Wood is used intensively in structural
engineering (timber: truss, column, beam and
etc.) and products (laminates, plywood, particle
board and etc.)
Definition of wood, timber and lumber:
: May be defined as the material that
forms the trunks and branches of trees
: Wood cut from the trunk which can be
used for constructing houses, furniture, bridges
and etc.
: Used in U.S to signify such as sawn
and worked timber
Softwood Properties:
coniferous and have needle shaped leaves
quick growing and give wood generally
low density and fairly low strength.
easily worked because softer, less dense,
easier to cut
not normally highly durable unless
protected by preservatives
since they grow quickly, softwood are
relatively cheap
clearly growth rings
no vessel
Example:
Hemlock, Redwood, Spruce, Pine, Hemlock
and etc.
Damar minyak, podo, sempilor
Timber Classification
Wood can be conveniently divided into
hardwoods and softwood. There are cases
softwood timbers are harder than some
hardwoods. Most of the hardwoods are found in
the tropical and semi-tropical region of the
world while softwood is found in temperate
zone.
Conifers are evergreen trees having pointed
needle like leaves. They show distinct
annual
rings, have straight fibres and soft with
pine.
Hardwood Properties:
broad leaves
grow slowly to give
high density and high strength
less easy to work because very hard
very durable although
without use preservatives
most hardwoods are very expensive due
to slow
growing
hard to see the growth rings
have vessels
higher proportion of
heartwood
Example:
Bass wood, Cheery, Cottonwood, Oak,
Walnut and etc.
Meranti, Kapur, Cengal, Balau, Keruing,
In Malaysia, most of the timber’s products are
hardwood. At least 3000 species of trees in
forest and only 12 are softwoods. The
hardwood timbers are classified into 3 classes
based on density and natural durability. They
are:
Heavy hard wood (HHW)
over 880 kg/m3
constructional timbers
some of them contain toxic material within
their tissue such as alkaloids and other
substances
can be used in most exposed conditions
without undergoing preservative treatment
however, sapwood requires preservative
treatment because less durable compare
to heartwood
About 14 species under “Malaysian
Grading Rules 1984 Edition 1”
i. Medium Hardwood (MHW)
720 – 880 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content
– MSS 544: 2001 (Consider Dry condition <
19%)
Moderately heavy to heavy construction
Come of the timbers (kempas and tualang)
are heavy and strong, but insuffient for
used in exposed condition and in ground
contact.
About 36 species under “Malaysian
Grading Rules 1984 Edition 1”
ii. Light hardwood (LHW)
less than 720 kg/m3
general utility timbers – joinery work,
cabinet marking, furniture, decorative
panelling and etc.
require preservative treatment as a
precaution against wood destroying
agents such as fungi an insect.
About 47 species under “Malaysian
Grading Rules 1984 Edition 1”
No specific classification for softwood.
About 3 species under “Malaysian Grading
Rules 1984 Edition 1”
Damar minyak is of commercial
importance at the moment. - Density
range about 385 – 735 kg/m3
Timber mainly used as decorative plywood
and paneling
Scientific Name or Botanical
Name:
Are given based on international rules
Can have only one name
Consist of two part:
a. Genus: Botanical group
b. Epithet: Exact species Example:
Kayu Kempas Koompassia ( Genus )
Malaccensis ( Epithet )
Based on Latin
language
Wood Formation
Wood formed as a result of
continuous secondary
growth in cell. When seed
of a tree germinates, it
forms a shoot consisting of
thin medulla of spongy tissue commonly known
as the pith. The pith is completely enclosed
within thin meristematic tissue known as
cambium, which is turn is protected on the
outside tissue call bark. Growth of tree is a
result of division of cambium cells, provides
new cells to be added to the existing system.
The accumulation of woody cells resulting from
the cyclic activity of the cambium from year to
year, accounts for the growth in height and
diameter of a stem of a tree. The cambium
produces bark tissue (phloem) on the outside
and woody tissue (xylem) on the inside of the
stem

Wood is aggregate of cells produced by the tree
to serve among others
certain functions connected with the life process
of the tree. The functions
are:
a. Conduction of water and dissolved mineral
salt solution from the roots
to leaves for manufacture of plant food
materials
b. Storage and distribution of manufactured and
reserved food materials
c. Provision of mechanical strength of the tree as
a shole
Sapwood
food conduction and storage
less resistant to fungi and insect
can often be recognized, as it is usually
lighter in colour - proportion decrease
continuously with the age of tress
young tress being almost almost all
sapwood
may be less than 20 % in mature three
Heartwood
structural support
no longer store food
structural features is similar with
sapwood except, the cell walls of the
latter are often permeated with resinous
or gummy substances
more resistant to fungi and insect
it is usually darker in colour
Figure 5.1 The Formation of Annual Ring
Temperate Species
The rings of wood formed during each growing
season may be clear differentiated because the
vigour of growth during a single growing season
is not uniform throughout. Early spring, the
tissue produced consists of large and porous
cells. This is followed by a gradual decline
vigour (of growth) which made the tissue
become smaller and denser cells. By late
autumn (after the fall of the leaves), growth for
the year end. When the growth resumes in early
spring, the cambium starts putting on large and
porous cells which contrast significantly in
texture with the cells of the immediate
preceding layer of late autumn wood. This
contrast produces growth rings
Tropical Species Mechanical properties if wood influenced by
moisture content.
