IIT JAM

Geology (GG)
SAMPLE THEORY
 Petrology

1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Definition
A rock is naturally formed, consolidated material usually composed of grains of one or more
minerals. Rocks come in a great many varieties. Some rocks are unusual enough for geologists and
people interested in geology to collect them. Rocks can also be colourful or attractive. Landscapers often
make use of rocks in planning homes or parks. Most rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. In
some rocks, we can recognize the minerals as variations in colour or other mineral properties within the
rock. Granite is a good example. If we look carefully at a sample of granite with a hand lens, we will
probably observe some parts of the rock that is transparent. This is probably the mineral quartz.
Other parts are white or pink with angular cleavage. These are properties of plagioclase feldspar
and potassium feldspar. Dark mineral grains that occur in thin sheets are biotite mica. Dark minerals that
occur in stubby crystals are probably hornblende, the most common mineral in the amphibole family.
Other minerals can occur in granite, but they are not as common as these four.
Classification of Rocks
Rocks are solid masses occurring naturally as part of our planet. As it turns out, rocks can be
put into three fundamentally different types:
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks

Fig. : Classification of Rocks

Igneous Rocks : Rocks formed from the consolidation of magma or molten rock material.
Magma, when brought to the surface is called lava . Lava forms volcanic rocks. Igneous rocks are
formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified. When rocks are buried deep within the Earth,
they melt because of the high pressure and temperature; the molten rock (called magma) can then
flow upward or even be erupted from a volcano onto the Earth's surface.
 When magma cools slowly, usually at depths of thousands of feet, crystals grow from the
molten liquid, and a coarse-grained rock forms. When magma cools rapidly, usually at or near the
Earth's surface, the crystals are extremely small, and a fine-grained rock results. A wide variety of rocks
are formed by different cooling rates and different chemical compositions of the original magma.
Obsidian (volcanic glass), granite, basalt, and andesite porphyry are four of the many types of igneous
rock.
Sedimentary Rocks : Rocks formed from the weathering, erosion and deposition & compaction
of rock material through agents like wind, water, ice and chemical precipitation. Sedimentary rocks are
formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered accumulations of
sediments-fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. Temperatures and pressures are
low at the Earth's surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact by their appearance and the minerals
they contain. Most sedimentary rocks become cemented together by minerals and chemicals or are
held
together by electrical attraction; some, however, remain loose and unconsolidated.
The layers are normally parallel or nearly parallel to the Earth's surface; if they are at high
angles to the surface or are twisted or broken, some kind of Earth movement has occurred since the
rock was formed. Sedimentary rocks are forming around us all the time. Sand and gravel on beaches or
in river bars look like the sandstone and conglomerate they will become. Compacted and dried mud
flats harden into shale. Scuba divers who have seen mud and shells settling on the floors of lagoons
find it easy to understand how sedimentary rocks form.
Metamorphic Rocks : Existing rocks that undergo changes due to pressure and temperature
undergo metamorphosis get transformed into metamorphic rocks. Sometimes sedimentary and
igneous
rocks are subjected to pressures so intense or heat so high that they are completely changed. They
become metamorphic rocks, which form while deeply buried within the Earth's crust. The process of
metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser, more compact rocks.
New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids
that
enter the rocks.
Some kinds of metamorphic rocks--granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples--are strongly
banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains that gives the
rock a striped appearance.) Anyone who wishes to collect rocks should become familiar with the
characteristics of these three rock groups. Knowing how a geologist classifies rocks is important if we
want to transform a random group of rock specimens into a true collection.
Rock Cycle

