TIMBER PLANTS: GENERAL ACCOUNT AND BOTANY OF THE TREE, WOOD

STRUCTURE AND QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS, AND TIMBER PROCESSING WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO, SAAL (SHOREA ROBUSTA) AND TEAK

Teak (Tectona grandis) is a tropical hardwood tree species in the family

Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests.
Tectona grandis has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters
(panicles) at the end of the branches. These flowers contain both types of
reproductive organs (perfect flowers). The large, papery leaves of teak trees are
often hairy on the lower surface. Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is
freshly milled and is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance. The
wood is used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving,
turnings, and other small wood projects.

Tectona grandis is native to south and Southeast Asia, mainly Bangladesh, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and Sri Lanka, but is naturalised and
cultivated in many countries in Africa and the Caribbean. Myanmar's teak forests
account for nearly half of the world's naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies
show that there are two centres of genetic origin of teak: one in India and the
other in Myanmar and Laos.

BOTANY:

Teak is a large deciduous tree up to 40 m (131 ft) tall with grey to greyish-brown
branches, known for its high quality wood. Its leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate,
15–45 cm (5.9–17.7 in) long by 8–23 cm (3.1–9.1 in) wide, and are held on robust
petioles which are 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long. Leaf margins are entire.

Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm (10–16 in) long by 30 cm (12 in)
wide panicles from June to August. The corolla tube is 2.5–3 mm long with 2 mm
wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December; fruits
are globose and 1.2-1.8 cm in diameter. Flowers are weakly protandrous in that
the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours
of the flower opening. The flowers are primarily entomophilous (insect
pollinated), but can occasionally be anemophilous (wind pollinated). A 1996 study
found that in its native range in Thailand, the major pollinator were species in the
bee genus Ceratina.

Distribution and habitat

Tectona grandis is one of three species in the genus Tectona. The other two
species, T. hamiltoniana and T. philippinensis, are endemics with relatively small
native distributions in Myanmar and the Philippines, respectively.Tectona grandis
is native to India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Myanmar, northern Thailand, and
northwestern Laos. Tectona grandis is found in a variety of habitats and climatic
conditions from arid areas with only 500 mm of rain per year to very moist forests
with up to 5,000 mm of rain per year. Typically, though, the annual rainfall in
areas where teak grows averages 1,250-1,650 mm with a 3-5 month dry season.
GROWTH OF TIMBER TREE AND ITS STRUCTURE

GROWTH:

In spring season roots of the tree suck a solution of salts from the soil-salts that
are food for the tree and transmit the same through the trunk of tree to its
branches and leaves. This solution of salts looses some of the moisture because of
evaporation and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. This action in the presence
of sun makes the solution a bit viscous. This transformed viscous solution is
known as sap.

In autumn viscous sap descends below the bark and leaves a thick layer. Layer of
sap left below the bark gets transformed to wood and is known as cambium layer.
It goes on gaining strength with the passage of time. A fresh layer is thus added
on the outside of the tree every year forming a new annual ring. The new ring
represents a year’s growth of tree.

Medullary rays carry the sap from below the bark to the interior thereby
nourishing the tree.

STRUCTURE:

On examining the cross section of the trunk of an exogenous tree, we see the
different parts as shown in Figure. A brief description of each part is discussed
separately.

STRUCTURE:
The structure of tree can be divided into 2 categories as follows:

1) Macrostructure
2) Microstructure

MICROSTRUCTURE:

Microstructure of a tree can only be visible with great magnifications. It

contains cells of different shapes and sizes. These cells are responsible for many
actions like nutrient transport to branches from stem, strength of tree etc,.

MACROSTRUCTURE:

The structure of a tree which is visible to the naked eye is called Macrostructure
of tree. Macrostructure of tree contains following components:

1) Pith or Medulla
2) Heartwood
3) Sap wood
4) Cambium layer
5) Inner bark
6) Outer bark
7) Medullary rays

PITH OR MEDULLA:

The core part or innermost part of the tree is called as pith. It contains cellulose
tissues which are helpful for the growth of plant during its young age.

