Block 2 Beverages, Fibers, Timber, Medicinal and Oil Yielding Plants

UNIT 9
TIMBER PLANTS

Structure
9.1 Introduction 9.4 Different Uses of Wood
Objectives 9.5 Summary
9.2 General Account 9.6 Terminal Questions
9.3 Important Timber Yielding 9.7 Answers
Plants
Tectona grandis
Dalbergia sissoo
Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana
Cedrus deodara

9.1 INTRODUCTION
By now you have studied that we use plants for various purposes such as
foods, beverages and medicines. In addition, several plant products provide us
shelter and clothing.

From the time immemorial, food, clothing and shelter have been the three
great necessities of mankind. Wood is the most familiar and most important
forest products. The wood has contributed a lot to the advancement of
civilization. Today, the wood is the most widely used commodity other than
food and clothing. It is one of the most important and versatile of the raw
materials of the industry.

Wood is produced as a result of secondary growth in gymnosperms and

dicotyledonous plants. Woody tissues help in increasing weight of the plant.
Besides timber and fuel, woody tissues yield many useful products such as
gum, resin, turpentine, paper, rayon, cork, and rubber. Plant fibres also provide
the raw material for various products such as cloth, mats, bags, and ropes. In
this unit you will study about the timber plants and various uses.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

list the important wood yielding plants and describe their important
164 features;
Unit 9 Timber Plants

list the properties and characteristics of different woods and various
uses;

describe the processing of various woods for commercial use; and

explain the process of papermaking.

8.2 GENERAL ACCOUNT

Wood has been an important and indispensable forest product used by
mankind for ages. Primitive man used it for construction of shelters, implements
and utensils. Several indigenous tree species from the natural forests are being
used for various ways, as fuel, for construction, timber products, and as raw
material in the paper industry. It became an inexhaustible natural resource
because of overexploitation and decline in the forest area. Wood continues to
play an important role in our lives, hence need to be used with proper care.
Despite the availability of various metals and synthetic products, we have not
been able to find substitutes for wood till date. Judicious utilization and care is
needed to keep the forest plantations alive. You will now study about four such
sources of wood which are used at commercial scale in India.

Timber plants are usually medium to large trees which are cut to extract the
wood. It is also known as “lumber” in US and Canada. Timber trees are
broadly classified into trees of soft, semi-hard and hardwoods. Hardwood is
derived from angiospermous (mainly dicotyledonous) plants. They have a
superior quality that last for years. Hardwood plants provide the best quality
wood as they possess more resistance and are used for construction of high-
end furniture, floors, ceilings and even houses. Wood obtained from oak,
birch, beech, is called hardwood. Softwoods are obtained from gymnosperms
(mainly coniferous. Softwood is generally used in the manufacture of products
such as crates of vegetables, crafts and even paper.

Wood used in construction, furniture and paper pulp is timber and products
produced or derived from them are timber products. The products produced
from the stems are often called timber products. Products produced/derived
from woody parts of plants are termed as wood products. Timber has a high
strength to weight ratio.

8.3 IMPORTANT TIMBER YIELDING PLANTS

About 500 timber species are known whose trunk and branches provide wood.
Some of the important timber trees are Khair (Acacia catechu), Babla (Acacia
nilotica), Chatim (Alstonia scholaris), Itchri (Anogeissus acuminata), Kadam
(Anthocephalus chinensis), Shimul (Bombax ceiba), Kamdeb (Calophyllum
polyanthum), Batna (Castanopsis tribuloides), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo),
Garjan (Dipterocarpus alatus), Gamari (Gmelina arborea), Sundari (Heritiera
fomes), Telsur (Hopea odorata), Sidha (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Aam
(Mangifera indica), Tali (Palaquium polyanthum), Batna (Quercus spicata),
Bhobinut (Samanea saman), Sal (Shorea robusta), Dharmara (Sterospermum
personatum), Mahogony (Swietenia macrophylla and S. mahagony), Teak
(Tectona grandis), Toon (Toona ciliata). International trade code of flora and
fauna governs the timber species suitable for commercialization and export. 165
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You will now study about four such sources of wood which are used on a
commercial scale in our country.

