Introduction to Carpentry

1. What is Timber?
a. Timber trees are primarily grown for use in carpentry and buildings. They are found
in a wide variety of species. A tall perennial woody plant having a main trunk and
branches forming distinct elevated crown, includes both gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
b. A processed wood that is in the ready form to be used for construction purpose.
Timber is supplied in two main forms – rough-sawn timber and surfaced or finished
timber where one or more faces of the planks are finished.
2. Tree Components
a. Crown

The crown, which consists of the leaves and branches at the top of a tree,
plays an important role in filtering dust and other particles from the air. It also
helps cool the air by providing shade and reduces the impact of raindrops on the
soil below.

The leaves are the food factories of a tree. They contain chlorophyll, which
facilitates photosynthesis and gives leaves their green color. Through a process
called photosynthesis, leaves use the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and water from the soil into sugar and oxygen. The sugar, which
is the tree’s food, is either used or stored in the branches, trunk and roots. The
oxygen is released into the atmosphere.

b. Roots
A tree’s roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, store sugar and anchor
the tree upright in the ground. All trees have lateral roots that branch into smaller
and smaller roots and usually extend horizontally beyond the branch tips. Some
trees have a tap root that reaches down as far as 15 feet. Each root is covered with
thousands of root hairs that make it easier to soak up water and dissolved minerals
from the soil. The majority of the root system is located in the upper 12 to 18
inches of soil because the oxygen that roots require to function properly is most
abundant there.

c. Trunk/Stem
The trunk, or stem, of a tree supports the crown and gives the tree its shape
and strength. The trunk consists of four layers of tissue. These layers contain a
network of tubes that runs between the roots and the leaves and acts as the central
plumbing system for the tree. These tubes carry water and minerals up from the
roots to the leaves, and they carry sugar down from the leaves to the branches,
trunk and roots.

d. Branch

The branch is a woody structural member connected to but not part of the
central trunk of a tree (or sometimes a shrub). Large branches are known
as boughs and small branches are known as twigs.
e. Twigs

A twig is a thin branch of a tree or bush. The buds on the twig are an
important diagnostic characteristic, as are the abscission scars where the leaves
have fallen away. The color, texture, and patterning of the twig bark are also
important, in addition to the thickness and nature of any pith of the twig.

f. Leaves

A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of

the stem. The leaves and stem together form the shoot. Leaves are collectively
referred to as foliage, as in "autumn foliage".

g. Taproot

A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout
laterally. Typically, a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in
shape, and grows directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the
taproot is a storage organ so well developed that it has been cultivated as
a vegetable.

h. Fruit

In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known

as angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering.

Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds. Edible fruits, in
particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in
a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition; in fact,
humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of
food. Accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the
world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate)
have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.
3. Parts of a Tree Trunk
a. Heartwood

As a tree grows, older xylem cells in the center of the tree become inactive
and die, forming heartwood. Because it is filled with stored sugar, dyes and oils,
the heartwood is usually darker than the sapwood. The main function of the
heartwood is to support the tree.

b. Xylem/Sapwood

The xylem, or sapwood, comprises the youngest layers of wood. Its network
of thick-walled cells brings water and nutrients up from the roots through tubes
inside of the trunk to the leaves and other parts of the tree. As the tree grows,
xylem cells in the central portion of the tree become inactive and die. These dead
xylem cells form the tree’s heartwood.

c. Cambium

The cambium is a very thin layer of growing tissue that produces new cells
that become xylem, phloem or more cambium. Every growing season, a tree’s
cambium adds a new layer of xylem to its trunk, producing a visible growth ring
in most trees. The cambium is what makes the trunk, branches and roots grow
larger in diameter.

d. Phloem/Inner Bark

The phloem or inner bark, which is found between the cambium and the outer
bark, acts as a food supply line by carrying sap (sugar and nutrients dissolved in
water) from the leaves to the rest of the tree.

e. Bark

The trunk, branches and twigs of the tree are covered with bark. The outer
bark, which originates from phloem cells that have worn out, died and been shed
outward, acts as a suit of armor against the world by protecting the tree from
insects, disease, storms and extreme temperatures. In certain species, the outer
bark also protects the tree from fire.