Fig. : Rock Cycle

2. IGNEOUS ROCK-FORMS OF IGNEOUS BODIES

Igneous rocks are classified by their colour and texture. The colours in rocks come from the
minerals that make up the rocks. Minerals rich in aluminium (chemical symbol, Al) are commonly
light- coloured, sometimes pink. These minerals are called felsic because the feldspars are the
most common light-coloured minerals. The word felsic comes from feldspar and silicon. Minerals
rich in magnesium (chemical symbol, Mg) and iron (chemical symbol, Fe) such as olivine and
pyroxene families are called mafic (MAY-fic) The word mafic comes from a combination of
magnesium and ferric, which is used
to describe iron. Mafic minerals are often dark coloured.
The preferred method for classifying any rock type (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) is
based on texture and composition (the latter usually in terms of mineral proportions). Textural criteria
are commonly considered first, as textures provide the best evidence for rock origin and permit
classification into the broadest genetic categories. The first step in igneous rock description should be to
determine whether the rock falls into one of the following three categories :
Phaneritic : The majority of crystals that compose the rock are readily visible with the
naked eye (> ~0.1 mm). If a rock exhibits phaneritic texture, it typically crystallized slowly
beneath the surface of the Earth and may be called plutonic, or intrusive.
Aphanitic : Most of the crystals are too small to be seen readily with the naked eye (<
~0.1 mm). If a rock is aphanitic, it crystallized rapidly at the Earth s surface and may be
called volcanic, or extrusive.
Fragmental : The rock is composed of pieces of disaggregated igneous material, deposited
and later amalgamated. The fragments themselves may include pieces of preexisting
(predominantly igneous) rock, crystal fragments, or glass. Fragmental rocks are typically
the result of a volcanic explosion or collapse and are collectively called pyroclastic.
The grain size of phaneritic rocks may be further subdivided as follows :
Fine grained < 1 mm diameter (< sugar granules)
Medium grained 1 5 mm diameter (sugar to pea sized)
Coarse grained 5 50 mm diameter
Very coarse grained > 50 mm diameter (the lower size limit is not really well defined)
Pegmatitic is an alternative term for very coarse grain size but has compositional implications
for many geologists because pegmatites have historically been limited to late-stage crystallization of
granitic magmas. Please notice the distinction between aphanitic (too fine to see individual grains)
and fine grained (grains are visible without a hand lens but less than 1 mm in diameter).
Some rocks classified as phaneritic and aphanitic are relatively equigranular (of uniform grain
size), whereas others exhibit a range of grain sizes because different minerals may experience somewhat
different growth rates. The grain size usually varies over only a modest range, and it does so somewhat
gradually. If, on the other hand, the texture displays two dominant grain sizes that vary by a significant
amount, the texture is called porphyritic. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, and the finer
crystals are referred to as groundmass. Whether such rocks are considered plutonic or volcanic is
based on the grain size of the groundmass. Because the grain size is generally determined by cooling
rate, porphyritic rocks generally result when a magma experiences two distinct phases of cooling. This
is most common in, although not limited to, volcanics, in which the phenocrysts form in the slow-cooling
magma chamber, and the finer groundmass forms upon eruption.
The next characteristic in classifying igneous rocks is their texture. Texture describes the size
and shape of the grains and how they are arranged. In igneous rocks, the size of the crystals is a result
of how quickly the rock solidified. If the magma cooled slowly, the atoms and molecules had enough time
to form crystals that are visible without magnification. Granite is a good example of a rock that cooled
 slowly. Granite is a popular building stone because it resists wear and weathering and because it is
attractive. Granite has a speckled appearance. The different colours in granite come from the
different minerals of which it is composed. If the granite is pink, it probably contains a large
amount of potassium feldspar, which can be pink or white.
Most granite forms in large masses within Earth. The movement of magma to a new position
within Earth s crust is called intrusion. Intrusion occurs totally underground, or inside Earth.
Sometimes
a large quantity of hot magma rises to a place near the surface where it slowly cools to form solid rock.
In other cases, granite originates from a mass of rock buried deeply enough to melt. As the mass cools
and crystallizes, it slowly forms granite. Because coarse-grained igneous rocks such as granite form
deep underground, they are classified by origin as intrusive or plutonic rocks. (The term plutonic comes
from the name of Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld.)
Basalt is also a common igneous rock, especially under the oceans. The ways that basalt differs
from granite can help us to understand how igneous rocks are classified. Basalt usually forms from
magma that rises to or very near the surface. Extrusion is the movement of magma onto Earth s
surface. At the surface, lava cools quickly, and the resulting crystals are too small to be visible
without magnification. Fine-grained igneous rocks such as basalt are therefore called extrusive or
volcanic rocks. Basalt is rich in mafic minerals that give it a dark colour, generally dark grey to
black. See Fig. and Fig. is a chart from the Earth Science. Reference Tables that can help us to
understand and classify igneous rocks primarily by colour and texture. The rocks with the smallest
crystals (fine-grained, extrusive rocks) are at the top of this chart.

