ABORICULTURE

LDM 255
L. Atuah (Ph.D)
Outline
 What is arboriculture
 The value of trees to Society
 The disadvantage of trees to Society
 Tree establishment
 Factors influencing survival and growth of
urban trees
 Tree surgery
 Urban forestry
 What is arboriculture
 The cultivation of trees in order to produce
individual specimens of the greatest
ornament and beauty, to provide shelter, to
produce fruit or for any primary purpose
other than the production of timber as such
(James, 1990).

 Definition of tree: A tree is a perennial tall

growing woody plant at least 5m high and
self supporting with a solid trunk and leaf
crown (Bradshaw et al., 1995)
Why arboriculture in Landscape Design
Programme
 Consider the following
 What is landscape design?
 What ways are trees used in the landscape?
 How is the tree nursery stock industry like in Ghana?
 Entrepreneurial prospects with trees – Discuss

 Expectations and outcome of the course:

 Understand all about trees in the urban / residential
landscape
 Acquire the know how and skill in planting trees that will
survive.
 Have a business idea with trees
RECALL (from year 1)
 This is a session meant to have you recall all the trees you
have studied under plant identification in year one of this
programme.

 NAME AS MANY AS YOU REMEMBER

( Common or Scientific name)

Spathodea campanulata
Azadirachta indica
Delonix regia
Peltophorum pterocarpum
The THREE parts of a Tree
The Trunk:
 Generally, only the outermost tissues of the
annual rings (sapwood) have active cells
which store reserve substances.
 The transport of water also takes place in
these youngest layers of wood (Sapwood).
 The older inner wooden parts (the
heartwood) provide structural support to the
trunk; here the vessels are blocked.
 The heartwood is mostly darker than
sapwood
Inner parts of tree trunk
 The outer bark is mainly for the tree's protection from
the external environment.
 The inner bark, is also known as the “phloem”. It is
channel through which food is passed to the rest of the
tree from the leaves. It lives for only a short time, then
dies and turns to cork to become part of the protective
outer bark.
 The cambium cell layer is the part of the trunk that
expands through growth. Annually, it produces new bark
and new wood in response to hormones (auxins) that
pass down through the phloem with food from the
leaves.
The THREE parts of a Tree
 Heartwood is also more solid, more compact
and heavier.
 Embedded substances (e.g. tannin,
phlobaphen) protect it against decomposition.
 Some trees have heartwood which does not
differ in colour from sapwood.

 With the information about trees thus far

discuss what is likely to happen to a tree which
has portions of the outer layers of the trunk cut
for medicinal purposes.
The THREE parts of a Tree
The crown:
 The tree trunk basically holds the leaves in
position to tap optimum levels of the suns
energy for vital processes of the life of the
tree.

 In sunlight, 1m2 of leaf surface area produces

1g of sugar per hour.The annual assimilation
yield of the earth’s vegetation amounts to
more than 100 billion tons of carbon.
Key benefit of old trees
Some facts about a free standing beech tree:
Age; 100 years, 25m tall, crown diameter of 15m
Ground area covered by its crown 160m 2; external leaf area
was 1600m2.

The tree draws 900kg CO2 from air in 12 hours and at the
same time releases 600kg O2.
Roots
 Not all roots of trees grow at any one time;
whiles some roots are growing, others are
quiescent.
 The absorbing roots generally grow in the
upper 15cm layer of soil. At an open location
the extension of the lateral roots may be 2 or
3 times the radius of the crown.
 The majority of the roots may stay within the
area circumscribed by the periphery of the
crown.
Causes of root growth reduction
 Lack of light
 Removal of branches, followed by reduction of
assimilation and corking up of the root tips.
 Complete defoliation of tree may cause rapid death of
most of the small feeding rootlets.
 Lack of air in soil (overfilling, flooding)
 Over dose of nitrogen
 Competition with roots of other plants.
 Result of root reduction is; diminished absorption of
nutrients and water and increased danger of death.
THE VALUE OF TREES
 Shade; reduces energy cost
 Wind break (reduces wind speed significantly
over a distance 20X their height)
 Clean air
 Screen/shelter to reduce noise and or
undesirable views.
 Attract wildlife
 Prevents erosion
Other qualities of trees
 Enhance buildings
 Adds grandeur to vista
 Soften the harshness of roads
 Breaks monotony
 Used sometimes to punctuate or sharpen
a view
 Trees are natural and changing
Disadvantage of trees to society
 Can cause accidents should a branch snap
as people pass by or disperse their seeds
 Can be the habitat for some dangerous
reptiles
 Some may be poisonous
 Some can be very messy
 Tree roots may grow into pipes and even
affect the foundation of buildings.
Tree establishment
Tree selection:
 To plant trees, one will have to acquire them from a
nursery but will need to do the appropriate selection.
 The local soil and water characteristics should be
thoroughly investigated before selecting which tree to
plant.
 The size of the tree relative to the space available and the
rate of growth of the proposed tree must be taken into
account. (It is misleading to size of the tree on the landscape
plan when, particularly when it is very slow growing)
 The general appearance and character of the tree is
important.
Tree establishment
Continuation of tree selection:
Example tall narrow trees may be appropriate in
restricted spaces.
 Length of life and availability are important factors in
tree selection.

