses
Snowshoes Metronomes Fencing, fence posts and
rails
 Toothpicks Xylophones Firewood
Match sticks Harmonicas Fishing boats
Chopsticks Stage flooring Ladders
Shutters Sandboxes and Backyard Hockey sticks
play sets
Baseball bats Charcoal Dog houses
Canoe paddles and oars Tool handles Pallets
Musical instruments: Toilet plungers Particleboard
Guitars

B. GLASS AND GLAZING, FIBERS, PALM AND RELATED MATERIALS

GLASS
- Glass Building Material is a mixture of raw materials like silica, sodium potassium
carbonate, lime or lead oxide, manganese oxide which are grounded, sieved, and mixed
in specific proportion to make glass. Glass Building Material has unique properties as a
transparent glazing material in the construction industry.

6 POPULAR TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR USES

1.Float glass
-Float glass is made using a ‘floating technique’ to create a uniform thickness and
superior even appearance. By floating glass on molten metal to create this level finish,
float glass is perfectly created for large window panes, double glazing and other
applications with further processing. This type of glass is commonly used in multi-story
office developments as it gives a modern and stylish look in comparison to if opaque
building materials were more dominant.

2.Toughened glass

-Toughened glass is created using a specific cooling technique to create counteracting

stresses, meaning that the glass will shatter in the event of trauma, rather than crack or
break into shards, to make it safe and less likely to cause injury. This makes it perfect for
a variety of applications such as glass doors, tables, exterior glass barriers, shelves etc.

3.Painted glass

- The painting of glass is usually carried out for aesthetic reasons, whether for decoration
or for privacy. Painted glass can be used for a number of applications, including a feature
wall, as a table surface, as a kitchen splashback, for shelving, along corridor walls and
large doors, as well as many others. Painted glass is stylish and simple yet hugely
effective in improving the design and outlook of interiors. We offer the popular Lacobel
range of painted glass which can be tailored to suit individual design requirements.

4.Patterned glass

-Patterned glass can come in a variety of forms, such as sandblasted glass, but is usually
created through the application of irregular heat across the surface to generate an even
pattern. The purpose of glass is often for privacy in bathroom windows and doors, but
can also be used for decorative installations. The benefit of patterned glass for many
applications is that it can be both practical in providing a barrier but also aesthetically
pleasing. A range of different patterns and levels of opacity are available from us here at
Carlen Glass.

5.Solar control glass

-Adding solar control glass to a home or commercial building can be a great way to
improve energy efficiency by minimising the need for air conditioning or heating and
therefore reducing energy bills. This glass is designed to work with the weather outside,
so that it keeps heat out during periods of hot weather, but keeps heat inside during colder
weather. This means that more natural light can be allowed into a building using skylights,
conservatory structures and french windows without compromising energy efficiency or
increasing the need for climate control.

6.Laminated glass
-Laminate glass is designed to remain intact in the event of impact or trauma to the
surface, making it ideal for a range of safety installations such as bulletproof glass,
burglar-proof shop fronts and balustrades. It made using multiple layers to reinforce the
structure and to ensure that any cracked or disjointed pieces will stay in place should any
damage occur.
GLASS GAZING

-Window glazing is the glass inside of a window, which can be single, double, or triple
glaze (also known as single pane, double pane, or triple pane).

-Window glazing can also refer to the putty that holds the glass in place, or the process
of installing the window glaze using the putty.

-The more panes of glass you have, the better insulated your window is. Double glaze,
or double paned windows, are the most common types of windows.

TYPES OF WINDOW GLAZING

Some of the more common types of window glazing include single glaze, double glaze,
triple glaze, and low-E glaze.

SINGLE GLAZE

-A single glaze, which may sometimes also be called a single pane, is a window that
contains a single sheet of glass. These windows are considered the least energy-efficient
type because a single layer of glass does not provide homes with much protection from
fluctuating temperatures. This type of window was once the only type available and can
still be found in many older homes, but they are not used very often in new builds.

Single glazed windows make it hard to regulate the temperature within the home and
force the home’s HVAC systems to run harder than needed, leading to wear and tear on
the heater and air conditioner and higher energy bills. Storm windows may be used with
single glazed windows to provide an extra layer of insulation between the window and
the outdoors.
DOUBLE GLAZE
A little girl opening double glaze window A double glaze or double pane window contains
two sheets of glass that have a space between them. This space is often filled with argon
gas to provide greater insulation. This is a nontoxic, odorless gas that is considered a
poor heat conductor compared to air, making it better at insulating. However, the gas may
leak out over time, so homeowners may need to have it refilled after several years.

Double glaze is currently the most common type of glazing encountered in home
windows.

TRIPLE GLAZE
Triple glaze or triple pane windows contain three sheets of glass with argon gas between
them. This type of window offers the best insulation, but it is also more expensive than
other options. It is often found in colder climates that need extra insulation.

LOW-E GLAZE
Low-emissivity glaze, or low-E glaze, is a type of glass that is coated in an invisible layer
of metallic oxide that stops heat from passing through the glass by reflecting ultraviolet
rays back to the atmosphere.

GLAZING COMPOUND
Cross section of window. Glazing compound is a putty used to hold pieces of glass
Glazing compound is a putty used to hold pieces of glass into place in older window
sashes. This compound can enhance the energy efficiency of older windows by stopping
drafts from passing through and sealing the space between the glass and the sash. It is
not used in modern windows.

Glazing compound can last for decades depending on the quality of the installation work
and the putty itself. When the glaze starts to crack and fall off, it is time for the glazing
putty to be replaced.
FIBERS
- Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to
drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding
of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion, and shatter resistance
in concrete.

The necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

1. It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.

2. It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
3. It increases the durability of the concrete.
4. Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep, while the
same is not true for most resins. Therefore, the orientation and volume of fibres
have a significant influence on the creep performance of rebars/tendons.
5. Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts
as the strengthening fibre and the concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative
that the behavior under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar so that
the differential deformations of concrete and the reinforcement are minimized.
6. It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and uniformly
dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would substantially
improve its static and dynamic properties.

Factors Affecting Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

1. Relative Fiber Matrix Stiffness

- The modulus of elasticity of matrix must be much lower than that of fiber for efficient
stress transfer. Low modulus of fiber such as nylons and polypropylene are, therefore,
unlikely to give strength improvement, but the help in the absorption of large energy and
therefore, impart greater degree of toughness and resistance to impart. High modulus
fibers such as steel, glass and carbon impart strength and stiffness to the composite.
Interfacial bond between the matrix and the fiber also determine the effectiveness of
stress transfer, from the matrix to the fiber. A good bond is essential for improving tensile
strength of the composite.
2. Volume of Fibers
- The strength of the composite largely depends on the quantity of fibers used in it. Fig 1
and 2 show the effect of volume on the toughness and strength. It can see from Fig 1 that
the increase in the volume of fibers, increase approximately linearly, the tensile strength
and toughness of the composite. Use of higher percentage of fiber is likely to cause
segregation and harshness of concrete and mortar.