Fig. : Granite and basalt. Granite is a light-coloured, coarse-grained igneous rock.

Basalt contains much smaller crystals and is relatively dark in colour.
In these rocks, the grains of the different minerals are too small to be readily visible without
magnification. Below them are the coarse igneous rocks in which it is easy to see the different minerals.
Variations in mineral composition occur between the light-coloured (felsic) rocks, such as granite and
rhyolite on the left side of the chart, and the mafic rocks, such as basalt and gabbro on the right side.
Along with this variation in composition (felsic to mafic) comes a change not only in colour (light to dark)
but also a change in density. We may not be able to feel that a mafic rock is heavier than a felsic rock
of the same size, but the difference is measurable.
 Fig. : Classification Chart for The Most Common Igneous Rocks

The difference in density will become important when we consider the interior of our
planet. Among the terms that we will find on the chart is vesicular. A vesicular texture refers to the gas
pockets, called vesicles, that are common in extrusive igneous rocks. When magma rises, the decrease
in pressure causes trapped gases to form bubbles. This is similar to what happens when we open a
bottle of carbonated soda. Bubbles in soda are trapped by carbon dioxide. But the gas bubbles that
form in lava are mostly water vapour, which escapes into the atmosphere. Scoria has large vesicles, and
may look like cinders from a fire.
Pumice has smaller gas bubbles, and it can be so light it may float on water. Pumice is sometimes
sold as an abrasive used to scrape the gratings of barbecue grills. If we forget what vesicular means,
we have to look at the top, the right portion of the chart where we will find the word vesicular just
above the two words gas pockets in parentheses. At the top of the chart is a texture called glassy.
Sometimes lava cools so quickly it forms a rock that looks like a shiny, dark, glass material. This is
obsidian. If obsidian (also known as volcanic glass) contains crystals, they are too small to be seen even
under a microscope. The properties of the other igneous rocks listed in the Scheme for Igneous Rock
Identification
can be determined from the rock s position on the chart.
For example, pegmatite appears at the bottom left of the chart. Like other igneous rocks on the
left, pegmatite is relatively light in colour. Its position at the bottom means that pegmatite is composed
of very large crystals. The bottom section of the Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification is called Mineral
Composition. This section shows the minerals that are common in igneous rocks. For example, granite
usually contains potassium feldspar, quartz, plagioclase, biotite, and amphibole.
If we imagine a vertical line running directly below the word granite and into this section, we will
see that quartz and potassium feldspar make up about 66 per cent of the volume of granite. The
percent of each mineral is indicated by the scale that appears on each side of the Mineral Composition
section of the chart. The composition of basalt is under the word Basalt near the other side of the
chart. Basalt is mostly plagioclase and pyroxene. The mineral composition of igneous rocks is variable.
The various compositions of each rock are enclosed by the dotted lines. This chart is a good
example of how much information is available in the Earth Science Reference Tables. The good news
is that these charts should be available to you whenever they can help us with labs or tests. However,
we will need to understand how to use the charts and what the words on the chart mean. The most
common igneous rocks have characteristics that will help us to identify them as igneous. Igneous rocks
are made of mineral crystals such as those we can observe in granite, although the crystals may be
too small to see without magnification.
Most igneous rocks do not show layering. While lava flows may occur in pulses that turn into thick
layers of igneous rock, small samples seldom show layering. Some fine-grained igneous rocks contain
rounded holes made by the escape of gases trapped in the magma. If we observe these textures, we
are probably looking at an igneous rock. (See Fig.)

Fig. : Scoria is an igneous rock that contains large air pockets. As the magma rises to the surface the
decrease in pressure causes the gases, such as water vapour and carbon dioxide, to expand,
forming pockets. The gases escape into the atmosphere.