9.3.1 Tectona grandis

Family: Verbenaceae

Common names: Teak, Rangoon or Burma teak, Moulmein teak, Singur,

Sangwan

n = 12, 18

Distribution: It is native to South-east Asia and Malaya and is one of the

most important commercial timber crops of the tropics. Myanmar and Thailand
have extensive teak forests. In India, teak forests are present in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

Characteristics: Teak is a large, deciduous tree with a probable age of over

200 years (Fig. 9.1a). Teak is a tropical, flowering tree growing up to 40 m in
height and 1 m in bole diameter. The flowers are fragrant, white, and small.
Leaves are large, ovate-elliptic, papery, often hairy on the lower surface (Fig.
9.1b). Fruits are globose. Teak is highly valued for its wood which is of
superior quality. Highly durable and water resistant, it is used for boat building,
exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, etc.

(a) (b)

Fig. 9.1: a) Photograph showing teak plantations; b) A twig of Tectona showing

flowering.

The sapwood is white and rather susceptible to attack by termites and wood
rotting fungi. The heartwood is golden yellow to golden brown when freshly
sawn, turning darker after exposure and is relatively immune to insect attack.
The wood is greasy to touch and smells like old leather. It is hard, and does
not warp, split, or crack and is thus valuable for general construction. It is
166 resistant to decay and termites even when unprotected by preservatives and is
Unit 9 Timber Plants

renowned for its stability. Teak wood is not very difficult to work with and it
takes very good polish. The grain is normally straight, and the texture is coarse
and uneven. The average weight is between 609-689 kg/m3 when dry. It shows
distinct growth rings. The wood is ring porous and is marked by the presence of
large vessels (Fig. 9.2). The vessels of early wood are distinctly larger than
those of the late wood. The pores seem to be arranged in concentric circles
when seen in a transverse section. Tyloses are quite common.

Fig. 9.2: a) A section of wood obtained from trunk of teak; b) Transverse section
of Tectona stem.

Uses: Teak ranks among the best timbers of the world. It is the chief source
forrailway carriage andwagon wood of India. It is superior to oak in ship
building. Its wood is used in construction of houses; building bridges; making
cabinets and boats; for carving; plywood manufacture; for flooring; making
toys, and in many other ways.

9.3.2 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb

Family: Fabaceae

Common names: Shisham, Rosewood

n = 10

Distribution: Dalbergia is a genus of tropical trees providing valuable dark

timber. D. latifolia (Indian rosewood) and D. sissoo (sissoo) are important Asian
species and are amongst the finest of India's cabinet and furniture woods.
Sissoo occurs throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts to Assam (Fg.9.3a). Indian
rosewood is found in central and southern India and also in sub-Himalayan
tracts. Other common Dalbergia species are D. nigra (Brazilian rosewood), D.
melanoxylon (African blackwood), D. retusa (cocobolo) and D. stevensonii
(Honduras rosewood). 167
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(a) (b)
Fig.9.3: a) Photograph of tree of Dalbergia sisso; b) Flowering twig of Dalbergia.
Characteristics: Dalbergia sissoo is a medium to large tree which grows up
to 10 to 15 m metres in height. It is a deciduous tree. Leaves are compound,
with about five alternate leaflets. Leafstalk (petiole) measures about 15 cm
long, each leaflet widest at the base with a fine pointed tip (Fig. 9.3b). The
trees have panicles of small, yellow or white papilionaceous flowers. Flowers
occur in dense clusters on short stalks. The dry fruit is a pale brown pod, flat,
thin and papery, about 7 cm. Seed are visible from within pod.

The sapwood is white to brownish, and the heartwood is golden brown to dark
brown. The pale, straw-colored sapwood is clearly demarcated from the
heartwood (Fig. 9.4).

Fig. 9.4: T.S. stem of Dalbergia showing Heartwood and Sapwood.

It is a durable, heavy wood with an average weight of 800-850 kg/m3. In Indian
rosewood the sapwood is yellowish, but the heartwood varies from dull brown
to almost purple. It is a durable wood, especially under water. It weighs around
800-960 kg/m3. Although not easy to work with, it carves well.

Uses: Dalbergia provides wood for high class furniture and cabinets. It is
valued as a construction and general-purpose timber and is used for railway
sleepers, musical instruments, hammer handles, shoe heels and tobacco
pipes. It is good for charcoal making and is used for decorative veneers as
168 well.
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9.3.3 Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana
Family: Pinaceae