4. Cross Section of a Log

5. Difference between Timber, Log, and Lumber
a. Timber is the tree or trees that were planted in a grove for the purpose of cutting or
found in a forest, which, when cut down, could then further be cut up into various
useful pieces of wood that could then be used in building various projects, such as
houses or ships.
b. Lumber is the wood, already cut to any marketable size — from boards meant for
flooring, to rafters and beams meant for holding up a structure. If you went to a
Home Depot, or another large home-improvement store, you would usually buy the
marketable bits of wood here in the lumber department.
c. Logs are the piece of a felled tree, usually the size of a large branch (could even be
a large branch) up to a whole section of a trunk, and generally just a rough piece of
wood that you could use either as-is (such as in building a log cabin), for use in
small-to-medium projects, or to be used as firewood. Not generally to be found in a
finished and marketable form such as a board or plank, which would be lumber.
However, logs can be marketed and sold as logs, just not as lumber.
6. Types of Timber
a. Bamboo
Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most unique plants on
earth. Bamboo is grown in abundance in many parts of the world, especially in
tropical and subtropical regions. Most timber producing bamboos are from South
Asia. The color of bamboo timber is pale yellow to almost gold. It is an industrial
material also identified as the most promising building material. Bamboo timber
is an alternative to tropical hardwoods in recent years. It is available in many
forms.
b. Birch
Birch is a great craft-wood. It is an important source of hardwood timber.
Birch is of many types of like-yellow birch, white birch etc. Yellow birch is
commonly used which is also known as gray birch, or swamp birch. It is light
reddish brown color. Birch gives low natural luster.
c. Cedar
Cedar is a timber of high quality. It comes from several different trees known
as cedars. Where both strength and appearance of the exposed wood beams are
important, cedar is the only savior and perfect fit for this. It is used in for-
landscape, park, garden structure. Its moderate strength and softness make it
unique. Cedar offers the advantage of the natural advantage. Basically, it is a
workable material.
d. Cherry
Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation timber. Among different types of
cherry timbers, black cherry timber is the largest of the native cherries and the
only of commercial value. It is found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In
cherry timber, the grain is generally straight. It is a hardwood. It has medium
density and moderately durable. And used for small pieces of furnitures-veneers,
handles, cabinets, scientific instruments etc.
e. Mahogany
Mahogany is a high-quality timber. It is grown commercially almost in every
continent. Mahogany is widely used in the furniture and cabinet building industry.
It is made into plywoods and all kinds of trim. It displays hard grain. It is one of
the softer of all the hardwoods that are commonly in use. It is moderate natural
luster. The color of mahogany timber darkens with age. The texture is medium
and uniform. The price of this timber is in mid-range.
f. Oak
Oak timber is a type of hardwood from the oak tree. It has been used as timber
for thousands of years. It is straight grained. It is used for light construction most
of the time. Oak timber is used for -homeware, wine barrels, firewood etc.
g. Walnut
Walnut is a premium timber. It is a specialist hardwood. The grain is straight
but it can be irregular. Walnut timber is really decorative. It carries a lot of design
for the interior. It has moderate natural luster. Walnut timber is moderately
durable. It is medium density.
h. Fir
Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a premier building
product for a wide range of applications. It is a softwood species. Fir has a very
straight grain. Fir has become the standard woods of choice for timber framing. Fir
timber is used tin-housing, framing, flooring, lining fascias, bargeboards, and
pergolas.
i. Pine
Pine comes in several varieties, but the main ones found in Australia are Radiata,
Cypress and Hoop pine. Radiata pine is a very common house-framing timber but it
has low resistance to decay and termites unless chemically treated. Cypress pine is
prized for its anti-termite properties, which made it a popular flooring material in
Australia for decades. Hoop pine is used mainly for plywood. Inexpensive.
j. Wood Ash
Ash is a white-to-pale brown-coloured wood with a straight, attractive grain. Easy
to work, it is commonly used in furniture production where it is a good substitute for
white oak.
k. Maple
Available in two varieties — hard and soft. Hard maple, commonly referred to as
Rock Maple in Australia, is an extremely hard and pale-coloured timber, making it
the wood of choice for gymnasium floors. Soft maple is lighter in weight and is used
mostly in making boxes and pallets because of wide colour variations.

l. Others
 Cross-laminated
 Glulam
 Green Timber
 Lime
 Plywood
 Sapele wood
 Tulipwood
 Spruce
7. Types of Log Cut
a. Through and Through/Slab/Live

This type of milling involves progressively cutting the log from

one side to the other. Through and through milling is the simplest and
most efficient way to cut a log. Milling through and through results in
plain-sawn, rift-sawn, and quarter-sawn boards because the orientation of
the growth rings changes as the boards are sliced off the log.

b. Cant

With cant sawing, the first cuts are made across the top of the log
and flipped 180 degrees to saw the second cuts across the opposite face.
Once rotated 90 degrees to saw the third side, and rotated another 180
degrees to saw the last side, the log is squared into a center piece called a
cant. This cant is either sent to another machine for further processing or
sold as a large and heavy timber. Cant sawing maximizes sawmill
production in board feet per day and is commonly used throughout the
hardwood sawing industry. Primarily used on medium and low quality
logs, cant sawing can save valuable time and effort when working with
low grade and low value lumber.

c. Plain

Similar to cant sawing, plain sawing begins with rotating and

sawing the outer sides of a log into boards until the center is squared into a
four-sided cant. Instead of leaving the cant as is, it is rotated and sawn to
produce the maximum amount of lumber. If needed, the boards are then
edged by sawing the rough edge off. Although there are many different
techniques for achieving the best quality and yield from a log, anyone can
get great lumber from plain sawing.

d. Grade

With grade sawing, the log is sawn, turned to a new face, sawn and
turned again as many as five times. Financially, grade sawing is the best
sawing method for medium and high-quality logs, even though it may be
difficult to turn a log on some mills and daily production volume may be
lower.

e. Quarter-sawn

There are several reasons to consider quarter sawing your lumber

because the grain patterns in some hardwoods are in great demand. For
example, quarter sawn oak is more valuable than plain sawn oak. Quarter
sawn wood is also more dimensionally sound meaning it will not cup or
dish while drying and will shrink less than plain sawn lumber. Due to
these advantages, woodworkers, cabinet makers, quality furniture shops,
and craftsmen typically prefer quarter sawn lumber to work with.
 However, not all lumber will increase in value when quarter sawn due to
the amount of handling and time involved to produce. Quarter sawn
lumber refers to the angle at which the tree’s growth rings intersect the
face of the sawn board. Although there are differing opinions on the term,
fully quarter sawn lumber is generally defined as growth rings that are 80
to 90 degrees to the face of the board. The quarter sawing method can also
produce rift sawn lumber which is considered to have growth rings that are
45 to 80 degrees to the face of the board.

f. Rift-sawn
The annular rings or a rift sawn board are about 30-60 degrees to
the face of the board, but 45 degrees is the most optimum. Similar to
quarter sawn lumber, rift sawn lumber is also referred to as radial grain.