Fig. : Four Textures Common in Igneous Rocks.

Mineralogically and chemically, intrusive rocks are essentially identical to volcanic rocks.
Volcanic rocks are fine-grained (or glass) due to their rapid solidification; intrusive rocks
are generally coarse-grained, which is inferred to mean that the magma crystallized
slowly underground.
Experiments have confirmed that most of the minerals in these rocks can form only at
high temperatures. Other experiments indicate that some of the minerals could have
formed only under high pressures, implying they were deeply buried. More evidence
comes
from examining intrusive contacts,
Preexisting solid rock, country rock, appears to have been forcibly broken by an
intruding
liquid, with the magma flowing into the fractures that developed. Country rock,
incidentally,
is an accepted term for any older rock into which an igneous body intruded.
Close examination of the country rock immediately adjacent to the intrusive rock usually
indicates that it appears baked, or metamorphosed, close to the contact with the
intrusive rock.
Rock types of the country rock often match xenoliths, fragments of rock that are distinct
from the body of
Igneous rocks in which they are enclosed.
In the intrusive rock adjacent to contacts with country rock are chill zones, finer-grained
rocks that indicate magma solidified more quickly here because of the rapid loss of heat
t6o cooler rock.
Of all the igneous rocks named on the Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification in the Earth
Science Reference Tables, or Fig., we are most likely to encounter just seven in our Earth science
course. These seven igneous rocks are very easy to tell apart, and they show the range of properties
of igneous rock. Granite is a coarse-grained, felsic (light-coloured) igneous rock. Its overall colour is likely
to be light gray or pink. Because of slow cooling the mineral crystals are large enough to be visible
without magnification. Rhyolite is the fine-grained equivalent of granite.
Rhyolite is light coloured and felsic in composition. Rapid cooling of the magma has resulted in
very small mineral grains that are unlikely to be readily visible. Gabbro, like granite, is composed of large
crystals because of slow cooling of the magma. (It is coarse-grained.) Unlike granite, gabbro is mafic
in composition, which means that it is composed primarily of the dark minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
Basalt has a mineral composition similar to gabbro s, so it is also relatively dark in colour. However,
basalt cooled so quickly that, as in rhyolite, the individual mineral grains might be too small to see without
magnification. The next two igneous rocks share an unusual feature.
Scoria and pumice are both full of air pockets. This is an indication that they probably formed from
magma rich in dissolved gases, such as water vapour, and ejected from a volcano during a violent
eruption. The pockets in pumice are small enough that individual pockets are not obvious. Scoria has
larger pockets and looks like cinders. Volcanic glass is also called obsidian. The term glass describes
its smooth texture, which results from rapid cooling of lava that had little dissolved water or gases. It is
usually black due to the even distribution of dark minerals, even though the mineral composition of
volcanic glass is most often felsic. See Fig.

Fig. : The glassy texture of obsidian (volcanic glass) indicates that it cooled very quickly.

Fig. : Collection of Igneous Rocks

How Igneous Rocks are Formed ?
Igneous Rocks are formed by crystallizing melted material (magma). They can form either on the
surface (extrusive igneous rocks), or deep in the crust (intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks).
Volcanoes are places where magma erupts as lava or ash.
Extrusive igneous rocks can be in the form of:
lava flows
ash
Intrusive rocks can be in the form of:
batholiths
dykes
sills
laccolits

Fig. : Extrusive igneous rocks & Intrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks are called intrusive when they cool and solidify beneath the surface. Intrusive rocks
form plutons and so are also called plutonic. A pluton is an igneous intrusive rock body that has cooled
in the crust. When magma cools within the Earth, the cooling proceeds slowly. Slow cooling allows
time for large crystals to form, so intrusive igneous rocks have visible crystals. Granite is the most
common intrusive igneous rock (see Fig. below for an example).

Fig. : Granite is made of four minerals, all visible to the naked eye: feldspar (white), quartz
(translucent), hornblende (black), and biotite (black, platy).
 Igneous rocks make up most of the rocks on Earth. Most igneous rocks are buried below the
surface and covered with sedimentary rock, or are buried beneath the ocean water. In some places,
geological processes have brought igneous rocks to the surface. Fig. below shows a landscape in
California s Sierra Nevada Mountains made of granite that has been raised to create mountains.