Common names: Chir, Blue pine

n = 12

Distribution: In India, Pinus roxburghii (chir) and P. vallichiana (kail) are the
two most popular species of Pinus that yield timber. P. roxburghii occurs in the
outer hill ranges of Siwalik and the valleys of Himalayas. Pinus wallichiana
occurs at higher altitudes. Pines are common in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
and Kashmir, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Other commercial pine timbers come
from P. strobus (American yellow pine), P. monticola (Western white pine). P.
sylvestris (Scots pine), P. ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) and many more.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 9.5: a) Pine tree; b) branch of pine tree showing cone; c) Fruiting twig of
Pine. 169
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Characteristics: Pines are generally tall trees that bear characteristic
needle-like leaves, and distinct male and female cones (Fig. 9.5 a, b, c).
Pines have two types of branches, long shoots and short shoots, and three
types of leaves, primordial, scale, and adult. The triangular scale leaves
(lance-shaped), are borne on the long shoots of older trees. Both long and
short shoots develop in the axils of the deciduous scale leaves. The
needlelike photosynthetic adult leaves, with two or more resin canals, are
borne in fascicles (bundles) of two to five (rarely, up to eight or solitary) at the
tip of each short shoot.

Pine timber falls into two broad categories - the soft or white pines, and the
hard, yellow or pitch pines. The former have soft, light-colored wood-tinged
pink in the heartwood and nearly white in the sapwood. The latter have a
resinous, heavy, hard, strong, and durable wood, with a pronounced, grain
pattern. The wood is light, easy to work but not durable. The timber is straight
grained and has little resin (Fig 9.6).

Fig.9.6: Bark and wood of Pine.

Soft pines, such as white, sugar, and piñon pines, have relatively soft timber,
needles in bundles of five (less commonly, one to four), stalked cones with
scales lacking prickles, and little resin. Their wood is close-grained, with thin,
nearly white sapwood. The leaf sheaths of the leaf clusters are deciduous.
Hard pines, such as Scotch, Corsican, and loblolly pines, have relatively hard
timber, needles in bundles of two or three (rarely, five to eight), cone scales
with prickles, and large amounts of resin. Their wood is coarse-grained and
usually dark-coloured, with pale, often thick sapwood; the sheaths of the leaf
clusters are persistent.

Uses

Soft pines are used for making matches, crates, boxes and rough carpentry
work. Hard pine is used in construction of buildings, bridges and ships.

9.3.4 Cedrus deodara

Family: Pinaceae

Common name: Deodar, Himalayan cedar

170 n=12
Unit 9 Timber Plants
Cedrus has four species namely C. atlantica (atlas cedar), C. brevifola (Cyprian
cedar), C. libani (Cedar of Lebanon), C. deodara (Deodar Cedar Tree,
Himalayan Cedar). There are some false cedars also reported from other
areas. Even though false cedars aren’t officially in the genus Cedrus, knowing
the varieties commonly identified as cedar, especially in North America. These
include Alaskan Yellow Cedar (Cupressus nootkatensis), Bermuda Cedar
(Juniperus bermudiana), Eastern Red Cedar Tree (Juniperus virginiana),
Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), Northern White Cedar (Thuja
occidentalis), Port Orford Cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Siberian Pine
(Pinus sibirica), Spanish Cedar (Cedrela odorata), Western Red Cedar (Thuja
plicata).

Distribution: The tree is native to mountainous areas of the Mediterranean

region and one to the western Himalaya. Cedar is one of the most important
and strongest Indian softwood growing mainly in the northwestern Himalayas in
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Characteristics: It is a tall tree about 45-60m in height. The tree has horizontal
spreading branches giving it a characteristic skyscraper appearance. Trunks are
large with massive, irregular heads of spreading branches. Young trees are
covered with smooth, dark-gray bark that becomes brown, fissured, and scaly
with age. The Leaves are needlelike, three-sided, rigid and scattered along the
long shoots and clustered in dense tufts at the ends of short spurs. Female
cones are large, barrel-shaped, resinous, greenish or purplish and borne on
short stalks. They are covered by broad, thin, closely overlapping woody
scales, each with a claw like projection.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.7: a) Cedar tree; b) Twig of cedar with leaves and cones.

Cedarwood is light, soft, resinous, and durable. Its sapwood is white in colour
and the heartwood is light yellow, turning brown on exposure to air. The timber
is durable and resistant to insects. Wood is fine and uniform in texture. True
cedars are evergreen and have aromatic, often red or red-tinged wood that is
resistant to decay and insects. 171
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Uses

The wood is manly used in making railway coaches, beams, posts, doors,
window frame and construction of bridge. It is also used in making pencils,
chests, closet linings, carving, fence posts and packing. Distilled oil from the
wood is used in many toiletries.

SAQ 1
a) Match the items in Column I with those of Column II.