It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree. It consists entirely of cellular
tissues. The pith, which when the plant is young, contains a large amount of fluid
and nourishes the plant. It dies up and decays when the plant becomes old. Sap is
then transmitted by the woody fibres that deposit about the pith. Pith of
branches is a mere prolongation of the pith of stem.

ANNUAL RINGS:
The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are known
as annual rings because one such ring is added every year.

HEART WOOD:

Heartwood is the portion around the pith which is dark in color and contains
some annual rings in it. It is very hard and provides rigidity to the tree. Heart
wood is used for several engineering purposes because of its strength and
durability.

Innermost rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. This wood is
darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.

SAP WOOD:

Sap wood contains outer annual rings. This indicates the recent growth of tree
and is light in color. It contains sap which helps in the growth of trees.

Outer annual rings of the tree constitute the sap wood which transmits the sap
from roots to branches. Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in colour,
weaker and more liable to decay.

CAMBIUM LAYER:

Cambium layer contains sap which will turn into sap wood after sometime. It
should not expose to atmosphere otherwise the tree may dead.

Outermost one ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet converted
into wood is known as the cambium layer. In due course, cambium layer changes
to sapwood. If the cambium layer is exposed by removing the bark, the cells cease
to be active and results in death of tree.

INNER BARK:

The protecting layer of cambium layer is known as Inner bark.

OUTER BARK:
The outermost layer of the tree section is called as Outer bark or cortex. It
contains cells of wood fibres.

It is outermost protective covering of cells and woody fibres on a tree. In course

of time older layer split and scale off.

MEDULLARY RAYS:

The rays extending from pith to cambium layer are known as Medullary rays.
These rays hold the annual rings of the sap wood and heart wood together.

These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark. They
carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They keep the
annual rings tightly gripped together. In some trees they might be found broken
or may not even be clearly visible.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER:

A timber is said to be good based on the following characteristics:

 Durability
 Strength
 Permeability
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Elasticity
 Workability
 Weight
 Structure
 Defects
 Fire resistance
 Mechanical wear
 Appearance
 Colour
  Shape
 Smell
 Sound

DURABILITY:

Durability is the first priority for any kind of engineering material. A good timber
should be durable enough to resist the actions of chemical agents, biological
agents, and physical agencies. However, wood is weak against the actions of
strong acids and alkalis but it can withstand weak acids and alkali solution.

STRENGTH:

Strength is the resistance against failure. A good timber should not fail easily and
it should be strong enough to take loads acting on it. The strength of timber varies
depending on the direction (transverse or direct) it is loaded. Strength is
considered as an important property while designing structural wood members
such as wooden beams, joists, rafters etc.

PERMEABILITY:

The permeability of timber should be less. A good timber should not be absorb
more than 8% to 12% of water by its weight when placed in water. The water
permeability of timber depends upon various factors such as moisture content of
timber, age of timber, type of timber, type of cut etc.

HARDNESS:

Hardness is the resistance against penetration. Good timber should be hard and
workable. The hardness of timber depends upon its density and heartwood
properties. Stronger is the heartwood higher is the hardness of timber.

TOUGHNESS:

Toughness is the resistance against sudden shocks and vibrations. A good timber
should be tough enough to resist sudden impact loads and vibrations. The
toughness of timber is improved by the good interlocking of grains in its structure.
A good tough timber is used to make handles of different tools, parts of
automobiles, etc.,

ELASTICITY:

A good timber should be elastic. Elasticity is the property of regaining its original
shape after deformation causing loads are removed. A good elastic timber is used
to make sports item, shafts, bows etc.

WORKABILITY:

Workability of timber is the ease with which it can cut into required shape. A good
timber is easily workable. It should not damage or block the teeth of the saw
during cutting.

WEIGHT:

The timber should be heavy as much as it looks. A timber is said to be good if it

weighs heavy. Lightweight timbers are less in strength and unsound.

STRUCTURE:

A timber with uniform structure is said to be a good timber. The fibres of the
timber should be straight and firm. The annual rings of timber should be closely
located indicating the fact that the tree is mature enough to use it for making
timber products. The medullary rays should be hard and compact. In general, an
age of 50 to 100 years is considered a good age for felling for trees.