Important checks at the nursery before purchase:

The tree ought to be;
 Healthy and well grown
 Well rooted
Tree establishment
 Well proportioned and not drawn up, top heavy, or weak
stemmed.
 Well furnished with branches if applicable.
 Propagated from the best and most healthy stock and
true to type and name.
 Transplanted regularly in the nursery

The type of tree you can acquire from a nursery stock can
be described as follows:
 Seedlings: These are the smallest plants. They have
remained in the seedbed and has not been transplanted.
Height about 7cm.
Tree establishment
 Plants that has been in the seedbed for one year are
known as ‘1 year seedlings’. (Referred to as 1 + 0)
 Transplants: Seedlings that have been transplanted at
least 2 or three times. (Referred to as 2 + 1 if it has been in
the seed bed 2 years and transplant line for one year)
 Young trees which have been transplanted twice are
known as 2+1+1 or 2+2+1
 Transplants are usually from 20 cm to 60 cm
 Where seedlings have had their roots undercut instead of
being transplanted, can be indicated by ‘u/c’ or 2 u 1.
Tree establishment
 Whips: These are so called on the account of their single
leaders, which are considered to resemble a whip.
 Size – 60 to 90 cm, 90 to 120 cm
 Feathered trees: Trees with side branches retained.This
make the tree more attractive when planted. Sizes vary
but are usually 1.2 m in height.
 Standards: are trees which have their stems cleared of
side branches. Standards have a clear stem for a minimum
of 1.8m.
 Large trees: Advanced nursery stock tree (after growing
for 3 to 4 years in the nursery, they are again transplanted
for a further 3 to 4 years,. Semi-mature (Reaches the height
of 10 - 12 m) and instant trees (Large size trees grown
specially for transplanting).

How can you start and remain in business if you want to

establish a tree nursery as an arboriculturist?
Tree establishment
 In most urban plantings standards are normally used.
Some reasons for its use;
- Can have a definite landscape impact in
the first year.
- In situations where people have access, it is believed that
standards are unlikely to be trampled on or damaged
accidently.
- It is believed that larger trees will not suffer from the
effect of weed competition as would smaller trees.
- There is an assumption that a big tree will be more able to
withstand transplanting stress.
Planting
 On receiving trees for planting, they must be unpacked
and heeled if you are not ready to plant immediately.
Small trees can be left in their bags for short time.
 Care must be taken to avoid disturbing the ball of soil in
the case of trees lifted with a ball of soil around their
roots.

The planting hole:

 The hole must be suitable to receive the roots of the
tree. The hole must be sufficiently large enough for the
roots to be amply spread out.
Planting
 The depth of the hole will also depend on the root
system. The root collar of the tree should always be level
with the surface of the ground.
 A standard tree is likely to need a hole about 107cm wide
and from 46 cm to 76 cm in depth.
 The bottom of the pit must be loosened and where the
soil is poor or heavy a mixture of loam and leaf mould
should be introduced.
 The tree should then be positioned in the pit and if it is
to be staked, it should be also positioned at this stage.
 Soil is then spread and worked into the pit with the hand.
Tree support and protection
 The simplest way of minimizing the use of support is to
plant small trees; not larger than whips.
 With larger trees it is best to use the shortest stake
which will keep the stem upright.
 Staking must be carried out as inconspicuously as
possible, compatible with its effectiveness.
 Trees that have been staked must be inspected at regular
intervals so as to ensure that stakes are still firm, have not
broken off and the ties are not too tight or too loose.