Fig. : California s Sierra Nevada Mountains are intrusive igneous rock exposed at Earth s surface.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are called extrusive when they cool and solidify above the surface. These rocks
usually form from a volcano, so they are also called volcanic rocks (Fig. below).

Fig. : Extrusive igneous rocks form after lava cools above the surface.
Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more rapidly than intrusive rocks. There is little time for
crystals to form, so extrusive igneous rocks have tiny crystals (Fig. below).

Fig. : Extrusive igneous rocks

 Some volcanic rocks have a different texture. The rock has large crystals set within a matrix of
tiny crystals. In this case, the magma cooled enough to form some crystals before erupting. Once
erupted, the rest of the lava cooled rapidly. This is called porphyritic texture.
Cooling rate and gas content create other textures (see Fig. below for examples of different
textures). Lavas that cool extremely rapidly may have a glassy texture. Those with many holes from gas
bubbles have a vesicular texture.

Fig. : Different cooling rate and gas content resulted in these different textures.

Fig. : Samples of common igneous rocks and their relationship to the classification Diagram

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Difference between an Extrusive and Intrusive Igneous Rock
The difference between an Extrusive and Intrusive igneous rock is the way in which they cool.
An Extrusive igneous rock cools very fast on the surface and is created by lava. Since the cooling
process is very fast extrusive igneous rocks have very small crystals (fine grained). On the other hand
an Intrusive igneous rock cools very slowly beneath the surface and is created by magma. Since the
cooling process is very slow intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained). In some
instances there is also a third type of igneous rock. Technically it is an extrusive rock, but it resembles
glass. This glass type of igneous rock forms when magma/lava is instantly cooled.
Intrusive rocks come from magma. They cool slowly deep in Earth's crust. When magma cools
underground, the crust acts like a blanket, insulating it, keeping it warm longer. Because the magma
cools slowly, crystals of different minerals have time to grow. The molecules in the magma have time
to arrange themselves into crystal formations before the magma hardens. Intrusive rocks have large
crystals that can be seen with the naked eye. A common example of an intrusive igneous rock is granite.
Extrusive igneous rocks come from lava. Lava, at the surface, is exposed to air and water which
causes the molten rock to cool rapidly. Solidifying rocks at the surface cool too quickly for large crystals
to form. Molecules in the lava do not have time to arrange themselves to form large crystals. Extrusive
rocks have crystals that are too small to see without magnification. A common example of an extrusive
igneous rock is basalt. Some extrusive rocks, such as obsidian and pumice, cool so rapidly that they
completely lack crystal structure and are considered a volcanic glass. Pumice is just like obsidian except
it is tiny shards of glass.
Texture
Within the two main categories of intrusive and extrusive, rock can be classified even further using
texture and chemical composition. The word "texture" has nothing to do with how the rock feels.
Texture, in geology, is used to describe how the rock looks. The most noticeable textural feature of
igneous rocks is grain size. Grain size refers to the size of the individual mineral crystals. As mentioned
above, intrusive igneous rocks, such as granite have large, individual crystals visible to the naked eye. The
textural term used to describe a rock with large crystals is coarse-grained. In contrast, fine-grained rocks,
such as basalt, are igneous rocks that have crystals too fine to see with the naked eye. Under
magnification they are still very small but easily identifiable with a few optic tests. Quickly-cooled lavas
can contain trapped bubbles of gas, which are called vesicles. The resulting texture is described as
vesicular.
Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of igneous rock can often be estimated just from looking at the rock.
Geologists look at the proportions of light-coloured and dark-coloured minerals in an igneous rock to
estimate the chemical makeup of rock. Light-coloured or felsic, minerals have more silica in them. Silica
is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and is the chief component of quartz. Felsic minerals
are most often colourless, white, grey or pink but can be any number of colours. The dark, or mafic,