Clear growth rings are exceptional because But the modulus of elasticity is less affected
there are indistinct seasonal changes in by changes in moisture.
climate.
No notable differences between the textures of An increasing of temperature, the timber
wood produced. strength will decrease.
Therefore, in tropical woods, these rings even
if distinct, are not criterion of the age of the
It determines the permissible stress and
tree which calculated one year per ring like
modulus of elasticity.
temperate species.
IV.
Definition of rings
Environmental factors affecting tree
Usually one ring-gelang is added each year. growth such as temperature, type of
The rings are widest at the centre and narrower soil, spacing between trees.
nearer the bark. The rings are widest at the
bottom in young, thrifty trees and near the top
in old ones. It can affects the strength of the wood
and can be classified natural defect,
The rings consist of minute tabular or fibrous decay and insects and parasites
cells tightly cemented together by lignin which attacked. Common defect types are
gives the strength to wood and each ring has shown in figure below:
two parts; the earlywood/springwood-kayu Natural wood defects
awal and the latewood/summerwood-kayu
akhir.
The types of ring: Moisture, Shrinkage and
Strength
- Growth ring- gelang tumbesaran = one set
of circumference added to tree.
- Annual ring- gelang tahunan = also known
as growth ring. - These annual rings give
valuable information about the age, the
rapidity and uniformity of its growth.
Termited decay
Shrinkage
All structures made from timber have the
possible effect of shrinkage.
Strength
The factors affecting strength of timber are:

Normally, young trees often give low density

and reduced stresses.
 treatment and Curing
Timber can easily decay by swelling, fungi,
insects, fire, etc.
Basic approaches it is to create conditions
unfavorable to fungi such as low humidity, heat
and water insulation.
Can be minimized by coating the surface of
wood with polymer films or drying oils, oil base
paints, varnishes and synthetic enamels.
Several methods;
I. Oil type preservatives
the moisture content in timber should not
be more than 14%.
applied over outside of exposed timber.
unpleasant smell.
not suitable when timber is to be painted.
examples; creosote, carbolinium,
solignum, with or without admixture with
petroleum or suitable oils.
2. Water soluble preservatives
moisture content of 20 to 30% is
permissible.
odourless organic or inorganic salts and
adopted for inside location only.
examples of leachable type of
preservatives; zinc chloride, boric
acid(borax), etc.
the types of zinc chloride, sodium fluoride
and sodium-pentachloro phenate are
toxic to fungi. These types are expensive
and odourless.
benzene-hexa-chloride is used as spray
against borers.
Boric acid is used against Lyctus borers and
to protect plywood in tea chests.
another type;
I. copper-chromate-arsenic composition.
II. acid-cupric-chromate composition.
III. chromate-zinc chloride composition.
IV. solvent treatment.
i) Surface application
by spraying, dipping or brushing the
preservatives for a short period.
at least two coats should be applied.
the subsequent coats should not be
applied until the first one has dried
or soaked into the wood.
used mostly for treating timber at
site and re-treatment of cut surfaces.
ii) Soaking treatment
submerging debarked timber in the
preservatives solution for
sufficiently long period until the
required absorption of the
preservative is obtained.
iii) Hot and cold process
ensures sterilisation against fungi and
insects.
the timber is submerged in the
preservation solution which is heated
to about 90°C to 95°C and maintained
at this temperature. Then allowed to
cool until the required absorption is
obtained. During the heating period, air
in the timber expands and is partially
expelled.
while cooling, the residual air in the
timber creates a partial vacuum which
causes the preservative to be sucked
into the timber. generally, two baths are
used. First-containing the water to
prepare the hot treatment. Second-cold
bath-containing the preservatives into
which the timber is transferred
immediately after heating.
this to solve the danger of precipitation
of chemicals at high temperature. Also
helps to make the process continuous in
case the quantity of timber is large.