DEFECTS:

A timber is said to be good when it is free from defects caused by natural forces
such as burls, knots, shakes, etc. and also it should be free from various fungal
defects such as blue stain, dry rot, wet rot etc.

FIRE RESISTANCE:

Fire-resistance of timber is very low. Of all the timber types, dense wood offers
the most resistance against fire but up to certain limit only. The thermal
conductivity of timber depends upon various factors such as moisture content,
density, porosity etc.

MECHANICAL WEAR:

Wooden floors, pavements, etc. made of timber are continuously subjected to

traffic loads. Hence, good timber should not deteriorate easily against mechanical
wear or abrasion.

APPEARANCE:

The appearance of a good timber should be shiny when it is freshly sawed. This
shiny appearance is due to resinous matter present in the timber. The appearance
of timber depends upon the arrangement of cells in its structure. If they are
arranged in a uniform manner, the uniform appearance will be obtained after
cutting. Fungal defects such as blue stain, sap stain etc. damage the appearance
of timber.

COLOR:

The strength of timber can be estimated by looking at its color. Light color
designates low strength timber while dark color indicates high strength timber.
Hence, dark-colored timber is preferable for engineering works.

SHAPE:

The shape of the timber should not be disturbed while cutting and seasoning. A
bad timber may bow or warp during conversion.

SMELL:

The smell of a good timber is sweet. Bad or unpleasant smell indicates decayed
timber.

SOUND:

The velocity of sound in timber is approximately 12 times more than that in air.
Hence, a good timber should produce clear ringing sound when struck. A dull
heavy sound indicates decayed wood.
PROCESSING OF A TIMBER:

Step 1. Felling of Trees:

To get timber, the trees are knocked down or cut down or caused to fall to the
ground. This is known as the felling of trees. The important facts to be
remembered in connection with felling of trees are as follows:

(i) Age of Trees for Felling:

The trees should be felled when they have just matured or when they
are very near to maturity. If they are felled before they have attained
maturity, the sap wood would be in excess and timber obtained from
such trees would not be durable and it will be in less quantity. On the
other hand, it is also not desirable to fell trees after they have fully
matured as heart wood starts decaying after maturity. The age of good
trees for felling varies from 50 to 100 years.

(ii) Method of Felling:

The trees should be felled by experienced persons. The tree should be

cut from a place a little above its roots and very near to the ground
level. Such a practice would help in getting more timber from the trunk
of tree.

The process of felling of timber is as follows:

a) A cut is made at the lowest possible point of the trunk and it is
extended beyond the centre of gravity of cross- section of tree as
shown on cut on left hand side of figure. This cut should be made on
the side opposite to that on which it is desired to fell the tree.

(ii) Another parallel cut is made above the first cut in the opposite direction as
shown in figure.
(iii)The top of tree is then tied with ropes on all the four diametrically opposite
sides.

iv) The rope on the side the tree is to be felled is pulled and at the same time, the
rope on the opposite side is slowly loosened.

(v) By suitable swinging the tree, the trunk of tree will break at the level of cuts
and then it is slowly allowed to fall gently on the ground. The labourers cutting
the tree should shift away when the tree falls to avoid any accident.

(vi) The branches are chopped off and the log is cut to the required sizes. Its bark
is removed and the log is sawn as early as possible. The timber should be
protected from rapid drying and possible attack from insects.

The various appliances required in the process of felling of trees include axes,
ropes, saws, wedges, wire cables, etc. A wedge is used to relieve the blade of the
saw and at the same time, it is made use of to ascertain the reaction of the tree
when it is struck.

The number and size of wedges will be decided by the lean or inclination of tree,
distribution of weight and thickness of tree. The wedges should be driven
gradually to cause the smooth felling of tree.