SUGGEST AT LEAST 4 REASONS FOR STAKING

Staking methods
 Single stakes;
Suitable only for comparatively small stakes trees or those which
do not have large crown.The stake should always be placed in
position at the time of planting. It be at the windward side to
reduce the risk of tree being blown against the stake .

 Double stakes
It is a more rigid means of supporting a tree and in case of large
trees it is preferred to single stake. Two stakes are driven in
about 30-46 cm apart and a cross member fixed between the
two stakes at the top of the stakes. The stem of the tree is then
secured to the cross member
Staking methods
 Prop stakes:
This method is intended to be used on sloping sites where
single and double staking is difficult.A stake is driven into
the slope above the tree at an angle and the top of the
stake attached to the stem of the tree by a tie. Stakes of
similar size to those used in single staking are satisfactory
for prop staking.
 Guying:
Strictly speaking this is not a method of staking since no
stakes are used. Guying is normally used for stabilizing trees
which are too large for staking, and for semi-mature trees.
 Four anchoring points which can be either of treated
timber or angle iron are driven in at four corners of an
imaginary square surrounding the tree. These anchoring
points function in a similar way to tent pegs.

 Wire guys are attached indirectly to the tree and to each

anchoring point and by means of these the tree is held
securely in position.
Staking methods
Additional points to note:
 The size of a single stake will depend on the size of the
tree which they are to support.
 When staking standard trees care should be taken to
prevent the top of the stake projecting into the crown or
damaging side branches.
 In double staking one or more additional cross members
can be fixed at suitable distances between the top
member and ground level.
 An alternative method is to fix the cross-members in
parallel pairs, one on either side of the stem.
Staking methods
 When double staking is adopted the cross-section of the
stakes used can be slightly smaller than when a single
stake is used.

 The distance which a stake should be driven into the

ground depends on the total length of the stake which in
turn depends on the height of the tree. A stake which is
1.5 m long should be driven into the ground about 46 cm.
A 2.4 m stake should have 76 cm in the ground.
Length and thickness guide of stakes
Length Square stakes Round Stakes
(Cross section) (diameter)

m mm mm

1.5 38 x 38 38
1.8 38 x 38 38
2.1 50 x 50 50
2.4 50 x 50 63
2.7 63 x 63 63
3.0 63 x 63 76
Factors influencing survival and growth of
urban trees
Intrinsic site problems
 Poor soil conditions - Many urban substrate have been
formed recently by the activities of human beings. Their
major constituents are often unweathered materials such
as bricks/blocks and concrete. (Ranges from agricultural
soil to cement block waste)

 Sometimes poor materials are imported such as

unweathered sub-soil or low grade, badly handled topsoil.

 These site problems can lead to the following problems:

Intrinsic Site Problems
 Water retention
 Drainage
 Aeration
 Poor nutrient status
 Problems of toxicity

Note: Each site must be taken on its merits.

Water supply: Plants rely on soils to maintain a ready supply

of water and will suffer drought stress if the water store
becomes exhausted.
 Trees may become robust after the initial transplanting
phase, vigorous growth will be maintained only if roots
can continue to take up sufficient water to satisfy
transpirational demand throughout the life of the tree.

Note: The total amount of water a soil can hold

against gravity is known as the field capacity.

Roots exert suction pressure on the soil to extract the

soil moisture at field capacity but not all of it is available.
What happens:
 The soil holds on to some of the water, exerting a
negative pressure.
 When the pressure reaches about -10 bars (-1MPa) plants
can no longer extract enough water to maintain turgor
and then begins to wilt.
 At approximately -15 bars (-1.5 Mpa) any water still held
by the soil is completely unavailable to plants.
 The water available to plants, (the available water
capacity), is therefore, the amount of water held
by the soil between field capacity and -15 bars.
 Because of a combination of course texture and lack of
organic matter many urban substrates are prone to
drought.
 The effect of drought is serious because they result in
reduced leaf area and shoot extension, giving trees a
stunted appearance and low canopy density.