The diagram at left highlights the boards that are considered rift
sawn. Since there are very few boards that meet the requirement of 45-
degree grain, rift sawn lumber is the most expensive cut.

A narrow and very straight grain pattern is visible on the face of

the board. Rift sawn lumber is usually used with oak to avoid the flecks
that are common in the species.

8. Defects in Timber
a. Natural Defects in Timber

1. Knots

A knot marks the position of growth of a branch on the tree. On the

cut board, it is most easily marked by its conspicuously darker appearance
and harder character.A knot is essentially a discontinuity in the timber and
hence a place of weakness.

Firstly, they make the workability of timber quite difficult. They

are harder and offer greater resistance to planning and polishing.
Secondly, they reduce the tensile strength of the timber.
Compressive and shear strength are, however, not affected badly.

Types of Knots

 Live Knot: It is that part (root) of the branch that becomes

completely enclosed within the growing trunk of a tree.In such a
knot, there is complete structural continuity between the fibers of the
branch and the main tree.

 Dead Knot: In such a knot, the continuity of structure is almost lost

or is only up to 25 percent.

 An Inter-grown Knot: This is the term used when almost three-

fourths of the fibers of the knot (perimeter) show continuation with
the main tree.

 Encased Knot: It is a knot surrounded entirely by bark.

  Edge Knot: It is seen only in saw-on timber, on one edge of the cut
portion.

 Face Knot: It is also seen on cut timber on the face of the board.

2.Shakes

After knots, shakes are more serious and common defects in

timber. In simple language, they are also called cracks or fissures. These
natural cracks may result from:

 Shrinkage on aging of the tree;

 due to movement caused by wind action in the growing
tree;
 freezing of sap in the cells during its ascent.

The most important effect of the shakes on the timber is that these
reduce its resistance to shear considerably.

As such, it is necessary to avoid the use of timber containing

shakes where severe shear stresses are involved. Another effect is that
shakes allow an easy access of moisture and air to the interior of the tree
along with insects and fungi. This reduces the durability of the timber.

Depending on their position in the tree trunk as seen in a transverse

section, following types of shakes are commonly recognized:

 Heart Shakes: These are cracks or clefts occurring in the

heartwood, i.e., towards the inner region.They indicate the
beginning of decay of the tree. They become thinner as they extend
outward (towards sapwood).
 Star Shakes: They are also called radial shakes. They generally
arise in the sap wood and extend towards the inner regions. Hence,
these are wider in the outer regions and become narrower as they
pass inwards. The main cause for their development in a living tree
is severe temperature difference during different seasons, such as
excessive heat during summer, and severe cold, leading to frost
formation in winter.
 Cup Shakes: These are also called ring shakes. These are cracks
that develop parallel to the annual rings. As such, when fully
developed, they may separate portions of timber longitudinally
along the rings. But this condition is seldom seen.
Generally, they develop along a part of a particular annual ring.
Reasons for development of cup or ring shakes are to be sought in
the unequal growth of the timber.
 3.Rind Galls
The meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So
abnormal growth of the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper
cutting of branches causes this abnormal growth. Wood from this portion
of the timber lacks strength and desirable in structure.

4.Upsets
Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to
crushing or compression. Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing
during the young age of the tree these are the main reasons behind this
type of defect.

b. Artificial Defects of timber

1.Checks

These are cracks or clefts developing longitudinally in the logs after

their felling. These cracks or checks are often cutting across the annual rings
of the log.

In most cases, their origin is due to a simple cause of unequal drying.

Thus, when a log of wood remains exposed to the atmosphere only on one
side, the upper side will lose more moisture than the underside.

This will result in a shrinkage in the exposed region to such an extent

that tensile forces sufficient to cause a crack or cracks in the wood will be
easily developed.

The development of such checks could be avoided by changing the

position of the timber log at regular intervals.

This will ensure uniform shrinkage which will not allow the checks
to develop.

The effect of checks on the quality of timber is that they reduce their
strength on the one hand and allow the moisture to seep in on the other
hand.

2.Warps

Warping is defined as a deformation in the original plane surface of

a board cut from the timber.

This is also attributed to ‘unequal’ shrinkage. It is most commonly

developed in those boards that are cut from green or ‘unseasoned’ timber.

Warping deformations may take various shapes of these, following

are more common:

 Bow: It is a curvature of the board developed in a longitudinal

direction. The thin board takes shape resembling a bow.
 Cupping: It is a distortion developed transversely. Length of the
board remains unaffected, but the width suffers distortion.
  Twisting: It is a complex type of distortion in which one end of the
board is so much distorted that it comes to lie over a part of the
other edge.

c. Defects due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and
weaken the strength of the wood.

Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The
larvae make tunnels through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into
powder.

Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making
tunnels through it. Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of
termites.

Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood
to take refuge or shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of
insect.
d. Defects due to Fungi
1.Stain

When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are
stored, it causes a stain. Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food
materials and is not affected by it. Stain action causes color but does not
affect the strength of the wood.

2.Decay
Wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type
of defect in wood. This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both
sapwood and heartwood are affected by them. Considerable strength
reduction occurs.
e. Defects due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods.

During seasoning of timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the
interior surface. So, stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect
seasoning process, stress is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the
defects resulting from defective seasoning are as follows:

1.Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
2.Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
 3.Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend
from one end to another.
4.Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
5.Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying
process or seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of
honeycomb texture.
f. Defects due to Defective Conversion
1.Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that
the pith or the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its
length.
2.Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.
3.Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.
4.Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of
experience in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.
5.Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.
9. Characteristics of Philippine Wood and its Uses
1. ACLE. Dark brown; hard; insect proof; durability II.

Uses: Railroad ties; house posts; sills; floors; sheathing; doors; carving;
cabinetwork and furniture.

2. ACLENG-PARANG. Dark brown; hard; durability III.

Uses: Railroad ties; poles; bridge building; sills; beams, joists, rafters;
sheathing; cabinetmaking; furniture.

3. AGOHO. Light to dark brown; very hard; durability II.

Uses: Piling; railroad ties; poles; paving blocks; house posts; bridge and
wharf construction; sills; beams, joists, rafters; window sills; handles.

4. ALMON. (A lauan.) Vary pale red fading to dull yellow; soft; light; coarse,
straight grained; very easy to work; durability IV.

Uses: Paving blocks (treated); siding; sheathing; doors; wagon beds;

furniture; concrete forms; floors; dug-outs and lighters; boxes; all
purposes where cheapness and ease of working are more important than
strength and durability.

5. ALUPAG. Pale red to very dark brown; very hard; very heavy; durability I.

Uses: Railroad ties; poles; mine timbers; house posts; sills; beams, joists,
rafters; window sills.

6. ANUBING. Yellow, turning very dark; hard; heavy; durability I.

Uses: Piling; shipbuilding (keels); railroad ties; poles; house posts; mine
timbers; bridge and wharf construction; sills; beams, joists, rafters.

7. API-API. Gray or light brown with purplish tinge, sometimes with small
dark brown heartwood; heavy; hard; rather fine grained, with figure
resembling ash; not attacked by beetles; durability IV.

Uses: Little, if at all, used in Philippines except perhaps for firewood;

recommended for creosoted paving blocks.
8. APITONG. Pale red or grayish red to dark reddish brown; moderately hard
to hard; moderately heavy; coarse and straight grained; fairly easy to work;
durability III.

Uses: Shipbuilding (planks); railroad ties and paving blocks, (creosoted);

house posts above stumps; bridge and wharf construction (except piles);
beams, joists, rafters; floors; siding; doors; wagon beds; furniture.

9. ARANGA. Yellow streaked with (lark brown; hard; heavy; strong; stiff; fine
and straight grained; works readily; durability I.

Uses: Piling; shipbuilding (keels); railroad ties; poles; paving blocks;

house posts; wharf and bridge building; sills; beams, joists, rafters; floors;
sheathing; doors; window sills; windows; furniture.

10. ATA-ATA. Sapwood grayish white, very large, less durable than that of
camagon and bolongeta; heartwood small, often defective, dead black;
durability

Uses: Little used except locally for construction; recommended for paving
blocks and railroad ties (creosoted).

11. BACAUAN. Gravislh to reddish brown; very hard; very heavy; durability
IV.

Uses: Piling; submerged piling for foundations; mine timbers. Supply:

Very abundant in mangrove swamps.

12. BAGTICAN. (A lauan.) Pale -red, with grayish or brownish tinge; soft; easy
to work; durability IV.

Uses: Same as those of alimon.

13. BAHAI. Red; hard; heavy; durability III.

Uses: House posts; beams, joists, rafters; furniture and cabinetwork.

14. BALACAT. Yellowish white, but with fine red heart in very large trees;
hard; durability IV.

Uses: Cheap furniture; wooden shoes; paving blocks (treated).

15. BALINGHASAY. Pink to pale red; moderately hard; works easily;

durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks (treated); house posts above stumps; sheathing;

furniture.

16. BANABA. Dull rose color; hard; moderately heavy; easy to work; durability
I.

Uses: Shipbuilding (planks); railroad ties; mine timbers; house posts;

beams, joists, rafters; floors; sheathing. Supply: Limited. Sizes: Small to
medium; not long. Price: Probably about like batitinan.

17. BANAWI. (Butong-manuk, tinaan-pantai.) Yellowish changing to brown

streaked with black; hard; heavy; durability III.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters.

18. BANCAL. (Mambog, Visayas; Bulala, Northern Luzon.) Yellow; soft;
durability III.

Uses: House posts; furniture and carving.

19. BANITI. Pale reddish brown; soft; light; very similar to the natos; durability
IV.

Uses: About the same as the natos and sold with them.