(iii) Season for Felling:

The trees should be felled when sap is at rest. The season for felling of trees
should be carefully determined by keeping in mind the climatic conditions of the
locality and types of trees. In autumn and spring, the sap is in vigorous motion
and hence the felling of trees in these seasons should be avoided.
For hilly areas, the mid-summer would be the proper season for felling as there is
heavy rainfall in winter. For plain areas, the mid-winter would be the proper
season for felling as in summer, the water contained in sap would be easily
evaporated and it will lead to the formation of cracks.

Step # 2. Seasoning of Timber:

Meaning of Seasoning:

When a tree is newly felled, it contains about 50 per cent or more of its own dry
weight as water. This water is in the form of sap and moisture. The water is to be
removed before the timber can be used for any engineering purpose. In other
words, the timber is to be dried.

This process of drying of timber is known as the seasoning of timber and the
moisture should be extracted during seasoning under controlled conditions as
nearly as possible at a uniform rate from all parts of the timber.

It should also be seen during seasoning that the remaining moisture, which
cannot be extracted, is uniformly distributed throughout the mass. If the drying is
irregular, the shrinkage of timber will also be irregular and it will set up internal
stresses between the fibres. When these stresses become excessive and are
capable of overcoming the cohesion of fibres, the timber warps and the shakes
are formed.

The wood is a hygroscopic material. The capacity of wood to absorb water

vapours from air is called the hygroscopicity of wood. The dry wood absorbs the
moisture from the surrounding air. Now, the air humidity is not constant and
hence the wood moisture content also varies accordingly.

The fluctuations in wood moisture content from zero to the fibre saturation point
cause corresponding volume changes in wood leading to cracking, warping,
swelling and shrinkage of wood.

The wood attains a level of equilibrium moisture content under the given climatic
conditions of temperature and relative humidity. By the process of seasoning, the
excess water of timber is extracted in such a way that the moisture content of
seasoned timber corresponds to the required moisture content in timber for the
environments in which it is to be used.

The relationship between the climatic conditions and moisture content in timber
has been established from tests on various types of timber. It is to be noted that
the seasoned timber should be protected from exposure to the rain and
excessively high humidity.

The process of seasoning is as follows:

(i) The timber is arranged inside the chamber such that spaces are left for free
circulation of air.

(ii) The air which is fully saturated with moisture and which is heated to a
temperature of about 35°C to 38°C is then forced inside the chamber by suitable
arrangement.
(iii) This forced air is allowed to circulate round the timber pieces. As air is fully
saturated with moisture, the evaporation from the surfaces of timber pieces is
prevented. The heat gradually reaches inside the timber pieces.

(iv) The relative humidity is now gradually reduced.

(v) The temperature is then raised and maintained till the desired degree of
moisture content is attained.

Depending upon the mode of construction and operation, the kilns are of two
types, namely, stationary kilns and progressive kilns. A stationary kiln is also
known as a compartment kiln and in this kiln, the process of seasoning is carried
out in a single compartment only.

The drying operations are adjusted as drying proceeds. This kiln is adopted for
seasoning timber which requires a close control of humidity and temperature. It
gives better results. In a progressive kiln, the carriage with timber sections travels
slowly from one end of kiln to the other and in doing so, it gets seasoned. The hot
air is supplied from the discharging end so that the temperature is less at the
charging end and it increases towards the discharging end.

It is used for seasoning timber on a large scale. If not properly attended, the
drying in this kiln may prove to be unsatisfactory. The kiln seasoning, though
costly, gives well-seasoned timber as it controls three important conditions,
namely, circulating air, relative humidity and temperature.

Classification of Timbers with Respect to Seasoning:

Depending upon the ease with which Indian timbers can be seasoned, they are
divided into three groups, namely, non-refractory timbers, moderately refractory
timbers and highly refractory timbers.

The non-refractory timbers can be rapidly seasoned without any trouble. They can
be seasoned even in the open air and sun. The examples are deodar, simul, etc.

The moderately refractory timbers have tendency to split and to crack during
seasoning. They are therefore to be protected against rapid drying conditions. The
examples are mango, rosewood, sissoo, teak, etc.

The highly refractory timbers are likely to be damaged severely during seasoning.
They are difficult to season. The examples are axle wood, hopea, laurel, sal, etc.