Fig. Effect of volume of fibers in flexure

3. Aspect Ratio of the Fiber

Another important factor which influences the properties and behavior of the composite
is the aspect ratio of the fiber. It has been reported that up to aspect ratio of 75, increase
on the aspect ratio increases the ultimate concrete linearly. Beyond 75, relative strength
and toughness is reduced.

4. Orientation of Fibers
One of the differences between conventional reinforcement and fiber reinforcement is
that in conventional reinforcement, bars are oriented in the direction desired while fibers
are randomly oriented. To see the effect of randomness, mortar specimens reinforced
with 0.5% volume of fibers were tested. In one set specimens, fibers were aligned in the
direction of the load, in another in the direction perpendicular to that of the load, and in
the third randomly distributed. It was observed that the fibers aligned parallel to the
applied load offered more tensile strength and toughness than randomly distributed or
perpendicular fibers.

5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete

Incorporation of steel fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation
adversely affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged external vibration fails
to compact the concrete. The fiber volume at which this situation is reached depends on
the length and diameter of the fiber. Another consequence of poor workability is non-
uniform distribution of the fibers. Generally, the workability and compaction standard of
the mix is improved through increased water/ cement ratio or by the use of some kind of
water reducing admixtures.

6. Size of Coarse Aggregate

The maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10mm, to avoid an
appreciable reduction in the strength of the composite. Fibers also in effect, act as
aggregate. Although they have a simple geometry, their influence on the properties of
fresh concrete is complex. The inter-particle friction between fibers and between fibers
and aggregates controls the orientation and distribution of the fibers and consequently
the properties of the composite. Friction-reducing admixtures and admixtures that
improve the cohesiveness of the mix can significantly improve the mix.

7. Mixing
Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions to avoid balling of fibers,
segregation and in general the difficulty of mixing the materials uniformly. Increase in the
aspect ratio, volume percentage and size and quantity of coarse aggregate intensify the
difficulties and balling tendency. Steel fiber content in excess of 2% by volume and aspect
ratio of more than 100 are difficult to mix. It is important that the fibers are dispersed
uniformly throughout the mix; this can be done by the addition of the fibers before the
water is added. When mixing in a laboratory mixer, introducing the fibers through a wire
mesh basket will help even distribution of fibers. For field use, other suitable methods
must be adopted.

Different Types of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Following are the different type of fibers generally used in the construction industries.

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar & concrete
3. GFRC Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
4. Asbestos Fibers
5. Carbon Fibers
6. Organic Fibers

1.Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

A no of steel fiber types are available as reinforcement. Round steel fiber the commonly
used type are produced by cutting round wire in to short length. The typical diameter lies
in the range of 0.25 to 0.75mm. Steel fibers having a rectangular c/s are produced by
silting the sheets about 0.25mm thick. Fiber made from mild steel drawn wire.
2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar and concrete

- Polypropylene is one of the cheapest & abundantly available polymers polypropylene

fibers are resistant to most chemical & it would be cementitious matrix which would
deteriorate first under aggressive chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165
degrees centigrade). So that a working temp. As (100 degree centigrade) may be
sustained for short periods without detriment to fiber properties. Polypropylene fibers
being hydrophobic can be easily mixed as they do not need lengthy contact during mixing
and only need to be evenly distressed in the mix. Polypropylene short fibers in small
volume fractions between 0.5 to 15 commercially used in concrete.

3. GFRC - Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

- Glass fiber is made up of 200-400 individual filaments which are lightly bonded to make
up a stand. These stands can be chopped into various lengths, or combined to make
cloth mats or tape. Using the conventional mixing techniques for normal concrete it is not
possible to mix more than about 2% (by volume) of fibers of a length of 25mm. The major
appliance of glass fiber has been in reinforcing the cement or mortar matrices used in the
production of thin-sheet products. The commonly used verities of glass fibers are e-glass
used. In the reinforced of plastics & AR glass E-glass has inadequate resistance to alkalis
present in Portland cement where AR-glass has improved alkali-resistant characteristics.
Sometimes polymers are also added in the mixes to improve some physical properties
such as moisture movement.
4. Asbestos Fibers

-The naturally available inexpensive mineral fiber, asbestos, has been successfully
combined with Portland cement paste to form a widely used product called asbestos
cement. Asbestos fibers here thermal mechanical & chemical resistance making them
suitable for sheet product pipes, tiles and corrugated roofing elements. Asbestos cement
board is approximately two or four times that of unreinforced matrix. However, due to
relatively short length (10mm) the fiber have low impact strength.

5. Carbon Fibers

Carbon fibers from the most recent & probability the most spectacular addition to the
range of fiber available for commercial use. Carbon fiber comes under the very high
modulus of elasticity and flexural strength. These are expansive. Their strength &
stiffness characteristics have been found to be superior even to those of steel. But they
are more vulnerable to damage than even glass fiber, and hence are generally treated
with resign coating.
6. Organic Fibers
-Organic fiber such as polypropylene or natural fiber may be chemically more inert than
either steel or glass fibers. They are also cheaper, especially if natural. A large volume of
vegetable fiber may be used to obtain a multiple cracking composite. The problem of
mixing and uniform dispersion may be solved by adding a superplasticizer.

PALM TREE FIBERS

-Palm Tree Fibers Palm tree fibers include coconut (coir) fibers, oil palm fiber, and date
palm fiber [2]. Palm fibers are inexpensive, abundant, durable, lightweight, have high
water absorption, and have relative strength against deterioration [4]. Palm fibers typically
have low tensile strength and a low modulus of elasticity [4].

DATE PALM FIBERS

-Date palm fibres are hydrophilic [15] lightweight fibres that possess mechanical
properties, such as durability and tensile strength, and are low-cost, easy to procure, and
withstand well against deterioration [4]. These fibres can improve the compressive
strength and general strength of composite materials as they lock and unite individual
particles and collections of particles together [4]. As mentioned previously, the condition
of the environment and the time of harvest greatly influence the mechanical and physical
properties of natural fibres [5]. When date palm fibres are collected from a decomposed
parent tree, the fiber can be brittle, have reduced tensile capacity, lowered modulus of
elasticity, and increased water absorption.
C.PAINTS, OILS, GLUE/ ADHSIVE AND OTHER CHEMICALS

PAINT
-Paint can be defined as the mixture of homogeneous ingredients namely Binder,
Pigment, VOC & additives, which when applied on the surface as a thin layer that forms
a solid dry adherent film after oxidation/evaporation/polymerization.