20. BANSALAGUIN. Pale to dark red; very heavy; very hard; fine grained;
durability I.

Uses: Piling; keels; railroad ties; house posts; bridge and wharf
construction; sills; beams, joists, and rafters; window sills; handles; spokes
and felloes; cabinet work.

21. BANUYO. Light to dark golden brown; moderately heavy; moderately

hard; easy to work; durability III.

Uses: Sheathing; doors; carriage bodies; carving; furniture.

22. BATETE. (Southern Luzon, danggai; Zamboanga, palo maria.) Reddish

brown; oily; moderately heavy; moderately hard; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters;
floors; sheathing; doors; flooring.

23. BATICULIN and MALAYA. Pale to dark yellow; soft to moderately hard;
light to moderately heavy; not attacked by insects; faint camphor-like odor;
very easy to work; durability II.

Uses: Door panels; carving and sculpture; cabinetwork.

24. BATINO. Yellowish white; hard; heavy; disagreeable odor; fairly easy to
work; durability II.

Uses: Railroad ties; posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors;
cabinetwork.

25. BATITINAN. Greenish gray to dark brown; hard; heavy; rather difficult to
work; durability I.

Uses: Piling; keels; ships' planking; railroad ties; paving blocks; house
posts; bridges and wharfs; sills; beams, joists, rafters; floors; sheathing;
doors; cabinetwork.

26. BAYABAS. Grayish to light brown; hard; heavy; tough; durability 1I.

Uses: Tool handles.

27. BAYOK. Grayish red; moderately hard; light; durability IV.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated).

28. BENGUET PINE and TAPULAO. Like Georgia pine in appearance;

durability IV.

Uses: Mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps; furniture.

29. BETIS. Like bansalaguin, but coarser grained; durability I.

Uses: Piling; keels; railroad tiles; paving blocks; house posts; rafters;
window sills.

30. BINGGAS. Brown with purplish streaks; hard; heavy; fine grained;
durability III.

Uses: Mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters;
floors; sheathing; doors; cabinetwork.

31. BI-NUKAO. Yellowish gray; hard; heavy; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters.

32. BITANITOL. (Palo Maria del Monte.) Pale to dark red; moderately hard to
hard; moderately heavy to heavy; straight grained and fairly tough;
durability III.

Uses: Masts and spars; mine timbers; posts above stumps; bridges and
wharfs; beams, joists, rafters; sheathing; hubs; shafts and wagon poles;
cabinetwork.

33. BOGO. Dark reddish brown with darker mottlings; moderately hard and
moderately heavy; durability unknown, but not often attacked by pinhole
beetles.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); sheathing; cabinetwork.

34. BOLONGETA. Sapwood reddish; heartwood like camagon; hard; heavy;

very fine grained; durability II.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; sheathing; window sills;
handles; carving; cabinetwork.

35. BOTONG. Pale reddish brown; moderately hard and moderately heavy;
durability unknown, but not often attacked by pinhole beetles.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); furniture.

36. BUNOG. Like binukao, but reddish.

Uses, etc.: Same as binukao.

37. BUSAIN. Practically same as bacauan.

Uses, etc.: Same as bacauan.

38. BUTONG-MANUK. Practically same as banawi.

39. CALAMANSANAY. (Malatumbaga in Zamboanga region.) Red fading to

dull yellow; hard; heavy; fine grained; durability II.

Uses: House posts; bridges and wharfs; beams, joists, rafters; floors;
sheathing; window sills; handles; cabinetwork.

40. CALANTAS. Pale to dark red; soft; light; distinct cedary odor; very easy to
work; durability II.
 Uses: Sheathing and ceiling; carving; cabinetwork; cigar boxes.

41. CURLY CALANTAS. Very similar to calantas, but coarser grained; without
odor and less durable.

Uses: Same as calantas (except cigar boxes).

42. CALUMPIT. Gray to brown with yellow tints; moderately hard; moderately
heavy; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps;
sheathing and ceiling; furniture.

43. CAMAGON. Sapwood whitish or pale red; heartwood black, with gray,
brown, or reddish mottlings; very hard; very heavy; very fine grain; difficult
to work; durability I.

Uses: Handles; carving: cabinetwork.

44. CAMANCHILE. Red; hard; heavy; difficult to work, durability at least III.

Uses: Tool handles, cabinetwork, etc.

45. CAMUNING. Yellow with small dark heart; very hard; very heavy; fine
grained; resembles boxwood; durability I.

Uses: Tool handles; turnery.

46. CATMON. Brick red to dark brown; hard; heavy; coarse grained; with
conspicuous "silver grain"; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters; sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

47. DALINAS. Large whitish sapwood; heartwood purplish brown; hard;

heavy; fairly tough; durability II.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters; sheathing and ceiling; doors; handles; cabinetwork.

48. DALINGDIINGAN. Yellow, turning brown on exposure; moderately hard

to hard; moderately heavy; smooth and straight grained; easy to work;
durability III.

Uses: Ships' planking, sides and decks; masts and spars; beams, joists,
rafters; floors; sheathing and ceiling; doors; carriage bodies; cabinetwork.

49. DALINSI. Practically same as calumpit.

50. DAO. Gray to brown with black streaks; moderately hard; moderately
heavy; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); beams, joists, rafters;
floors; sheathing and ceiling; door panels; cabinetwork.

51. DUGKATAN. Large, yellowish sapwood; small, dark, brown, heartwood;

hard; heavy; durability II.