Iv) Boucherie Process
v)Full cell or bethel process
essentially a pressure process.
used when maximum absorption of the
preservative is desired.
timber charge is introduced into the
cylinder.
vi)Empty cell process
also known as pressure processes.
aimed at a maximum penetration of the
preservative with a minimum
net retention.
Lawry process and Rueping process are
commonly used
Timber Products
A. Veneers
thin sheet of wood
manufacture in various grades.
it popular to make a furniture, concrete
mould
B. Plywood
it used in beam making
easily can make curve shape for
designing
C. Boards
two types namely particleboard and
fiberboards.
Wood in constructions
Timber can be used for structural and non-
structural member in construction. For the
structural purposes, the properties have to be in
compliance with the MS 544 standard
requirements.
a) For Furnitures
Leban, Gading, Jati and Arang trees are
used.
always this wood small sizes and expensive.
Percentage of shrinkage :
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x 100
% Initial dimension Procedures:
Initial dimension
b) For Bridge
i.e. Cengal, Resak, Merbau
normally this wood is used to build high
structure and exposed to weather.
this wood is strong and soft even easy to
work but expensive.
c) For houses
piling foundation : Bakau, Kempas and
Keruing. mast : Balau Merah, Cengal,
Keruing, Meranti Merah Tua
door and window frame : Meranti Merah
Muda, Meranti Kuning
stair : Keruing, Kapor, Mengkulang.
floor : Bintangor, Sepetir, Cengal.
d) For columns
Balau, Balau Merah, Cengal.
Timber Standard Testing
1) Specific gravity
2) Volumetric shrinkage and swelling
:
To examine the radial, tangential,
longitudinal, volume shrinkages of
wood samples using green to oven dry
method.
To examine the radial, tangential,
longitudinal, volume swelling of
wood sample using oven dry to green
method
Percentage of radial, tangential,
longitudinal and volume shrinkage
and swelling of wood samples can
be calculated by using the following
formula
Percentage of Swelling :
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x
100%
procedures
Measure the radial, tangential and
longitudinal surface of wood samples
at least three different selected points.
Weigh wood samples using to loading
balance.
Place wood samples in the oven as a
temperature of 105 + 1° for 24 hours.
Remove wood samples from the oven
and let it dry in dessicator for one hour.
Measure the radial, tangential and
longitudinal surfaces of oven dried
wood samples at the same points
before drying.
The wood samples in the water for 24
hours.
Obtain the dimension of the soaked
wood surfaces. The measurement must
be done as the
3) Static bending strength
: a) Oven Drying
To obtain an approximate of the
maximum load and load of proportion
of timber for bending stress and
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) of timber.
To obtain the value of the deflection
versus the applied load.
To classify the bending failure
according to the appearance of the
fractured surface.
4) Impact bending strength
5) Compressive strength
:
To obtain an approximate of the
maximum load and of
proportionality of timber for
compressive stress and Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) of timber.
To identify the types of failure when
the Compression Parallel to Grain
Compressive stress at maximum;
Load = P / A
where,
P = Max. Crushing A = Cross section
area
6) Tensile strength
7) Brittleness test
8) Moisture content
Objectives:
The experiment is to determine the
Moisture Content using two method
according MS 544: 1978.
b) Moisture Meter
The Moisture Content (MC) is defined
as the the weight of the water
expressed as a percentage of the
moisture- free or ovendry weight of
the wood.
MC
= [ (Original Weight – Oven Dry Weight) /
Oven Dry Weight] x 100%
Equipment;
a) Moisture meter
b) Oven
c) Digital caliper
d) Weigh scale Used by moisture meter, take 3 point
Procedures: different reading
Choose 3 Species of wood.
For oven dyring method specimen
should be cut to include the full cross-
section of the sample. The specimens
should 20mm x 20 mm x 25mm
Take wood block weight ( appropriate
to 0.01 gram reading) Put into the
oven for 24 hours until weight is
constant Then, take weight of
wood block (appropriate to 0.01 gram
reading)

Tutorial 5
1. List four advantages and disadvantages of wood application in construction.
2. Referring to ASTM D143 for small clear specimen and BS 5820 for structural size,
list the preparation In Static Bending Test.
3. Give the detail explanation in timber standard testing; a. Specific gravity
b. Impact bending test
c. Tensile strength
d. Brittleness test
4. Write the formula used in Static Bending Strength
5. Differentiates the differences between heart, cup and star shake.
6. State the types of knot in tree and briefly give the causes.
7. List three diseases occurred in timber.
8. As an engineer, give the opinion the application of timber and concrete in
construction.
9. State the equipment to determi ne the compression of timber.