Column I Column II

i) Shisham 1. Verbenaceae

ii) Teak 2. Pinaceae

iii) Dalbergia melanoxylem 3. Pinus sylvestris

iv) Kail 4. Pinus wallichiana

v) Scots pine 5. African blackwood

vi) Pine 6. Fabaceae

vii) Cedrus deodara 7. Strongest Indian soft wood

b) Name the wood which is used for the following purposes:

i) Furniture making

ii) For making of musical instruments

iii) Construction of houses and bridges

iv) Making matches

v) For carpentry work

vi) Making beams, posts, door and window frames

9.4 DIFFERENT USES OF WOOD

Woods are being put to different uses and processed to make them suitable for
the requisite purpose. Different woods are used for different purposes. Some of
the common examples are discussed below.

Processing wood for use: Trees are felled by cutting across the trunk as close
to the ground as possible. The side branches are then removed, and the trunks
are cut into suitable lengths, known as saw logs. The powered saws are now
used instead of the hand saws in several parts of the world, hence the
processing of fresh logs is becoming increasingly mechanized. Wood is unique
among the various raw materials and no replacement has been found to it. Its
uses are numerous such as fuel, construction work, furniture, containers,
172 mechanically reduced products, chemically derived products and so on.
Unit 9 Timber Plants
Fuel
The wood is used as a fuel for heating and cooking from prehistoric times.
Recently this practice has been replaced to some extent by fossil fuels or
electricity. Still, wood is largely consumed for fuel rather than any other purpose.
Wood is an excellent fuel, since 90% of the oven dried wood is combustible.
Woods vary greatly in their fuel value and this depends mainly on their density,
chemical composition, and the amount of moisture. The hardwoods such as
beech, oak, maple, and birch best fuel woods serve as the best fuelwood. The
average calorific value of seasoned wood is around 4600 cal/kg.

1. Construction Materials
Poles - Employed chiefly for telephone, telegraph, and electrical
transmission lines. Durable wood, which is light, straight, and strong to resist
stresses, is used. Coniferous trees are the principal source of wood. Such
woods are also used in construction of shelters.

Pilings - Used for the construction of docks, bridges, and wharves. These are
straight, round timber, driven beneath water for construction work. Pines are
commonly used and so is oak, the latter mainly for dock and harbour work and
for marine pilings.

Posts - Used for the erection and maintenance of fence lines along farm
and ranch boundaries, railroads, and highways. Strength, lightness, and
durability are the main requirements. Any available local species can be
used.

Mine timbers - Include a variety of wooden supports such as props or legs,

crossbars or caps used in tile construction of mine tunnels to prevent debris
from falling or where the underground formations are likely to cave in. Mostly
those hardwoods that are durable and strong and resistant to decay and
corrosion are employed for the purpose.

Railroad ties or sleepers or cross ties - Used to support and hold railroad
rails. The wood used need to be durable, treatable and able to withstand the
impact and pressure of heavy and speedy traffic, hold spikes and screws and
be easily available and inexpensive. Oak is the most widely used wood for this
purpose. The wood is usually treated with preservatives and can last up to 30
years.

Veneers - These are thin sheets of wood of uniform thickness, produced by

peeling, slicing, or sawing logs. Veneers are made by one of the following
three methods - rotary cutting, slicing, or sawing. Of these, rotary cutting is the
most common method employed. Logs selected for this process are debarked
and softened by steaming or steeping in hot water. This facilitates cutting and
minimises the danger of splitting. They are then crosscut to desired lengths.
Many woods like Douglas fir, Ponderosa pine and Poplars are used. Fine
veneers are made from expensive woods like walnut, teak, and rosewood.

Plywood - It is a thin board made up of an odd number of three or-more very

thin sheets of veneers glued together under pressure, ranging in thickness from
3-25 mm. Successive veneers are positioned in such a way that the grain of
each is at right angles to the adjoining sheet (in a cross-banded way), making
the structure as strong and even stronger than the wood itself. The major
advantage of plywood over solid woods is dimensional stability and that it is 173
Block 2 Beverages, Fibers, Timber, Medicinal and Oil Yielding Plants
much less likely to warp or twist than ordinary wood. Plywood has the strength
distributed in both directions, and the nails and screws can be driven close to
the edge without any danger of splitting. Also, it can be molded, and it
comes in much larger sizes and can be used for making partitions, walls arid
roofs. Durable timbers such as oak and teak are used. Plywood is used for
inner cabinet work, roof and wall sheathing, flooring, automobile body parts,
boards, ceilings, counters, desks, drawers, and furniture. '

2. Containers
Cooperage - It's the art of making wood containers such as barrels, tubs,
tanks, and the construction of wooden pipelines for transporting city water
supplies. There are two principal divisions of the cooperage industry,
namely, slack (or dry) cooperage made for packaging, storing, and
transporting dry material, and tight (or wet) cooperage for holding liquids
such as beer, whisky, and wine syrups. Woods selected for slack
cooperage must be cheap, light, easy to work, elastic and free from
warping. Pine, beech, oak, and maple are commonly employed. For
making tight cooperage the inner walls are coated with an inert material
such as paraffin, silicate of soda or glue to prevent leakage and
contamination of liquids. Hardwoods, especially oak are commonly used
because of their strength and durability, impenetrable nature, and thermal
insulation properties. Woods used for the purpose are red gum, white ash,
yellow birch, and Douglas fir.