Uses: Paving blocks and mine timbers (treated); posts; beams, joists,
rafters; sheathing and ceiling; doors; cabinetwork.
52. DUGUAN. Pale red with fine darker lines; soft; light; durability IV.

Uses: Temporary construction; boxes; cheap cigar boxes; paving blocks

(treated).

53. DUNGON and DUNGON-LATE. These woods are practically identical;

dungon has thinner sapwood; dungon is a highland and dungon-late a coast
tree; dark brown; very hard; very heavy; very tough; durability T.,

Uses: Piling; keels; ribs and knees; railroad ties; poles; paving blocks;
mine timbers; house posts; bridges and wharfs; sills; beams, joists, rafters;
handles; hubs; spokes; felloes; axles; wagon poles.

54. EBONY. Whitish sapwood; jet-black heart; hard; very heavy; brittle;
durability I.

Uses: Carving; cabinetwork.

55. GUIJO. Reddish gray to reddish brown; heavy; hard; rather tough; durability
III.

Uses: Railroad ties and paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters; floors; windows; doors; siding; sheathing; ceiling;
keels; ship planking; bridge and wharf construction; hubs; spokes; felloes;
axles; wagon poles; single trees; wagon beds; carriage floors and backs;
furniture.

56. GUISOC. Practically a yacal, except for the large and rather poor sapwood.

57. GUYONG-GUYONG. Practically equal to binukao.

58. IPIL. Yellowish, turning to dark brown; heavy; hard; very strong and stiff;
durability I.

Uses: Railroad ties; paving blocks; house posts; poles; sills; beams, joists,
rafters; floors; doors; siding; sheathing; keels; hubs; wagon poles;
cabinetwork and high-grade furniture; bridges and wharfs.

59. KALUNTI. (A lauan.) Whitish; light; soft; very easy to work; durability IV.

Uses: About the same as white lauan.

60. KAMATOG. Red; moderately heavy; moderately hard; in grain and color
resembling tindalo; durability III.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; sheathing
and ceiling; cabinetwork.

61. KARIG. Sapwood large, whitish, perishable; heartwood yellow, darkening

to brown; heavy; hard; dense; fine and straight grained; durability I.

Uses: Same as yacal.

62. KAYUTANA. Pale yellow; hard; heavy; fine and smooth grained; not
difficult to work; durability at least III.

Uses: Cabinetwork; tool handles, canes, etc.; posts (but rarely large
enough for construction purposes).
63. KUYUS-KUYUS. Yellow, streaked with green or dark brown; very hard;
heavy; durability II.

Uses: Tool handles; cabinetwork; canes.

64. LAMIO. Practically equal to dao, heartwood slightly lighter in color.

65. LAMOG. Dark reddish brown; hard; moderately heavy; fine grained;
durability III.

Uses: Railroad ties and paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters; sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

66. LANETE. Yellowish white; moderately heavy; soft to moderately hard; fine
grained; easy to work; not attacked by insects; durability III.

Uses: Carving and cabinetwork.

67. LANGARAI. Practically equal to bacauan.

68. LANUTAN. Pale to dark purple; moderately heavy; hard; fine grained and
tough; durability III.

Uses: Ax handles; carriage shafts; single trees; musical instruments and

cabinetwork.

69. LAUATN, RED. Red to reddish-brown; light; soft to moderately hard;

coarse and straight grained; durability IV.

Uses: Railroad ties and paving blocks (treated). All uses where cheapness
and easy working are more important than strength and durability.

70. LAUAN, WHITE. Grayish white; other qualities like red lauan.

Uses: Same as red lauan, except where red color is desired.

71. LIUSIN. Pale red; hard; heavy; resists teredo well; very difficult to work;
durability III.

Uses: Salt water piling; railroad ties; paving blocks (treated); posts above
stumps; beams, joists, rafters; keels; cabinetwork.

72. LUMBAYAO. Pale red to reddish brown; moderately heavy; moderately

hard; coarse and straight grained; durability ILL.1

73. Uses: Floors; doors; sheathing and ceiling; sidinig; cabinetwork; boats.

74. MACAASIM. Grayish brown, with yellow- or reddish tint; heavy; hard; fine
grained; durability IL.

Uses: Piles; poles; railroad ties; bridges and whiarfs; posts; sills; beams;
joists, rafters; floors; siding; window sills; boats; tool handles;
cabinetwork.

75. MADRE-CACAO. Yellowish brown; very heavy; very hard; dense and fine
grained; durability II.

Uses: Window sills (Laguna); tool handles.

76. MADBE-CACAO. Yellowish brown; very heavy; very hard; dense and fine
grained;

77. MALABAYABAS. Dark brown; very heavy; very hard; resembles

Mancono, but is not so hard and so heavy; durability IL.

Uses: Poles; ties; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills; beams, joists, rafters;
window sills; tool handles; cabinetwork.

78. MALACADIOS. (Cubl in Zamboanga region.) Glossy yellow; moderately

heavy; moderately hard to hard; fine grained; aromatic odor; easy to work;
durability I.

Uses: Poles; ties; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills; beams, joist, rafters;
floors; window sills; doors; siding; ship planking; carving.

79. MALACALUMPIT. Dirty yellowish white; moderately heavy; moderately

hard; durability IV.