Compaction:
Soils in urban areas frequently become compacted by heavy
machinery, foot and road traffic, and by overworking when
wet, all of which destroy soil structure.The results are
twofold
 Firstly, there is an increase in soil strength, and hence
greater resistance to root penetration. At the same time
the total pore space within the soil is reduced, with an
increase in water-filled micropores at the expense of air-
filled macropores.
 This results in impeded soil aeration during periods of
wet weather.
 Conversely during dry spells soils will be hard, and
greater root-suction will be required to extract water
from the micropores, making worse drought stress.
 Research finding: Increasing area of compaction around a
tree reduces growth by 50%.
 The effect of compaction can be complex; compaction is
unlikely to actually kill trees, at least not quickly, but its
effects over a number of years may be serious.
 Compaction may be limited to an area close to the tree,
such as well frequented footpath or a road. With large
trees these can lead to instability.

Drainage
Poor drainage can lead to soils becoming deficient in
oxygen which severely limits root activity.
Drainage
 Limited root activity results in a reduction in nutrient and
water uptake, a distorted rooting pattern and
consequently poor growth and stability of trees.
 What actually happens when waterlogging occurs is, the
macropores will become filled with water rather than air,
so that oxygen levels become depleted.
 This leads to anaerobic respiration of the roots. The by-
products of this anaerobic respiration are toxic to most
trees and so the situation can only be maintained for
short periods before the roots are damaged or killed.
 Bad drainage of the planting pit results in waterlogging
and anaerobism.
Drainage
 Where soils become waterlogged, some micro-organisms
use nitrates as a source of oxygen in organic matter
decomposition. Nitrogen levels may therefore fall in such
conditions.
 A hard layer below the surface of a planting pit leads to
the pit being filled with water, causing waterlogging.
 There is a close link between compaction and drainage.

What is the link ? - discuss

Nutrients
 To sustain growth plants require nutrient supply. Most of
the which are taken from below ground.
 In addition to providing favourable gaseous exchange and
water supply, soils must maintain a supply of essential
plant nutrients in a form suitable for root uptake.
Note: In urban areas many substrates are not as infertile as
might appear on first inspection. Addition of only one major plant
nutrient can often remedy nutrient deficiency.
 Potassium is rarely deficient in natural soils. It is released
in soluble forms from the weathering of rock-forming
minerals and is present in large concentrations in clay.
 Phosphorous: This occurs in both organic and inorganic
forms. Phosphates are present as complex ions, which are
relatively insoluble and are only slowly lost by leaching.
 The content of inorganic phosphorous in soils is closely
linked to texture. Clay minerals provides most of the sites
where ions are exchanged.
 Deficiencies requiring remedial action, however, can occur
for example where phosphate ions have been immobilised
by high pH, due to high lime content.
 Nitrogen: Though available in abundance in the
atmosphere plants cannot access them directly. Nitrogen
is obtained from below ground in an inorganic form.
 Certain micro-organisms can fix nitrogen by taking gaseous
nitrogen from the atmosphere and converting it into inorganic
compounds.
 A store of organic matter is clearly essential if nitrogen supply
is to be maintained.
 High levels of acidity, low soil oxygen and low temperatures all
inhibit the micro-organisms involved in the breakdown of
organic matter.
 Where organic matter has a high carbon-nitrogen ratio, the
micro-organisms responsible for its decomposition require
more nitrogen than its released by their activities so that there
is a net loss of available nitrogen. Carbon : nitrogen ratios in
excess of 30 : 1 will not provide sufficient available nitrogen.
Toxicity
 There are several substances which can occur in toxic
concentrations in urban substrates. But although toxicity
is considered important, it is limited to particular sites.
 Toxic levels of metals are normally restricted to sites
associated with industrial or mining activity.
 A sporadic problem is methane damage. The damage is
not caused by the direct action of the gas, but by the
anaerobic conditions which can result from its
occurrence in the soil. Where methane gas is released in
the soil, oxygen is driven and CO 2 levels rise.
 More common is damage to trees growing in landfill sites.
 On such sites decomposition of putrescible refuse by
micro-organisms results in large amounts of methane
being released.