The cost of seasoning of timber will naturally depend on the thickness of timber
and type of timber with respect to seasoning. It will be more for highly refractory
timbers and less for non-refractory timbers.

The period or time for seasoning of timber will also vary with the thickness of
timber and type of timber with respect to seasoning.

Step # 3. Conversion of Timber:

The process by which timber is cut and sawn into suitable sections is known as the
conversion. For this purpose, the power machines may be employed at different
stages of process.

Following important facts in connection with the conversion of timber are to be

remembered:

(i) The conversion is a skilled art and it should be carried out in such a way that
there is minimum wastage of useful timber.

(ii) The allowance should be made for shrinkage, squaring and planning. It is about
3 mm to 6 mm.

(iii) The wooden beams should be sawn in such a way that they do not contain
pith in their cross-section. To achieve this, the timber is first sawn through pith
into two halves.

(iv) To obtain strong timber pieces, the saw cuts should be made tangential to the
annual rings and practically parallel to the direction of medullary rays.

(v) The conversion may be achieved either by ordinary sawing, quarter sawing,
tangential sawing or radial sawing as shown in fig. 9-4 to fig 9-7.

Fig. 9-4 shows ordinary sawing or bastard sawing or flat sawing or slab sawing.
The saw cuts are tangential to the annual rings and right through the cross-
section of timber piece. The log is moved forward and backward on the platform
of a sawing mill. Thus the parallel cuts are made throughout the length of the log
and parallel slices of planks are obtained

This is a very easy and quick method of

sawing and it is widely adopted in our country. It is also most economical method
and wastage of useful timber is minimum. However the planks obtained by this
method are liable to warp and twist as a result of unequal shrinkage. The outer
portion is of sap wood and it shrinks more.

The central portion is of heart wood and it shrinks less. Thus, the thickness at the
centre remains almost unaltered while the circumferential shrinkage causes
warping and twisting of planks. Fig. 9-5 shows quarter sawing.

The saw cuts are at right angles to each other. It may produce fine figure wood
when adopted in case of timber having no distinct medullary rays. In this method,
there is a tendency for the timber to bend in a transverse direction.

Fig. 9-6 shows tangential sawing or plain sawing or flat grained sawing. The
saw cuts are tangential to the annual rings and they meet each other at right
angles. This method is adopted when the annual rings are very distinct and the
medullary rays are not clearly defined.

The planks obtained by this sawing warp too much because the sections are weak
as the medullary rays which impart strength to the longitudinal fibres are cut. The
timber obtained by this method is unsuitable for flooring and it cannot be
polished evenly.
Fig. 9-7 shows radial sawing or rift sawing. The saw cuts are made radially in a
parallel direction to the medullary rays. This method is used for conversion of
hard timber. It gives wood with decorative effect.

The timber obtained by this method shrinks and warps to a less degree and it is
distorted to the minimum. However the wastage is maximum and the cost of
sawing proves to be high as more time and labour are required in turning wood
several times.

(vi) During conversion, there will be loss of timber due to sawing

and it may extend upto 40 per cent in reduction of weight of log.

The probable loss in conversion of timber from log to the required size of timber
may be taken as follows:
Round log to plan – 40%

Round log to scantling – 50%

Square log to plan – 30%

Square log to scantling – 40%

Step # 4. Preservation of Timber:

Objects of Preservation of Timber:

The preservation of timber is carried out to achieve the following three objects:

(i) To increase the life of timber structures,

(ii) To make the timber structures durable, and

(iii) To protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agencies such
as fungi, insects, etc.

Requirements of a Good Preservative:

Following are the requirements of a good preservative:

(i) It should allow decorative treatment on timber after being applied over timber
surface.

(ii) It should be capable of covering a large area with small quantity.

(iii) It should be cheap and easily available.

(iv) It should be durable and should not be affected by light, heat, etc.

(v) It should be free from unpleasant smell.

(vi) It should be non-inflammable.

(vii) It should be quite efficient in killing fungi, insects, etc.

(viii) It should be safe and harmless for persons and animals.