Uses: Temporary construction; cheap furniture; paving blocks and railroad

ties (creosoted).

80. MALAMBINGAN. Streaked or mottled with red and greenish gray;

moderately heavy; moderately hard; probably only fairly durable; easy to
work.

Uses: Doors; sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

81. MALASAGING. Dark red; hard; heavy; durability II.

Uses: Poles; ties; posts; floors; doors; cabinetwork.

82. MALARUIIAT. (Common trade name for macaasim.)

83. MALASANTOL. Reddish, with violet tint; moderately hard; moderately

heavy; aromatic odor; resists insects well; easy to work; durability III.

Uses: Paving blocks (treated): posts above stumps.

84. MALATAPAI. Sapwood yellow, fairly durable; heartwood dark brown;

moderately hard; moderately heavy; fine grained; easy to work; durability II.

Uses: Carving; cabinetwork.

85. MALATUMIBAGA. In all respects like malasaging. (Not Calamansanay;

see latter.)

86. MALAYA. (A baticulin.)

87. MALUGAY. Red; moderately heavy; moderately hard; fine and straight
grained; tough; durability III.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; sheathing
and ceiling; ribs and planks for boats; masts and spars; tool handles;
cabinetwork.

88. MAMBOG. (See Bancal.)

89. MANCONO. Yellowish brown to dark brown; extremely heavy; extremely

hard; very dense and fine grained; extremely difficult to work; durability I.
 Uses: Piles; posts; sills; tool handles; bowling balls; pulleys; bearings.

90. MANGACHAPUY. Yellow, turning to brown; moderately heavy;

moderately hard; straight grained; easy to work; durability III.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; sheathing
and ceiling; masts and spars; carriage panels; cabinetwork; ship planking.

91. MANGASINORO. A white lauan; found in southern Luzon. MANICNIC.

(See Nato.)

92. MARANG. A pale yellow baticulin; known also as white baticulin;

somewhat inferior to the yellow baticulins.

93. MAYAPIS. A lauan of pale red color; in all respects similar to the other
lauans.

94. MIAO. Yellowish white; hard; heavy; said to be fairly durable.

Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors; sheathing and
ceiling; carving; cabinetwork.

95. MOLAVE. Yellow to yellowish brown; hard; heavy; brittle; easy to work;
durability I.

Uses: Piles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills; floors;
window sills; windows; doors; siding; keels; ribs and knees; rudders;
carving; cabinetwork.

96. MONTOL. (Trade name for pagatpat.)

97. NANGKA. Yellow, turning to brown; moderately heavy; moderately hard;

rather fine grained; easy to work; durability II.

Uses: Cabinetwork and musical instruments.

98. NARIG. In all respects the same as karig; more widely distributed.

99. NARRA. Pale yellow to dark red; moderately heavy; moderately hard; easy
to work; durability IT.

Uses: Floors; windows; doors; sheathing and ceiling; tool handles;

carriage panels; carving; cabinetwork.

100. NATO. Pale to dark red; light to moderately heavy; soft to moderately
hard; rather fine grained; not often attacked by insects; easy to work;
durability IV.

Uses: Ties and paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps; beams, joists,
rafters; doors; sheathing and ceiling; floors; cabinetwork.

101. OAK. Yellowish brown with dark streaks; hard; heavy; probably durable.

Uses: Railroad ties; paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps; beams,
joists, rafters; tool handles; cabinetwork.

102. PAGATPAT. Dark brown; heavy; hard; easy to work; shavings have salty
taste; wood rusts nails; durability II.
 Uses: Piles; poles; railroad ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts;
beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; siding; sheathing and ceiling; ship
planking; cabinetwork.

103. PAGSAHINGIN. Grayish or brownish white; moderately heavy;

moderately hard; fine and straight grained; subject to insect attacks; easy to
work; durability III.

Uses: Ties and paving blocks (treated); general temporary constructions;

furniture.

104. PAHUTAN. Large, grayish or brownish white sapwood, not durable;

heartwood dark brown; moderately heavy; moderately hard; durability III.

Uses: Ties and paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps; beams, joists,
rafters; door panels; sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

105. PALO IYARIA. Red to reddish brown; hard; heavy; fine and curly
grained; rather difficult to work; durability II.

Uses: Posts or stumps; doors; floors; sheathing and ceiling; masts; spars;
ribs and knees; deck planking; keels; hubs; shafts; cabinetwork.

106. PALO MARIA DEL MONTE. (Trade name for bitanhol.)

107. PALOSAPIS. Yellowish white, often with rose-colored streaks;

moderately heavy; moderately hard; durability III.

Uses: Ties and paving blocks (treated); posts above stumps; beams, joists,
rafters; floors; doors; sheathing and ceiling; wagon beds; furniture.

108. PIAGAO. Red; moderately heavy; moderately hard; fine and straight
grained; easy to work; durability 111I.

Uses: Poles; ties; posts; beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; siding;
sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

109. PILI. This wood belongs to the same genus as pagsahingin and is
practically identical with it.

110. POTOTAN. This wood belongs to the bacauan family; its qualities and
uses are practically the same as those of the bacauans.

111. PUSO-PUSO. A rather dark colored baticulin. (See Baticulin.)

112. SACAT. This wood belongs to the same genus as calumpit and dalinsi and
has practically the same distribution, qualities, and uses.