3. Chemical Products
Wood is mainly made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and varying
amounts of tannins, resins, gums, and latex. It serves as a basic raw
material for deriving several chemical products using various methods.
Some examples are given below:

Wood distillation - This is an ancient process. One of the chief sources of

wood for destructive distillation is the waste left by lumbering operations and
sawmills. The wood is heated in a cast iron or steel retort or oven in the
absence of air. Charcoal residue is left behind in the retort, and the escaping
vapors are conducted through water-cooled condensers. The condensate
(pyroligneous acid) is allowed to settle, and tar and oils are separated out from
the liquid above. Meanwhile the non-condensable gases are trapped and are
used to help heat the oven.

Based upon the kind of wood used, distillation can be classified into
hardwood and softwood distillation. Denser and heavier woods like sugar
maple, birch, oak, and beech are employed in hardwood distillation and
the products are:

i) charcoal - the solid residue,

ii) pyroligneous acid - a yellowish green, ill smelling liquor or condensate

consisting of water, acetic acid, methanol, and dissolved tar,

iii) wood tar - the water insoluble fraction that settles at the bottom
of the aqueous pyroligneous acid, and

iv) the non-condensable wood gas, used as fuel or for illumination

174 purposes.
Unit 9 Timber Plants
On the other hand, softwood distillation utilises resinous pinewoods, chiefly of
long leaf and slash pines. The principal distillation products are charcoal,
wood turpentine, pine oil, dipentine, pine tar, tar oils, wood gas and a small
amount of wood alcohol (methanol) and acetic acid.

Tapping for naval stores industry - The term 'Naval Stores' was initially
used to designate the pitch obtained by tapping pine trees. Pitch and its
derivatives were used extensively by the European maritime industry in
the late sixteenth century for caulking the planks of wooden sailing ships
and for water proofing riggings and hawsers. The species used now-a-
days are the long leaf and slash pines in the USA, maritime pine (Pinus
pinaster) in Europe, and Pinus roxburghii in India. Besides pines, Douglas
fir, spruces and larches are the other conifers tapped for the purpose.
Three different types of products are obtained by this industry: (i) gum
turpentine and gum rosin, derived from the gum (oleoresin) bled from
living trees; (ii) wood turpentine and wood rosin, obtained by the action of
steam and suitable solvents on macerated or chipped stumps and roots
left behind after lumbering; and (iii) sulphate turpentine and sulphate rosin,
important byproducts of pulp mills employing the sulphate process for
pulping resinous woods.

Crude turpentine is collected by tapping when the trees have attained a girth
of 23 cm or more. The bark near the base of the tree is shaved off and a
shallow slanting cut is made a few centimeters above the ground level. A V-
shaped metal trough is fixed to direct the flow of crude turpentine into a
collecting vessel. A shallow wound is then made in the bark above the gutter,
from which the exudates drips. Chipping on all sides takes 10-20 years; the
tree is then abandoned as these wounds never heal because the cambium is
removed in the process. The crude turpentine contains about 20% spirit of
turpentine, 65% rosin, 5 to 10% water, some plant tissues and dust. It is
distilled in steam distillation plants to isolate its useful components. The
distillate consists of water and spirits of turpentine while the hot molten
amber to dark-red residue that remains behind is the rosin of commerce.

Spirit of turpentine is used as a thinning material in the paint and varnish

industry, as a solvent for rubber and gutta-percha, and for the manufacture of
printing cloth, waters proofing compounds, leather dressings, synthetic
camphor, many pharmaceuticals such as liniments and many other chemicals.
Rosin is used for preparing paints and varnishes, polishes, waxes, soaps, oil
cloth, ‘linoleum’, sealing wax, printing ink, roofing and floor covering
adhesives, plastics, rubber, wood preservatives, disinfectants, drugs, and
chemicals. Rosin is also used in the paper industry for sizing, i.e., for
imparting luster and weight, and hindering absorption of ink or moisture.
Rosin oil is used in the manufacture of greases, lubricants, and solvents.