-Paint is a colored substance that, when spread over a surface, dries to leave a solid
coating. Paint is used for artworks and for protecting and colouring surfaces, such as
walls and fences.

Properties of Paint
- It should available in the required color with high hiding power.
- It should be able to resist the atmospheric conditions to which it will be put
- The films produced should be washable
- It should resist corrosion
- It should have sufficient consistency (property to resist permanent change of
shape) for a particular purpose for which the paint is to be used.
- The paint film covered any surface should give a gloss appearance.

The following are major Painting Components

1. Binder
2. Pigment
3. Filler/ Extender
4. Volatile organic compound (Thinner)
5. Driers
6. Additives (Anti skinning agents, Anti settling agent, Plasticizers, fire retardants, etc
1. Binder
“Binders are generally consisted of resins or oils but can be of inorganic compounds”

It is the major film-forming component & absolutely required ingredient of any paint
It consists of a resin and a solvent thinner.
Binder is a component of paint that get solidified to form the dry paint film when the solvent
evaporates.
The Alkyd resins types which is widely used binders to form dry film simply by
volatilization as well as by oxidation in the presence of air.
The Epoxy & PU type of resin binders mainly dry through chemical reactions.

Purpose of Binder
- Binds pigment, fillers & additives together
- Imparts adhesion & strongly influences:
- Gloss
- Durability
- Flexibility
- Toughness

2. Pigments
“Pigments are mainly formed from finely ground inorganic or organic powders of higher
RI (> 1.5)
 - It becomes more the light is bent & greater the opacity due to higher RI.
- As it offers good opacity has good lighting absorbing & /or scattering properties
- It particles average diameter ranges from 0.01 to 5μ

Properties of pigment:
• The pigment should be opaque so that it may have good covering power.
• It is because when the pigment is opaque the pigment particles scatter &/or absorb
light sufficiently to prevent it from reaching the substrate
• Generally, the Opacity of any substances depends on two characteristic
properties.

Purpose of pigment
The pigment is a major constituent in the paint to serve the following properties,

• It offers the color opacity, film cohesion, and sometimes corrosion inhibition
• It offers a good aesthetic look to the paint
• Eliminate the substrate and previous color on the substrate if any
• protects the film by reflecting the destructive UV light

3. Extender/filler
The extender or filler is a non-expensive cheaper organic compound added to the paint
in order to increase its volume. (RI <1.5)

• Extenders are majorly had inorganic nature substances & do not provide color to
the paint but added to improve adhesion, ease of sanding and film strength
• As there cost is less compared to prime pigments, they reduce the overall cost of
the paints
• Average dia: up to 50μ

Properties

• It does not provide color to paint.

• It has Poor optical properties (reflectance, opacity, etc)
• It helps in improving the adhesion properties of paint.
• If needle-shaped or flaked shape extender is added to paint the settling may be
very little.
Purpose

• To provide better thickens the film.

• To Increases volume, paint film thickness
• To reduces the cost of the paint
 • It offers better toughness, abrasion resistance & texture
• It helps in consistency control

Widely used fillers

Gypsum, Ground silica, Barytes, Slate powder, French chalk, Calcium carbonate, china
clay, asbestos, silica, mica, whiting, etc.

4. VOC/Thinner
Voc or thinner is a liquid component of paint used for viscosity adjustment and correct
application”

• It is mainly used to dissolve binders and to facilitate the application of paint.

Solvents are generally organic liquids or water.
• If Excessive thinner used it may dull the color & gloss.
• It can prove to be hazardous due to its toxicity & flammability
• As the solvent in the paint gets evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed on to the
surface.
Purpose

• Control flow and application properties

• Act as a carrier for binders & pigments
• Help penetration into porous surfaces
• It can be used to clean brushes & other painting tools
Widely used thinner

• Turpentine oil (distilled pine tree sap): the most commonly used thinner
• Benzene & Naphtha: as a substitute.
• Mineral spirit, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol

5) Driers
As the drying process of paint depends on the solvent and film thickness, it may take as
long as several hours.

The longer will be the drying time as the thickness of the film increases. If the process of
drying paint is artificially accelerated, there may be problems with adhesion between the
protective film and the metal surface.

Purpose

Its main function is to accelerate the drying process.

Examples

Cobalt octane, Litharge, Red lead, Lead acetate, Lead acetate, Manganese octane,
Manganese dioxide, Zinc sulfate, etc.

Corrosion inhibitor

A compound added to a paint which prevents corrosion by forming a metal oxide layer

Purpose

• To protect the substrate from corrosion

Commonly used corrosion inhibitors:

• Sodium molybdate
• Zinc molybdate

6) Additives
Additives are the small quantity of chemical substance added to a paint to improve or
modify the paint properties

• It amounts in paint generally in a range of 0.001% to ≤ 5% & have a profound

influence on the physical & chemical properties of the paint
• It helps to Prevent clustering of pigments
• The addictive substance such as polyoxyethylene ethers of dodecyl alcohol is
added to attain compatibility of different material in the paint system
• Driers accelerate the process of paint drying (hardening) by catalyzing the
oxidation of the binder.
• Plasticizers additives added to a paint to increase the paints flexibility, durability,
compatibility & minimize film cracking
• Fungicides, Biocides and Insecticides types of additives prevent growth and attack
of fungi, bacteria, and insects.
• Flow control agents in the paint to improve flow properties.
• Defoamers type of additives helps to prevent the formation of air bubbles
entrapped in the coatings.
• Emulsifiers is known as wetting agents increasing the colloidal stability of the
paints in the liquid state.
• UV stabilizers are offered better stability of the paints under ultra-violet light.
• Anti-skinning agents in paint prevent the formation of skin in the can.
• Adhesion promoters help to improve the adhesion of the coating to the substrate.
• Corrosion inhibitors help to reduce the corrosion rate of the substrate.
• Texturizers in paint impart textures to the coatings.
• Antifreeze helps to withstand exposure
 • Pigment stabilizers improve pigment stability
• Fire retardant properties
• Anti settling

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PAINT USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

- Though different sorts of remodeling necessitate different types of paint and
techniques, here we have included a few accessible types of paint for you to
consider before painting your property.

1.Enamel Paint
-This type of paint is typically made by adding zinc or lead directly to varnish. Pigments
will be added to it in order to produce a wide range of hues.

Enamel paints have been shown to produce harder, glossier coats that are extremely
easy to clean.