113. SALINKUGI. This wood belongs to the same genus as acleng-parang, and
has almost the same qualities.

Uses: About the same as acleng-parang.

114. SANTOL. This wood belongs to the same genus as malasantol and
resembles it in all respects except for being lighter in color; it has practically
the same distribution, qualities, and uses.

115. SASALIT. Yellow to yellowish brown; very hard; very heavy; less brittle,
straighter grained and more durable than molave.
 Uses: Piles; poles; ties; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills; beams, joists,
rafters; window sills; keels; ribs and knees; tool handles; cabinetwork.

116. SUDYANG. Grayish brown, with oily black streaks; very heavy; very
hard; durability said to be I.

Uses: Piles; poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills;
beams, joists rafters; window sills; tool handles; cabinetwork.

117. SUPA. Yellow, changing to brown; heavy; hard; fine grained; rather
difficult to work; durability III.

Uses: Floors; doors; sheathing and ceiling; tool handles; cabinetwork.

118. TABAO. Grayish to yellowish brown; heavy; hard; fine grained;

durability 1.

Uses: Piles; poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills;
beams, joists, rafters; floors; window sills; doors; siding; sheathing;
ceiling; keels; planking for decks and sides; tool handles; cabinetwork.

119. TABIGI. Belongs to the same genus as piagao and has the same
distribution, qualities, and uses.

120. TALISAY. This wood belongs to the same genus as calumpit; it is reddish
brown in color and has the same distribution, qualities, and uses as calumpit.

121. TALISAY-GUBAT. Darker brown than talisay; otherwise the above

description applies to it also.

122. TAMAYUAN. Sapwood large, grayish, perishable; heartwood dark

brown; heavy; hard; very fine grained; not difficult to work; durability II.

Uses: Poles; ties; posts; beams, joists, rafters; mine timbers; ax handles;
cabinetwork.

123. TAMBALAO. Practically equal to duguan, but somewhat darker in color.

124. TAMBULIAN. Yellow, turning brown; very heavy; very hard; flexible
and tough; not very difficult to work; durability I.

Uses: Piles; posts; poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; sills;
beams, joists, rafters; window sills; floors; windows; siding; keels; ribs
and knees; ax handles; spokes and felloes; shafts; single trees; wagon
poles; axles; cabinetwork.

125. TANGAL. This wood belongs to the bacauan family; it is heavier, harder,
and more durable than bacauan and has about the same uses.

126. TANGLIN. Dark reddish brown; hard; heavy; very similiar to seasoned
ipil in appearance, but not as strong and durable; durability II.

Uses: Posts; beams, joists, rafters; floors; siding; sheathing; ceiling; bull
carts; hubs; cabinetwork.

127. TANGUILE. Pale red to reddish brown; moderately heavy; moderately

hard; finer grained than red lauan; easy to work; durability III.
 Uses: Posts above stumps; beams, joists, rafters; floors; doors; siding;
sheathing and ceiling; carving; paneling; cabinetwork; boats.

128. TAPULAO. A pine. (See Benguet pine.)

129. TAWALIS. Grayish brown; heavy; hard; durability II.

Uses: Piles; poles; ties; posts; tool handles; cabinetwork.

130. TEAK. Not native to the Islands and very scarce; if required in quantity it
must be imported.

131. TIAONG. Very similar in all respects to tanguile and has the same uses.

132. TIGA. Dark reddish brown; very heavy; very hard; very similar to
malabayabas and fit for the same uses; durability probably I; at least II.

133. TINAAN-PANTAI. This wood belongs to the same genus as banawi; the
supply, properties, and uses are similar.

134. TINDALO. Orange to red, sometimes with blackish streaks; heavy; hard;
durability II.

Uses: Floors; window sills; doors; sheathing ceiling; stair rails and treads;
tool handles; cabinetwork.

135. TOOG. Dark reddish brown; moderately heavy; moderately hard;

durability III.

Uses: Ties and paving blocks (treated); mine timbers; posts above stumps;
beams, joists, rafters; sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

136. TUAI. Very similar in color and other properties to toog, but it has a
strong vinegar-like smell when fresh; said to be durable underground;
otherwise durability III.

Uses: About the same as toog.

137. TUCANG-CALAO. Red; heavy; hard; pungent aromatic odor; durability

at least II.

Uses: Poles; ties; bridges and wharfs; posts; beams, joists, rafters; floors;
sheathing and ceiling; cabinetwork.

138. URUNG. Yellow; heavy; hard; odor of green apples; durability I.

Uses: Piles; poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts; sills; ribs
and knees; planking for decks and sides; tool handles; cabinetwork.

139. WHITE NATO. Very similar in mechanical properties to nato, but white
in color and less durable; durability IV.

Uses: Used only locally for household articles, wooden shoes, etc.;
recommended for paving blocks (creosoted).

140. YACAL. Yellow, turning to brown; very heavy; very hard; tough;
durability I.
 Uses: Poles; ties; paving blocks; bridges and wharfs; posts; beams, joists,
rafters; window sills; windows; siding; keels; ax handles; spokes; felloes;
wagon poles; single trees; axles; cabinetwork.

141. YACAL BLANCO. Practically identical with karig.