4. Cellulose Derived Products

Cellulose is a carbohydrate [(C6H10O5),] and is an important component of

cell walls. Cotton was originally used as a source of cellulose, but now
wood pulp is generally employed. It is used in the manufacture of such
products as paper and rayon. 175
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Manufacture of wood pulp - Woods are converted into a fibrous mass (wood
pulp) by any of the following three processes - (i) mechanical (most
economical and highest yielding), (ii) chemical, and (iii) semi-chemical.

i) Mechanical pulping (or ground wood process) - Only the light-colored and
long-fibred coniferous woods especially spruce are used. In India, salai-
wood (Boswellia serrata) is most widely used for the process. The
debarked wood is ground against a rapidly revolving grindstone. The pulp
obtained is washed and processed further (Fig. 9.8). The process is high
yielding (about 95% of the dry weight of wood). However, lignin and other
non-cellulose products do not get removed and the pulp and its products
deteriorate in strength and turn yellow with age. But the paper has good
opacity, bulk, and printing quality. Such pulp is largely used for
newsprint, wrapping and wall papers.

Fig. 9.8: Mechanical processing of wood to make paper.

ii) Chemical pulping- Softwoods with little or no resin (spruce, fir, hemlock)
and some hardwoods are used in this process. The wood chips are
cooked in various chemical solutions at high temperatures to dissolve
lignin, hemicellulose, and other non-cellulose components of cell walls,
leaving behind nearly pure cellulose fibers in the form of a pulp. Although
it is a low-yielding process (45-60%), it gives a high-grade paper, and
most of the wood pulp currently used is prepared by chemical methods.
The bark of the wood is removed, and the logs arc reduced to small chips
(12-25 mm long and 3-4mm thick). Pulping is carried out in large steel
digesters by the sulphite, sulphate, or the soda process. Steam is blown
in until the desired pressure and temperature are obtained. At the end of
the cooking process, the entire steam is blown out through a valve at the
bottom of the digester. The sudden release of pressure blows the chips
apart and the fibers are separated. The sulphite pulp is used in the
manufacture of printing, bond, tissue and wrapping papers, in rayon and
newsprint. Soda pulp (mixed with sulphite pulp) is used in the
manufacture of printing paper for books, and better grade magazines.
Sulphate pulp is used for making a strong brown kraft wrapping paper
176 (used in craft work and as cover paper), paper bags and paper board.
Unit 9 Timber Plants
(iii) Semi-chemical pulping - Hardwoods are generally used in this process.
Wood chips are at first softened by mild chemical action and thereafter
defibration is accomplished by mechanical action. This method yields 65-
85% pulp of the dry weight of wood. The higher yield in comparison to
chemical pulping is because of the retention of about 50% of the lignin
and 30-40% of the hemi-cellulose. Neutral sodium sulphite is the
chemical widely used in cooking. Wood is still in the form of solid soft
chips after cooking and is defibered mechanically. These pulps are well
suited for making corrugated board, roofing felt, insulating board, and
low-grade wrappings. Good quality newsprint is manufactured from a
mixture of semi-chemical pulp from softwoods and mechanical pulp from
hardwoods.

5. Paper Making

Cotton and linen rags were the principal sources till the last century and are still
used for the manufacture of the finest grade paper. Presently, wood fibers are
the most important raw materials used. About 97% of the world's paper and
paperboard is made from wood pulp, of which nearly 85% is derived from
coniferous woods like spruces (Picea spp.), firs (Abies spp.) and pines (Pinus
spp.). The hardwoods used in paper making are poplar (Populus spp.), birch
(Betula spp.), beech (Fagus spp.) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp). Other
paper making materials include textile fibers such as jute, hemp, Manila and
sisal hemp, crop wastes and rejects from textile factories or cotton linter
recovered during the processing of cotton seed. In India, the main fibrous raw
materials are bamboos (especially Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus
strictus), sabai-grass (Eulaliopsis binata), bagasse and salai-wood (Boswellia
serrata). Rags, hemp ropes, jute wastes, and wastepaper are also converted
into pulp.

The pulp is then washed, screened, bleached, and lapped. Screening holds
back knots, uncooked chips and other foreign matter and separates the pulp
into different grades by regulating the size of perforations in the screen. The
remaining non-cellulose fraction is removed by bleaching with chlorine and its
compounds. It whitens the pulp and helps in the removal of residual lignin.
The pulp may need to be bleached several times. Washing with water follows
bleaching.