2. Oil Paint
-This type of paint has a white lead base and is typically applied in three coats: primer,
undercoat, and finish. This paint is available in two finishes: matte and glossy. Oil paint
is a popular choice since it is long-lasting and inexpensive, and it is simple to apply and
clean. This paint is often used on walls, doors, windows, and metal items.

Despite their numerous advantages, these also have significant drawbacks. Oil paint
does not work well in humid environments and takes longer to cure entirely.

3. Emulsion Paint
-The term emulsion refers to a mixture of two liquids that do not entirely mix. For example,
oil and water form an emulsion, and you can see the layer of oil in the water.

Water is the principal vehicle/medium in which pigment, binders, and additives are added
and spread in most emulsion paints.
4. Cement-based Paint
-When cement is the most important component of paint, it can provide maximum
sturdiness and hardness. These paints are a superior alternative for both interior and
outdoor walls.

-This type of paint no longer necessitates the use of any exclusive natural count or oil. It
may also be an excellent choice for an external surface because it can reduce dirt
collection and prevent water penetration.

-Cement paint may be one of the best options for an exterior or interior wall, as well as a
concrete wall construction.

5. Water-based Paint
The bulk of wall paint sold now is water-based, owing to its ease of application. If your
surface has previously been covered with an oil-based solution, be cautious when
converting to water-based paint since it may not adhere properly.

In this case, cleaning the surface and then roughening it all over with a medium to smooth
grain sandpaper can prevent the fresh coat from flaking.

Several firms have produced waterborne enamels or alkyds for situations where an oil-
based paint would normally be desirable, but you want a water-based solution. These
paints have the appearance and behavior of oil paints.

6. Bituminous Paint
-This type of paint is created from dissolved asphalt or tar, which gives it its distinctive
black hue. It is waterproof and alkali-resistant, but it should not be used in situations
where it will be exposed to sunlight because it deteriorates.

Underwater ironworks, concrete foundations, timber surfaces, and iron pipes frequently
find bituminous paint. When applied to metals, it also helps to give corrosion resistance.
7. Aluminum Paint
This paint is made by combining aluminum particles with oil varnish. It is corrosion,
electricity, and weather resistant. Aluminum paint is widely used on metals and wood,
with particular uses including gas tanks, oil tanks, water pipes, and radiators.

8. Anti-corrosive Paint
-This paint is frequently distinguished by its unique chemical resistance, as suggested by
its name. It is manufactured from linseed oil, fine sand, and zinc chrome.

-This type of paint has a standard black hue and is frequently used on pipes or other
metallic surfaces. This paint is capable of preventing corrosion by limiting the direct
passage of water and air to the metal.

-The coatings function as a barrier, prethe venting corrosive materials, and chemical
compounds from coming into direct contact.

9. Cellulose Paint
-Amyl acetate, celluloid sheets, and photographic films are typically used to make this
paint. Castor oil may be used to promote adhesion, and the surfaces could be easily
cleaned. It’s also possible to wash the paint once it’s dry.
-This type of paint is distinguished by its speed of drying, hardness, and smoother
surface, as well as its resistance to water, acids, and smoke. Cars and aeroplanes are
the greatest places to use cellulose paint.

10. Plastic Paint

-Water is frequently used as a thinner in this sort of paint, and it comes in a wide range
of hues. It dries quickly and provides a lot of coverage.

-Some of the most prevalent uses for plastic paint are slabs, ceilings, walls of display
rooms, auditoriums, showrooms, and other similar structures, and decks.

ADHESIVE
-Adhesives are used as the bonding layer for floor fixing between the existing floor and
the substrate. They are mixed in the cement used for Joints. They are very useful in
Manufactured Housing or pre-fabricated housing. Fixing of Pre-finished Panels.

Different Adhesive Types & How to Use Them

ADHESIVES BY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

-Different adhesives can be categorized by their chemistries. Below are a few examples
of available chemical compositions
1.Epoxy adhesives
- Epoxies are a type of structural adhesive. They are highly temperature and solvent
resistant and can be structurally bonded to most types of materials, such as
metals, ceramics, wood and plastics.

2.Polyurethane adhesives
- Polyurethanes are polymer-based adhesives used for constructions requiring high
strength bonding and permanent elasticity. They are often offered as two-part
adhesives and have many uses. Unlike epoxy adhesives, they require moisture to
set, which means they can be used for projects where other types of glues are
often unsuitable.

- Polyurethane adhesives, such as the Ad bond EX 5690, can be painted for an ideal
finish, offer high flexibility and can be used in any weather. This makes
polyurethanes ideal for the transport industry.

3.Polyimide adhesives
- Polyimides are one-part synthetic polymers that usually contain solvents. They are
known for their strength, heat and chemical resistance, as well as performance in
extremely high temperatures, as high as 500 degrees Celsius.

They are offered in two formulations, thermoset and thermoplastic, and are often used for
coating or electronic insulation.

ADHESIVES BY PHYSICAL FORM

-Adhesive physical form affects product application. Adhesives can be spread manually
or using tools and equipment.

Below are the different physical forms available.

1.Paste
- Adhesive pastes are often high in viscosity, thereby making them difficult to spread
during the curing period. They are ideal for adhesions requiring gap filling and are
usually applied with the use of tools, such as a caulking gun.

2.Liquid
- Liquid is the most common form of adhesive. They are one of the easiest to apply
but can leak or sag during the curing process. They often take longer to cure but
can be applied in thin layers to help this process.

3.Film
- Adhesive films are available in rolls or pre-cut lengths or shapes, provide easy
application, and have no pot-life restrictions. They are available in thicknesses
between 2 and 8 mm for different applications.
4.Pellets
- Adhesives in the form of pellets are typically hot melt or thermosetting adhesives.
These must usually be inserted into a hot melt gun or melted and sprayed.

ADHESIVES BY CLASSIFICATION
Adhesives are also classified by structure

1.Hot melt
- Hot melt adhesives are brought to liquid form with heat and can be used to coat
entire surfaces before the adhesive cools into a solid polymer. Many industrial
sectors appreciate them for their eco-friendliness, safety and shelf life. Different
types of hot melt adhesives include EVA-based, APAO-based and those that are
pressure-sensitive.

- Polyurethane hot melts are also available, but don’t have the same properties as
standard hot melt adhesives.

Reactive hot melt

- Unlike non-reactive hot melt, reactive hot melt adhesives generate additional
chemical bonds after the solidification process. This results in stronger adhesion
once cured, expanded bonding as well as a higher resistance to moisture, heat
and chemicals.

Thermosetting
- Thermosetting adhesives are usually available in two-part forms. Resin and
Hardener are mixed to obtain a desired setting time. The resin and hardener can
be used in one-part form, however these aren’t as common because they must be
stored in low temperatures. Storing them in high temperatures can cause the
desired reaction to occur prematurely, resulting in a much lower shelf life.