Extrinsic site factors

 There are a number of factors which have an impact on
tree growth that originate outside the site; their
potentially serious effect must be taken into account.
 The importance of vandalism is often overstated as a
cause of poor growth and death of urban trees. (Likely
due to the visual effect)
 Weeds

Stress

Vandalism

Guards

Compaction

Ties

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency of deaths (%)
 Trees planted in paving and grass suffer the most damage,
and those planted amongst shrubs the least.
 The sensible use of intelligent planting designs, different
tree sizes, and limited protection measures which are
adequately maintained can reduce the effects of vandalism
to a minimum.

Vehicle damage: Occasionally cars and other vehicles can be

agents of stem damage.

Salt: Peculiar to temperate countries.

 Wind damage: Trees which experience high winds suffer
scorched leaves and shoots which leads to a stunted canopy,
especially on the windward side. The result is a tree which is
one sided accentuated if the wind has caused the tree to lean.
 Where is wind damage likely to occur? Individual trees planted
adjacent to gaps between buildings may suffer from the high
winds which are funnelled between them.
 In coastal areas wind scorch is exacerbated by the damaging
effects of salt spray.
 Air pollution: Since the beginning of the industrial revolution
the presence of air borne pollutants in the atmosphere has
been a characteristic feature.
Dust
 During dry weather large amounts of dust can be
produced by road traffic as well as operations such as
quarry and waste disposal.
 The principal effect of dust settling on the leaves is a
reduction in photosynthetic efficiency of the leaves.

How can settled dust on the leaves affect photosynthetic

efficiency?

What is the consequence of reduced photosynthetic

efficiency?
 Sulphur dioxide: It was formerly a problem due to
industry and domestic coal burning. Widespread use of
electricity and gas has resulted in a dramatic reduction of
SO2.
 The risk of acid rain is high in the presence of SO 2.
 Nitrogen Oxide: Whilst SO2 emissions have declined in
recent times, the production of Nox has increased
particularly by emissions from car exhausts.
 High concentrations above 0.5 ppm adversely affect trees.
Tree surgery
Pruning:
Removal of parts of a plant for size control, health, or
appearance.

Reasons for pruning:

 To produce a given length of the main stem, or trunk, free
from branches.
 To help the tree to form a satisfactory well-balanced
crown.
 To reduce the weight or alter the shape of the crown, if it
is too large.
 To remove diseased, dead or dying branches.
 To reduce leaf surface and in this way decrease the
demands made on the root system.
 To remove damaged branches.
 To prevent the branches interfering with overhead cables,
buildings, passing traffic, and to take such steps as may be
necessary in the interest of safety.
Appropriate time for pruning:
Pruning must be carried out when the tree is dormant, the
sap is down and when deciduous trees are leafless.
Note: Trees can be pruned anytime of the year the following
points must be borne in mind:-
The movement of sap is very active when the tree is not
dormant and if a tree is cut during such periods there will
be considerable discharge of sap. This is known as ‘bleeding’.

Pruning young trees:

 Young trees intended to grow into large specimens are
recommended to have and maintain a straight, unforked
main stem and a good leader.
 Double leaders must be removed as early as possible and
if necessary the remaining one must be fastened to a
stake to bring it back into vertical.
 A clean bole is usually desirable and this can be achieved
by gradually removing unwanted branches. This should be
done before they become too large.
 Any branches which are likely to affect the shape and
balance of the tree adversely in the foreseeable future
should be removed as soon as it is practicable.

Pruning Large trees:

Pruning large trees
Removal of large branches:
 The branch which is to be removed must be sawn
through in such away that its severance will not cause
damage to the tree by tearing the bark. This is known as
‘spauling’.

 To avoid this, the branch should first be undercut, not less

than 30 cm from the point at which the ultimate
severance is required. Sawing should continue for about
half the thickness of the limb. The saw is then removed
for a top cut about 8cm from the first cut (undercut).
 If the branch which is to be removed is very heavy or
very long, it should be removed either in several lengths
beginning at the small or light end of the branch to be
removed or its weight should be supported by roping.
 In making the 3rd cut, care should be taken to avoid
cutting through the branch collar. On no account should
cuts be made flush with the main trunk.
 When removing a secondary leader or a vertical growing
branch, the cut should be finished with a slanting surface
so as to throw off rain-water and other moisture.
 The removal of large branches from a tree can cause a
check in growth and where several branches have to be
removed the work should be spread over a period of
time. This minimizes the effect.