Pulp obtained from chemical and semi-chemical processes is subjected to a

treatment called beating (Fig. 9.9). Besides separating the fibers from one
another, it shortens and bruises them. Consequently, they cling firmly forming
a uniform sheet on the paper-making machine later. The degree of beating
influences the texture of the paper obtained. A variety of materials are added
to the pulp stock in the beater to improve the quality of the paper. Mineral
fillers give weight and opacity to the paper by filling the interstices. China clay,
talc, calcium sulphate, zinc sulfide, titanium oxide and calcium carbonate are
some important fillers. Sizings such as rosin, soap, wax, and starch make the
surface smooth and impervious to ink. Currently, emulsions like polyvinyl
acetate, polyesters, vinyl chloride and acrylic resins are also being used for
sizing. 177
Block 2 Beverages, Fibers, Timber, Medicinal and Oil Yielding Plants
After the pulp has been mixed thoroughly with all the ingredients, it is sent to
the paper-making machine. External sizings can be applied to dry sheets of
paper. This paper is then calendared by passing it between pairs of highly
polished rollers to impart a smooth finish.

178 Fig. 9.9: Diagram showing chemical process of paper making.

Unit 9 Timber Plants

SAQ 2
a) State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’
i) The advantage of using plywood is that the tensile strength is
equal in all directions.
ii) The most valuable timber is obtained from Sal.
iii) Plywood is made from common timber.

iv) Timber from Himalayan Cedar is rarely attacked by white ants or

fungi.
v) Seasoning of timber is done to increase its moisture content.
vi) The heart wood represents the central core which is surrounded by
annual rings.
vii) Charcoal, pyroligneous acid and wood tar are the
principal products of hardwood distillation.
b) Match the items In Column I with those given in Column II
Column I Column II

i) Veneers 1. hardwoods that are strong,

resistant to decay and corrosion
ii) Poles 2. light, yet strong and durable
iii) Mine timbers 3. minimal splitting
iv) Fence posts 4. durable, able to take heavy
pressure, able to hold spikes and
screws
v) Railway sleepers 5. light, elastic and free from warping
vi) Slack Cooperage 6. light, straight, strong to bear stress
and durable
c) Answer the following in short:
i) Average calorific value of seasoned wood.
ii) Products of hardwood distillation.
iii) Three processes involving in preparation of wood pulp.
iv) Examples of hardwood used in making papers

9.5 SUMMARY
• Timber plants are usually medium to large trees which provide wood.
These are trees are broadly classified into trees of soft, semi-hard and
hardwoods. Hardwood is derived from angiospermous (mainly
dicotyledonous) plants, while Softwoods are obtained from
gymnosperms (mainly coniferous). 179
Block 2 Beverages, Fibers, Timber, Medicinal and Oil Yielding Plants
• Teak, shisham, pine and cedars are the major timber yielding trees from
the forests of India. These are important commercial timber crops.
Distribution, wood characteristics and specific uses of these species has
been discussed.

• Wood procured from diverse sources is used for various purposes such
as fuel, construction material, containers, chemical products, medicines.

• Wood is processed to get pulp which is used in the manufacture of

paper. Mechanical and chemical processing of the pulp is done to get
paper.

9.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a brief account of two commercially important timber yielding
plants of our country. State its distribution, morphological characteristics
and uses.

2. Write short notes on the following:

i) Wood distillation

ii) Taping for Naval stores

iii) Making of wood pulp

3. Give a brief account of various steps involved in making of paper.

9.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) i) Strongest Indian soft wood

ii) Verbenaceae

iii) African blackwood

iv) Pinus wallichiana

v) Pinus sylvestris

vi) Pinaceae

vii) Fabaceae

b) Refer to Section 9.3.

2. a) i) True; ii) False; iii) True; iv) True; v) False;

vi) True; vii) False

b) i) minimal splitting

ii) light, straight, strong to bear stress and durable

iii) hardwoods that are strong, resistant to decay and corrosion

180
Unit 9 Timber Plants
iv) light, yet strong and durable

v) durable, able to take heavy pressure, able to hold spikes and

screws

vi) light, elastic and free from warping

b) i) About 4600 cal/kg

ii) Charcoal, pyroligneous acid, wood tar and wood gases

iii) mechanical (most economical and highest

yielding),chemical, and semi-chemical

iv) poplar (Populus spp.), birch (Betula spp.), beech (Fagus spp.)
and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp)

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 9.3.