- Pot life is an important property of thermosetting adhesives. It refers to how long a

two-part adhesive will efficiently bond after mixture. A product with a short pot life
will harden too quickly, leaving insufficient time to complete the job. Meanwhile, a
long pot life can delay setting time and slow the assembly process.

Pressure sensitive
- Adhesives in this category are low modulus elastomers, meaning they do not
require much pressure to deform and can be used on wet surfaces. They are quite
durable for light load applications and are normally purchased as tapes or labels
for non-structural applications.
Contact
- Contact adhesives are elastomeric and are applied to both items being bonded
together. Once the solvent evaporates, the items are brought into direct contact.
These types of adhesives are found in rubber cement or countertop laminates.

ADHESIVES BY LOAD BEARING CAPABILITY

The load bearing capability of an adhesive indicates how well it can hold different
substrates together. They can be separated into three categories.

Structural
- Structural adhesives are offered as pastes, liquids and films. They are strong and
usually used below their glass transition temperature (Tg), the temperature at
which polymer transitions into a soft and rubbery material.

- Some well-known structural adhesives are epoxies, cyanoacrylates, urethanes

and acrylics.

Non-structural
- Non-structural adhesives are used for light loads or in more aesthetic applications.
Both non-structural and semi-structural adhesives are much more cost-efficient
alternatives to structural adhesives, but they are not suitable for all types of
projects. Non-structural adhesives are often used as secondary fasteners in more
long-term attachments rather than as a main adhesive.

Semi-structural
- Semi-structural adhesives are ideal for less critical applications, though they still
offer more strength and support than non-structural adhesives. They can therefore
be used to replace either structural or non-structural adhesive applications,
depending on the project.

OTHER CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS

Construction chemicals are chemical formulations used with masonry materials, cement,
concrete or other construction materials at the time of construction to hold the
construction materials together.

The global construction chemical market is categorized as:

1. Protective coating
2. Adhesive and sealant
3. Concrete mixtures
4. Asphalt Modifiers
Most construction chemicals are used as hardening agents either for surface application,
coating or as repair materials. Here below are different types of construction chemical.

1. Concrete Hardeners

These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it denser and more
durable. They also usually enhance chemical resistance, impact & abrasion resistance,
waterproofing capability etc. besides reducing dusting. All these are required attributes
especially for industrial, commercial or factory floors. Ultimately good quality floor
hardeners reduce repairs and maintenance of concrete floors drastically besides making
them long lasting thus adding to cost effectiveness as well. Floor hardeners can be liquid
or solid, metallic or non metallic. Metallic floor hardeners (solid) are well graded ferrous
aggregates. Liquid floor hardeners are water, silicate etc. based solutions. Pigmented
floor hardeners also improve the appearance of floor surfaces. Floor hardeners are
usually applied as per manufacturer’s specifications This construction chemical Improves
the abrasion resistance of dusty or poorly cured concrete by up to 3 times. Has good
resistance to alkali solution and petroleum solvents but poor resistance to strong acids.

2. Protective and Decorative coating

A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of another material with
the intent of inhibiting or preventing corrosion. A protective coating may be metallic or
non-metallic. Protective coatings are applied using a variety of methods, and can be used
for many other purposes besides corrosion prevention. Commonly used materials in non-
metallic protective coatings include polymers, epoxies and polyurethanes. Materials used
for metallic protective coatings include zinc, aluminum and chromium. Special materials
are used in the finishing coats of plastering or over the plastered surfaces to meet one or
more of specific requirements such as decorative appearance, high durability, fire –
proofing, heat insulation, sound insulation, early completion, high strength etc.

3. Concrete Curing

Concrete curing compound consists essentially of waxes, natural and synthetic resins,
and solvents of high volatility at atmospheric temperatures. The compound forms a
moisture retentive film shortly after being applied on a fresh concrete surface. White or
gray pigments are often incorporated to provide heat reflectance, and to make the
compound visible on the structure for inspection purposes. Curing compound should not
be used on surfaces that are to receive additional concrete, paint, or tile which require a
positive bond, unless it has been demonstrated that the membrane can be satisfactorily
removed before the subsequent application is made, or that the membrane can serve
satisfactorily as a base for the later application.
4. Epoxy Coating

These can come as water or oil based solutions or as solvent-free. They can be single or
two-component. Single-component epoxy paints are usually oil based. Two-component
epoxy coatings are mixed in situ in proportions as prescribed by their manufacturers and
they are quite suitable for factory, industrial or commercial building applications by dint of
their excellent chemical & thermal resistant characteristics, hardness, durability,
waterproofing characteristics etc. They are solvent-free. Epoxy coatings are also used in
flooring for decorative purposes.

5. Mould Releasing Agents

Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that are shaped and
constructed in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould may become damaged
or even break when it is time to remove it. Mould release agents come in a variety of
textures with the most commonly used one being an oil type base. If you have never used
a releasing agent before, it is similar to placing oil or butter in the bottom of a dish to
remove your final baking product. Below, you will find the three most commonly used
types and their purpose in the manufacturing industry.

6. Polymer Bonding Agent

Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and chemical admixtures.

It is designed for use as a bonding agent with concrete and cement-based products in
interior or exterior applications. Polymer Bonding Agent is also designed for use as a
polymer modifier in mortars and concretes to develop increased tensile, flexural and bond
strengths. The use of Polymer Bonding Agent in concrete and shotcrete also gives
significant improvements in resistance to penetration by chlorides and de-icing salts.

7. Ready Mix Plaster

Ready mix plaster is a factory mixed/premixed sand-cement based plaster. All the
activities that are generally undertaken on-site are performed in a quality-controlled
environment at the plant to ensure no-batch variation and optimum sand gradation, which
is of utmost importance for any plaster. Other additives such as fly ash and polymers are
also added to it, to improve its performance and various other properties. These are
generally used for building houses or making solid structures of any sort. Apart from
these, they can also be used for various other purposes that require you to put two or
more things together that will hold strong for long. You can also use ready mix plaster to
make models.
8. Polymer Modified Mortar

Polymer-modified mortar is made by replacing a portion of the traditional binders with

polymers. Polymers are added to mortar to increase characteristics that may include
adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to chemicals. Polymers
act to improve the workability and adhesion of non-hardened mortar and often require
less added water than does traditional mortar, which results in fewer pores and stronger
cements, subsequently reducing water ingress and permeability to salts. Polymer-
modified mortar is often commercially available with all ingredients already included in
the mixture.