Crown reduction:
 This may be done by either lifting the crown or by
lowering it.
 Lifting the crown consist of either removing some of the
lowest branches or removing parts of such branches.
 Lowering the crown is also known as dropcrotching and
this comprises the cutting back and shortening of the
branches which form the perimeter of the crown.

Forked-growth
Where a tree has developed a large fork which is
considered to be dangerous, owing to the risk of it splitting
apart, there are two options to solving this problem;
 To remove one half of the fork.
 To bolt and brace the two forked members so as to
minimize the risk of splitting.
Damage to roots:
 Where roots have been damaged or broken that end
should be trimmed off where possible.
 If a large portion of the root has to be severed, the
stability of the tree may be affected hence the tree may
have to be removed.

Wounds Treatment:
How wounds occur-
 It may occur due to strong winds and heavy rains,
lightning where part of the bark can strip off.
 During pruning
 Falling of a heavy limb
 Death of a branch which falls and leaves a dead or rotten
stump
 Animals
 Vandalism
 Machinery, including vehicles

Tree wound dressing:-

This is a debatable subject. One school of thought suggests
no need for wound dressing whiles the other recommends
that.
 The 1st school of thought is based on the fact that trees
naturally develop callus over wounded portions to
compartmentalise the affected tissues from the unaffected.
 This naturally prevents decay from spreading over a bigger
portion of the trunk, branch or root which may bear the
wound.
 It is recommended that the wounded portion be trimmed
neatly to form an oval shape and all weak branches around it
be properly pruned.
 Also, the tree will have to be fertilised and watered
consistently to improve tree vigour during the healing period.
 The 2nd school of thought is based on the fact that,
though naturally callusing prevents decay, the fresh wound
is still an entry point for microorganisms and must be
treated to prevent that.
 Sap feeding insects are also attracted to wounded
portions and do spread disease in the process of their
feeding.
 From findings of research it is concluded that the wound
dressing helps prevent spread of diseases, speed growth
of callus and makes an attractive finishing to pruning.
Bracing and bolting:
Bracing is a term used to describe the strengthening and
supporting of tree by means of cables and rods.
Bracing is necessary under the following circumstances;
 To provide support to large branches which might
otherwise break on account of their weight.
 To prevent or arrest the splitting of forked branches.
 To brace the crown of a tree.
 To reduce the effect of wind on the branches of a large
tree.
Urban forestry
 Forestry is the science and art of forming and cultivating
forests, the management of growing timber.
 In an urban setting growing trees for the timber becomes
urban forestry.
 What can be called urban forest should have a minimum
size of 0.5 acre (0.25 ha).
 Trees in such area will not only form a recognisable and
practicable small woodland but be an economic venture.
 The character of size is an important aspect of the areas
of land and trees involved, because from these areas some
sort of economic return can be possible.
Urban Forestry
 Urban forestry is unlikely to be conventional forestry.
 The constraint placed on urban forestry is the constantly
changing demand for land in the urban area.
 The usually long term forestry cannot be practiced in the
urban areas.
 The practice is usually short term. The time scale should
be a matter of a few years to as much as 20 years. If the
period of land availability is more than 10 years then
urban forestry is possible.
Urban Forestry
 The planting scheme can be in the short-term, medium
term or long term.
 The short-term plantings are usually made of quick
growing species and therefore require a good and fertile
land.
 Medium-term planting can be approached in two ways.
This could be the coppice system or a plantation of single
stemmed trees.
 Coppiced wood is ideal raw material for the production
of charcoal.
 Long-term planting will be for timber and is of greater
economic value than the other schemes.
Choice of species
 This depends on a number of factors:-
 How long the land is available for the planting and the
type of rotation being chosen.
 Soil conditions of the site.
 The need for high growth and maximum economic
returns.
 How exposed the sight is to vandalism and interference.
 Need for disease resistance
 The market potential for the product
 Any amenity requirements
 All these factors have to be balanced before the final
choice is made.

Short-term products are mainly for the biomass and can be

put to many uses as;
 Fuel for wood burning stoves
 Production of fuel brickettes
 Mulch for horticultural purposes
 Mulch for footpaths and play areas
Wood chippings as mulch
As wood or timber;
 Fuel logs
 Charcoal
 Fencing
 Gates
 Garden furniture
 General sawn timber
 Paper industry
Urban forestry may also have amenity value.