2. Refer to Section 9.4.

3. Refer to Section 9.4.

Suggested reading
Michael H. Ramage, Henry Burridge, George Fereday, Thomas Reynolds,
Darshil U.Shah, Guanglu Wu, Li Yu, Patrick Fleming, Danielle Densley-
Tingley, Julian Allwood, Paul Dupree, P.F. Linden, Oren Scherman The wood
from the trees: The use of timber in construction. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews Volume 68, Part 1, February 2017, Pages 333-359.

Acknowledgments
Fig.9.1 : Source:
https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2F
previews.123rf.com%2Fimages%2Fyotrak%2Fyotrak1207
%2Fyotrak120700225%2F14653832-teak-trees-in-an-
agricultural-forest-thailand.jpg

Fig. 9.2 : Source: https://plantlet.org/wp-

content/uploads/2020/10/IMG_20201024_182510.jpg

Fig.9.3 : https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2F
www.quintadosouriques.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%
2F2021%2F05%2Fdalbergia-sissoo-1540375.jpg

Fig. 9.4: : Source:

https://vinishsethi.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/wood_cross
_section_001.jpg

Fig. 9.5 : a) https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F

%2Fs3.envato.com%2Ffiles%2F209044720%2Fcgaxis
_models_69_03a.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2F3do
cean.net%2Fitem%2Fscots-pine-tree-pinus-sylvestris-
94m%2F18308889&tbnid
181
Block 2 Beverages, Fibers, Timber, Medicinal and Oil Yielding Plants
b) https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fus.123rf.com%2F450wm%2Falfredosaz%2Falfred
osaz2010%2Falfredosaz201000157%2F157071537-
stone-pine-branch-with

Fig 9.6 : https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fw

ww.pinetum.org%2FLovett%2Fewhitelobbarkwood.jpg&imgr
efurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinetum.org%2FLovett%2Fbar
kandwood.htm&tbnid=d5uKTBH5lhl7NM&vet=12ahUKEwj4s
pirzKH0AhUNS30KHViBB14QMygvegUIARDAAg..i& doci

Fig 9.7 : a) https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%

2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcom
mons%2Fthumb%2F9%2F96%2FMoroccan_Atlantic
_cedar.jpg%2F170px-Moroccan_Atlantic_cedar.jpg

b) https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%
2F%2Fwww.eekwi.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles
%2Fwhitecedarcloseup.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.eekwi.org%2Fplants%2Fnorthern-white-
cedar&tbnid=OMOfvbiJI7c9QM&vet=

182
Volume 1 Economic Botany and Plant Biotechnology

GLOSSARY
Antihelminthic : Medicine used to destroy parasitic worms.

Axillary : Situated in or growing from an angle between a

branch or leaf and the axis from which it arises.

Archaeological : study of remains (such as tools, pottery, jewelry, stone

walls, and monuments) of past human life and
activities.

Bacteriostatic : Compound or drug that inhibits growth and reproduction

of bacteria.

Carminative : A drug that helps in preventing formation of gas in

stomach or intestine.

Coagulant : A substance that causes blood or another liquid to get

thickened

Decorticating : The process of removing the outer coverings (such as

husk) from something seed.

Dorsal : Something present on the on or toward the upper side

of the body.

Endemic : Growing or existing in a certain place or region.

Ethnological : Study of different societies and cultures.

Expectorant : A medicine used to treat cough or promotes the

expulsion of mucus from the respiratory tract.

Fungiostatic : An agent that inhibit the growth of fungi.

Glabrous : Smooth surface.

Heterozygosity : Presence of two different alleles of a particular gene or

genes by an individual.

Hybridization : The process breeding with an individual of another

species or variety.

Impervious : Anything which is not influenced or affected by

something.

Inventory : A detailed list of something.

Parched : Extremely or completely dried.

Perforation : Presence of holes in something.

Peristalsis : Contraction and relaxation of a tubular muscular

system, especially the alimentary canal.

Phenotype : Observable physical characteristics of an individual.

Plaigiotropic : Plant part or organ that tends to take up an oblique or

horizontal position with relation to the main axis. 183
Volume 1 Economic Botany and Plant Biotechnology
Progenitor : Parent or direct ancestor of an organism.

Prostrate : Lying face down or bending downward.

Pungent : Something with a strong smell or taste.

Rudimentary : Not developed.

Sessile : Directly attached by its base without a stalk or

peduncle.

Stimulant : An agent or drug that increases the functional activity or

efficiency of an organism.

Stomachic : An agent or drug that stimulate gastric activity.

Ubiquitous : Something that is found everywhere or in several

places at the same time.

Ventral : Something present on the upper or toward the front part

of the body.

184