9. Waterproofing Chemicals

These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s waterproofing capability is to be

given a boost which is especially required for structures constantly dealing with liquids.
There are many varieties. Some of them are crystalline waterproofing chemicals, liquid
acrylic elastomeric waterproofing compounds, polymer modified waterproofing
compounds, cementitious waterproofing compounds etc. Many of these compounds form
membranes on the concrete surfaces to protect them from ingress of water.

There are other types and uses of construction chemicals, but these ones are more
prevailing. GZ Industrial Supplies prides in the distribution and services of construction
chemicals, contact us for more information.

D. ASPHALTIC, WATER PROOFING CLAY AND OTHER WATER PROOFING

MATERIALS

ASPHALTIC
- asphalt, black or brown petroleum-like material that has a consistency varying from
viscous liquid to glassy solid. It is obtained either as a residue from the distillation of
petroleum or from natural deposits. Asphalt consists of compounds of hydrogen and
carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.

Asphalt Technology Disciplines

Asphalt Technology is the study of asphalt mixes, properties and performance and can
be divided into three primary disciplines;

1. Dense Graded Asphalt Technology – Dense-graded mixes are produced with

well or continuously graded aggregate (gradation curve does not have any abrupt
 slope change) and intended for general use. Typically, larger aggregates “float” in
a matrix of mastic composed of asphalt cement and screenings/fines. When
properly designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix is relatively impermeable.
Dense-graded mixes are generally referred to by their nominal maximum
aggregate size. They can further be classified as either fine-graded or coarse-
graded. Fine-graded mixes have more fine and sand sized particles than coarse-
graded mixes.

2. Open Graded Asphalt Technology – mixes with relatively uniform-sized

aggregate typified by an absence of intermediate-sized particles (gradation curve
has a nearly vertical drop in intermediate size range). Mixes typical of this
structure are the permeable friction course, generally called “Open Graded
Friction Course” (OGFC) and asphalt-treated permeable bases. Because of their
open structure, precautions are taken to minimize asphalt drain-down by the use
of fibers and/or modified binders. Stone-on-stone contact with a heavy asphalt
cement particle coating typifies these mixes.

3. Gap Graded Asphalt Technology – Gap-graded mixes use an aggregate

gradation with particles ranging from coarse to fine with some intermediate sizes
missing or present in small amounts. The gradation curve may have a “flat” region
denoting the absence of a particle size or a steep slope denoting small quantities
of these intermediate aggregate sizes. These mixes are also typified by stone-
on-stone contact and can be more permeable than dense-graded mixes or highly
impermeable, as in the case of Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA).

Asphalt Mix Types

An asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in order to obtain
the following desirable mix properties: 1) Stability, 2) Durability, 3)Impermeability,
4)Workability, 5) Flexibility, 6) Fatigue Resistance, and 7) Skid Resistance.
Asphalt/Asphalt Concrete mixes are designed for specific functions, characteristics,
attributes, performance, location and function in the pavement structure. For example,
asphalt surface mixes have an entirely different function in the pavement structure than
base asphalt mixes and are therefore designed differently.

1.Surface Asphalt mixes – The “roof” over the pavement’s structural layers and
are designed to be long lasting, sacrificial (designed to wear out first, protecting
the underlying layers). At some point (typically 12-15 years or more after
placement) they are removed by cold-planing (commonly called milling) and
replaced with a new surface. Different performance characteristics in terms of
surface durability, tire wear, braking efficiency and roadway noise, can also be
achieved depending on application, desired function and performance.

2.Base Mixes – The structural strength element of the asphalt pavement system
and are designed for maximum strength, distributing the wheel loads over the
subbase and subgrade. Because they are protected by the asphalt “roof” (surface)
the appropriate asphalt base mixes performance can be achieved economically.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ASPHALT CONCRETE

To be able to provide the best performance to different sectors, a large variety of asphalt
mixes can be offered. Due to the different requirements e.g. a road needs to fulfill (high
traffic, tough weather conditions etc) the respective mix used needs to have an sufficient
stiffness and resistance to deformation in order to cope with the applied pressure from
vehicle wheels on the one hand, yet on the other hand, the need to have an adequate
flexural strength to resist cracking caused by the varying pressures exerted on them.
Moreover, good workability during application is essential in order to ensure that they can
be fully compacted to achieve optimum durability.

• Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)

• Hot mixes are produced at a temperature between 150 and 190 °C.
• Depending on the usage, a different asphalt mixture can be used.
• Porous Asphalt
• Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
• Asphalt Concrete
• Asphalt Concrete for very thin layers
• Double layered Porous Asphalt
• Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
• A typical WMA is produced at a temperature around 20 – 40 °C lower than an
equivalent Hot Mix Asphalt. Less energy is involved and, during the paving
operations, the temperature in the mix is lower, resulting in improved working
conditions for the crew and an earlier opening of the road.
• Cold Mix
• Cold mixes are produced without heating the aggregate. This is only possible, due
to the use of a specific bitumen emulsion which breaks either during compaction
or during mixing. After breaking, the emulsion coats the aggregate and over time,
increases its strengths. Cold mixes are particularly recommendable for lightly
trafficked roads.

WATER PROOFING
- Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water
resistant. Thanks to this process, the insulated material or structure remains unaffected
by water or resists water ingress under the specified conditions. Such articles may be
used in wet environments or under specified depths. Sometimes it is used to increase the
comfort of buildings by using on surfaces such as balconies or warehouses which are
thought to be in contact with water. The question of what are the waterproofing materials
should be given in accordance with the area of use.

WATERPROOFING METHODS IN DIFFERENT PLACES

Waterproofing methods differ in rural areas and urban areas. Therefore, the answer to
the question of what are the ideal waterproofing materials also changes in rural and urban
areas

Rural Areas

Since rural areas are uniformly monotonous and less utilized in terms of the use of various
materials, certain construction styles, typical problems of the region's natural problems
may arise. The use of natural and locally available materials makes it a very typical and
limited work to remove the wear of the structure. Workmanship is handled at a grass root
level to address any problems that may occur.

Urban Areas

In urban areas there are various corners and surfaces. Macro climate changes, excessive
pollution, excessive use of soil, lack of green space, excessive use of greenhouse gases,
roads are the most important causes of weather conditions effect the process of
waterproofing in urban areas. This situation causes the material to withstand high
temperature variations due to its weakening, large changes in its composition and the
development of cracks. However, often the construction, materials and methods are
advanced and therefore it is easy to control and improve.

How Waterproofing is Applied in Constructions?

-Construction applications are one of the areas where water insulation is frequently
encountered. Waterproofing is achieved by using membranes and coatings to maintain a
structure or structure, contents and structural integrity.