(ix) It should give pleasant appearance to the timber after being applied over it.

(x) It should not affect the strength characteristics of timber.

(xi) It should not be easily washed away by water.

(xii) It should not corrode the metals with which it comes into contact.

(xiii) It should offer high resistance to the moisture and dampness.

(xiv) Its penetrating power into wood fibres should be high. Is. is necessary for the
preservative to be effective to penetrate at least for a depth of 6 mm to 25 mm.

Types of Preservatives:

Following preservatives are commonly used for the preservation of timber:

(i) Ascu treatment

(ii) Chemical salts

(iii) Coal tar

(iv) Creosote oil

(v) Oil paints

(vi) Solignum paints.

Distribution and description

This tree is native to the Indian subcontinent, ranging south of the Himalaya, from
Myanmar in the east to Nepal, India and Bangladesh. In India, it extends from
Assam, Bengal, Odisha and Jharkhand west to the Shivalik Hills in Haryana, east of
the Yamuna. The range also extends through the Eastern Ghats and to the eastern
Vindhya and Satpura ranges of central India.[3] It is often the dominant tree in the
forests where it occurs. In Nepal, it is found mostly in the Terai region from east
to west, especially, in the Sivalik Hills (Churia Range) in the subtropical climate
zone. There are many protected areas, such as Chitwan National Park, Bardia
National Park and Shuklaphanta National Park, where there are dense forests of
huge sal trees. It is also found in the lower belt of the Hilly region and Inner Terai.

The sal tree is known also as sakhua in northern India, including Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha and Jharkhand. It is the state tree of two Indian states - Chhattisgarh and
Jharkhand.

Sal is moderate to slow growing, and can attain heights of 30 to 35 m and a trunk
diameter of up to 2-2.5 m. The leaves are 10–25 cm long and 5–15 cm broad. In
wetter areas, Sal is evergreen; in drier areas, it is dry-season deciduous, shedding
most of the leaves in between February to April, leafing out again in April and
May.

Internal Structure of Wood

Pearson and Brown (1932) have given the anatomy of Sal wood.

The wood is divided into sapwood and heartwood. The sapwood is thinner
and pale brownish-white in colour. The heartwood is much thicker. It

exhibits a pale brown colour, turns deep reddish-brown in advanced age

with few irregular light tangential resin canal lines. Its texture is

smooth and growth ring is absent if present practically indistinct.

Sal is one of the most important sources of hardwood timber in India, with hard,
coarse-grained wood that is light in colour when freshly cut, but becomes dark
brown with exposure. The wood is resinous and durable, and is sought-after for
construction, although not well suited to planing and polishing. The wood is
especially suitable for constructing frames for doors and windows.

Differences between teak and sal wood

Applications: Teak wood is highly prized in the finishing industry. Once the desired
item is made and polished, it acquires a very rich look. Sal is valued in the
construction industry for its strength, but not for its finishing.

Maintenance: Teak requires very basic maintenance because it is strong and

durable. Wiping teak furniture with a dry cloth every day is enough, while you can
re-polish it once every few years. On the other hand, sal is durable, termite- and
fungi-resistant. It should not be kept in the glare of direct sunlight as it will form
cracks.

Why sal wood is ideal for furniture: Sal wood is highly durable and very strong, for
which reason it is ideal for making window sills, door, frames and beams. It can
also withstand moisture, so it is easy to carry your sal furniture to a cold place and
use it there without worrying about how it will react to the cold.
It is also heavier and much tougher than teak wood. It is also resistant to termites,
fungi and water. If you buy sal wood that has been seasoned, it will display better
features and give you more satisfaction.

Advantages

Sal wood is 25% to 30% heavier than teak wood and 45% to 50% harder and more
durable than teak.

It is resistant to white ants, termites and fungi.

It is durable and water resistant.

Disadvantages

Being very hard, sal wood isn’t easy to saw.

It cannot be polished.

It cracks under exposure to direct sunlight.

It is not a good choice for furniture or for exterior doors.

It shrinks and swells.

When compared to metal, it is very expensive.