Benefits of Waterproofing
To give a healthy answer to the question of what are waterproofing materials, we need to
understand the reason for this need at first. Each building is subject to deterioration if it
is not properly maintained. In this way, some natural factors such as air, water, climate,
wind and humidity becomes manageable. If a structure is not protected from water,
problems such as deterioration or damage to a structure from foundation to plaster can
be encountered. Against the following causes buildings need to be insulated against
water:

• Natural factors
• Unexpected fire accidents
• Water - rain and humidity
• Strong wind
• Big earthquakes
• Non-natural factors
 • Damage caused by theft
• Collapse of buildings
• Structural failure in buildings
• Other anti-social actions

Waterproofing Applications on Roofs

One of the main areas where waterproofing is applied in constructions is the main frame
of the building. This main frame covers the construction and roof of the building. It
protects the building from rain, snow, and frost. Roofing materials are generally
designed to drain water from a water-resistant. In some cases they are also equipped to
defend the building agains frosting as well. roofs. For this reason, both the general
geographical location of the house and the facade of the house in this general position
are important aspects to be considered. For example, if the house is in a place of
constant rainfall, its roof should be designed accordingly. The answer to the question of
what are the best waterproofing materials for roofs is directly related to these properties.
The feasibility studies should be carried out by experts and the people who will carry out
the construction should be directed accordingly.

Waterproofing on Walls

When you are looking for an answer to the question of what are waterproofing
materials, you should act according to the characteristics of the region where you will
apply waterproofing. The waterproofing materials used for the roof and the
waterproofing materials insulated for the wall will not be identical. This is because these
surfaces are different from the water they are exposed to. Walls must also have vapor
barriers or air barriers.

Sometimes waterproofing in some houses on the walls with the right materials, moisture
problems may be experienced. This may be due to the fact that a suitable material is
not selected for moisture insulation. In such cases, the answer to the question of what
are waterproofing materials becomes even more important. Moisture insulation is
another aspect of waterproofing. The masonry walls are constructed with a moisture
resistant road to prevent moisture from rising, and the concrete in the foundations is
rendered damp or waterproof by a liquid coating, basement waterproofing membrane. In
this way, no moisture problems.

Balcony and Terrace

Another area requiring special waterproofing is the terraces and balconies.

There are a few points to consider when choosing waterproofing materials for balconies
and terraces. The first is the impact of expansion and contraction on waterproofing
systems for roofs and terraces. The terrace continuously moves during the temperature
changes and presses the water insulation systems. One of the leading causes of
waterproof terrace system failures is the movement of substrates that cause a lot of
stress on the membranes, causing the system to fail. In order to avoid this, it is
necessary to use appropriate waterproofing membrane, appropriate slope drainage and
appropriate construction

Different Waterproofing Methods

a workman and his tools on his belt

What are the ideal waterproofing materials for a venue? To give a solid answer to this
question, we need to take a closer look at the waterproofing materials.

1. Cement Based Waterproofing Method

Let's start with one of the traditional answers to the question of what are the waterproofing
materials, Cement based waterproofing is the easiest waterproofing method in
construction. Cement based waterproofing materials are easily available fin various
suppliers and they are easy to mix and apply.

This method is often used in domestic wet areas such as bathrooms and toilets. This
method is usually a complete or semi-flexible type of waterproofing. It is used in areas
that are not sunlight or weather conditions

Cement based waterproofing is used in the following structures:

Water treatment plants

Sewage Treatment Plants
Bridges
Dams
Railway and metro systems
Sea cargo port and docks
River locks / canals and concrete dykes
Parking structures
Tunnels
Cement based waterproofing is used in these areas

2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane Method

The most ideal water insulation materials are the answers to the question and the other
is liquid (liquid) water insulation methods. The liquid waterproofing membrane method is
a thin coating, usually consisting of a primer coat and two coats of top coat applied by
spray, roller or trowel. It offers more flexibility than cement based waterproofing types.
Therefore, it is used more intensely nowadays.
So, how to apply the liquid waterproofing membrane method? The elongation properties
of the coating can reach up to 2000%. The durability of the waterproofing coating depends
on what kind of polymer the manufacturer uses in the construction of liquid waterproofing.

The liquid waterproofing membrane may be a spray-applied liquid membrane composed

of polymer modified asphalt. Different degrees of acrylic, hybrid or polyurethane liquid
membranes for trowel, roller or spray are also available from various manufacturers.

3. Bituminous Coating Waterproofing Method

Bituminous coating is a type of coating used for waterproofing and flexible protective
coating in accordance with the degree of formulation and polymerization. Its flexibility and
protection against water can be influenced by the polymer class as well as the
reinforcement of the fiber.

Bituminous coating is also called asphalt coating. The most common applications of
bituminous coatings include areas under the screed. It is an excellent protective coating
and waterproofing material on surfaces such as concrete foundations.

The bituminous coating is made of bitumen based materials and is not suitable for
exposure to sunlight. As long as it is not modified by a more flexible material such as
polyurethane or acrylic based polymers, it becomes very fragile when exposed to sunlight
for a long time.

The flexibility of finished products always depends on the solids content of the polymer
added to the bit.

4. Bitumen Membrane Waterproofing Method

Bituminous membrane waterproofing is a popular method used on low slope roofs due to
their proven performance. It is a bituminous waterproofing membrane and self-adhesive
membrane.

In addition to the self-adhesive compounds, asphalt, polymer and filler, certain resins and
oils may be added to improve the adhesion properties. As the adhesion properties of the
membrane decrease over time, the self-adhesive type has a low shelf life.

5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane Waterproofing Method

Polyurethane liquid membrane waterproofing method is used for flat roof area and is
exposed to weather conditions. This waterproofing method is expensive compared to
others.
Polyurethane Liquid Membrane can offer higher flexibility. Polyurethane is very sensitive
to the present moisture content, so it is necessary to be very careful when evaluating the
moisture content of the concrete slab before application, otherwise the membranes may
peel off or bond after a period of time.

TYPES OF WATERPROOFING MATERIALS

As promised, we will give you now a comprehensive list of waterproofing materials.

1. POLYURETHANE
• Polyurethane is considered one of the best waterproofing materials. It can be
applied seamlessly and penetrates the surface deeply and evenly. Thus, the
polyurethane membrane will fill in even the finest cracks in concrete, reducing its
water absorbency capacity. Another key benefit of polyurethane is that it resists
oil, detergents, and various chemicals.

• These characteristics and benefits recommend polyurethane as one of the most

versatile waterproofing materials. It can be applied or walls, balconies, terraces,
and walls.

• As for the cost, it is in the premium range. The average application price is $10 per
square meter of building.

2. CEMENTITIOUS COATING
• Cementitious coating is a powder mix of sand, organic, and inorganic substances
plus silica-based materials. It is very popular among waterproofing contractors
because it is very easy to apply. They only have to mix the powder with a specific
quantity of water and they can start the installation work.

• The downside of this benefit is the lack of flexibility of cementitious coating. For
this reason, we list it among the recommended waterproofing materials for the
basement and foundation.

• Another benefit of cementitious coating is its affordable cost – between $2 and $4

per square foot installed.

• An expert applying a cementitious coating, an affordable waterproofing material

for walls

3. EPDM RUBBER
• EPDM rubber is one of the recommended waterproofing materials for roofs. It is
available in membranes with two thicknesses: 45 mils and 60 mils. Flexibility is the
key benefit of this waterproofing product – a critical aspect for roof waterproofing,
as it expands and contracts constantly due to temperature variations.
 • EPDM rubber cost varies depending on thickness and brand between $3.25 and
$15 per square meter.

• DryTech also uses EPDM Rubber as one of our waterproofing products usually
convenient for roofs

4. RUBBERIZED ASPHALT
• This is one of the waterproofing products used especially on the roofs of
commercial buildings. It is a very tough and flexible material, offering excellent
protection against all weather conditions and has very low water vapor
permeability. It also dries quickly, in 3-4 hours after application.

• The average cost of rubberized asphalt is $50 for a 4.75 gallon bucket.

• Rubberized asphalt; one of the best waterproofing methods

5. THERMOPLASTIC
• This is one of the waterproofing materials with the longest lifespan – around 50
years. When heated correctly, thermoplastic becomes semi-solid and is an
excellent option for sealing sheets and panels. Since it contains elastomers,
thermoplastic is very flexible and resistant to impact.

• The only downside of thermoplastic is its cost – around $10 per pound or $42 for
a 48-inch roll.

• DryTech uses theromplastic as a waterproofing building material. It works for

around 50 years

6. BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE
• Versatile, easy to apply, and recommended both for commercial and residential
buildings, the bituminous membrane is obtained by mixing bitumen (a substance
similar to tar) with a mixture of materials. The result is a sticky and viscous
substance, with great endurance.

• However, you should know that this is not one of the eco-friendly and sustainable
waterproofing products as it is made from crude oil. On the other hand, bituminous
membrane has a very affordable application cost – between $2.73 and $5.21 per
square foot.

• DryTech uses multiple waterproofing materials like thermoplastic, bituminous

membrane and others
7. PVC WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE
• PVC membrane is one of the most frequently used waterproofing products for
roofs. It is both water and vapor permeable and can be reinforced to offer extra
durability. It is also very easy to install and has a long lifespan.

• However, these benefits come at a premium cost – around $55 per foot of
membrane.

E. RUBBER AND SYNTHETICS

RUBBER
- is a broad term that can be used to describe a range of products with similar ‘elastic’
characteristics. There are two main types of rubber: natural rubber, which is made from
latex extracted from plants (primarily the rubber tree or hevea brasiliensis) and synthetic
rubber, which is manufactured and includes some forms of:

• Styrene butadiene (SBR).

• Polyacrylics.
• Polyvinyl acetate (PVA).
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• Polychloroprene (neoprene).
• Polyurethane.
• Silicone.

Rubber is highly elastic and durable and is corrosion resistant. It remains flexible in a
wide range of temperatures, is water resistant, an electrical and thermal insulator, and is
able to absorb movement and vibration.

Rubber is commonly used in the construction industry for:

• Joints, seals and gaskets.

• Coatings, paints and sealants.
• Sound, vibration and impact absorption.
• Protective clothing.
• Roofing and flooring.
• Pipes and cabling.
• Belting.
• Membranes.
Rubber can be manufactured in a variety of shapes, sizes, thicknesses and colours
Natural Rubber

The natural rubber is obtained by collecting milk from rubber trees at rubber
plantations called latex. The impurities present in it are removed and is coagulated by
weak acetic acid. The solid matter is passed through rollers to get creep rubber and
processed to get commercial rubber compounds.

The latex can also be preserved without coagulation by additives that can be used for
various purposes like paints, rubber gloves, foamed rubber mattresses, etc.

Natural rubbers have high strength, low hysteresis and good resistance to tearing as well
as flexure. But, it is easily affected by solvents.

Synthetic Rubber

Synthetic rubber is mixed with natural rubber to produce different articles of rubber. It
is produced to serve various purposes like chemical resistance and available in two types:

General-purpose synthetic rubber - Styrene Butadiene Rubber is mostly preferred

synthetic rubber for general purposes.
Special purpose synthetic rubber - Neoprene is an example of synthetic rubber with
specific qualities to suit different purposes.

Vulcanization of Rubber

Rubber is vulcanized to make it stable at all temperatures and to improve the qualities
to resist friction, solvents, durability etc. For soft rubber, it is vulcanized with the addition
of 1 to 5 per cent of sulphur. For very hard rubber, it is vulcanized with the addition of
about 30 per cent of sulphur.

For making rubber tyres, fillers like carbon black are combined to enhance their rigidity.
They are also bolstered with nylon threads or steel wires to make them withstand heavy
impact loads and shocks.

USES OF RUBBER

The following are the uses of rubber in building construction:

• It is used as a polymer mortar to improve its bonding and waterproofing qualities.

• It is directly used in concrete for making polymer concrete.
• Rubber tiles are used for resilient floors which are made from natural and synthetic
rubber as the basic ingredient.
• A synthetic rubber Neoprene is widely used for bearings of bridges.
 • Natural and synthetic is used to make many products used in the building industry
like plasticized PVC pipes are made by the addition of rubber.
• It is used in many various types of glue-like Fevicol, to add superior adhesion.

Rubber in Cement Mortar and Concrete

Latex or polymer latex adding to cement mortar forms a polymer-modified system which
presents

• great adhesion,
• enhanced tensile,
• compressive and flexural strengths,
• excellent resistance to penetration of water and
• increased resistance to chemicals

Natural rubber can be used in preparing bonding agents, and these bonding agents add
to cement for repairing concrete and plastered surfaces.

Synthetic rubber formulations are costly, and the mortar made from this is used only for
special situations. Rubber can also be used for making polymer concrete, especially for
waterproofing purposes. For more information about Polymer Concrete.

Rubber Floors

Rubber floors are widely used in situations like computer rooms or libraries, where
resilient flooring is needed. These floors are noise proof and possess the ability to be
compressed and come back to the original shape when the load is removed.
Rubber tiles are produced in plain colours or mottled to form a resilient, non-slip, quiet
flooring of low electric and thermal conductivity.

Rubber use as a bonding and waterproofing agent in cement plaster as well as in

cement concrete is becoming widespread in building construction.
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