minerals are richer in iron and magnesium. Mafic minerals are chiefly black, brown, dark grey and
sometimes green.
The composition of a rock may refer either to its chemical composition or the proportions of
minerals in it. These different compositional aspects are related but may lead to some confusion at
times. Nearly all igneous rocks are composed principally of silicate minerals, which are most commonly
those included in Bowen s Series: quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, muscovite, biotite, hornblende,
pyroxene, and olivine. Of these, the first four (and any feldspathoids present) are felsic minerals (from
feldspar + silica), and the latter four are mafic (from magnesium + ferric iron). Generally, felsic refers
to the light-colored silicates (feldspars, quartz, and feldspathoids), whereas mafic refers to the darker
ones, but composition has precedence (e.g., smoky quartz and dark feldspars are felsic). In addition to
these principal minerals, there may also be a number of accessory minerals, present in small quantities,
usually consisting of apatite, zircon, titanite, epidote, an oxide or a sulfide, or a silicate alteration product
such as chlorite.
 The mineral proportions of the rock are what allows geologists to classify rocks chemically. Depending on
the proportion of light minerals to dark minerals, igneous rocks can be broken into four main types: felsic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic. The following list gives more information about
igneous chemical categories.
Felsic rocks are high in silica (65% +). They are usually light-coloured. Some examples are:
Rhyolite (extrusive) and granite (intrusive).
Intermediate rocks have lower silica content (55-65%). They are darker than felsic rocks but
(liignhtrtuesr itvhea).n mafic rocks. Some examples are: Andesite/dacite (extrusive) and
diorite/granodiorite
Mafic rocks have low silica content (45-55%). They are usually dark-coloured and contain iron
and magnesium. Some examples are: Basalt (extrusive) and gabbro (intrusive). Basalt is the rock that
is produced at spreading ridges and makes up the sea floor.
Ultramafic rocks have extremely low silica content (less than 45%) and contain large amounts
of iron and magnesium. They are usually dark-coloured, but high olivine content can lend green shades
to the rock. Other rare colours can be found. An example of ultramafic rock is Peridotite (intrusive).
Purely chemical terms such as silicic, magnesian, alkaline, and aluminous that refer, respectively,
to the SiO
2, MgO, (Na2O + K2O), and Al2O3 content of a rock may also be used, particularly when the
content of some particular component is unusually high. Silica content is of prime importance, and the
term acidic is synonymous with silicic. Although based on the outdated concept that silicic acid is the
form of silica in solution, even in melts, the term is still in use. The opposite of acidic is basic, and the
spectrum of silica content in igneous rocks has been subdivided as follows:
Acidic>66 wt. % SiO
2
Intermediate52 66 wt. % SiO
2
Basic45 52% wt. % SiO
2
Ultrabasic<45 wt. % SiO
2
Igneous Intrusive Rocks
An intrusion is a body of igneous (created under intense heat) rock that has crystallized from
molten magma. Gravity influences the placement of igneous rocks because it acts on the density
differences between the magma and the surrounding wall rocks (country or local rocks). In general,
silica- rich magmas are less dense than wall rocks, while silica-poor magmas are similar in density to
wall rocks. Because of this, lower density intrusions take different shapes to higher density intrusions.
Low-density magmas (such as granitic magmas) are more buoyant in their invasions and cause
subsidence of the surrounding wallrocks. High-density magmas (such as basaltic magmas) are closer in
hydrostatic equilibrium with the surrounding wallrocks.
Types of Intrusions
Dykes : Dykes are sheet-like bodies of igneous rock that cut across sedimentary bedding or
foliations in rocks. They may be single or multiple in nature. Dykes often have a fine-grained margin
where they were chilled rapidly against the wallrocks. Small dykes tend to be fine-grained while
large
dykes tend to be coarser grained.
Silica-Rich Intrusions
Stopped Stocks : Stopping happens when a rising magma breaks off jointed blocks from the
overlying country rock. The magma forces its way into the cracked roof and fragments of the wallrock
sink into the magma. These fragments within the magmatic rock are known as xenoliths and can
range in size from less than a millimetre up to tens of kilometres. The xenolith-rich Corralillo
granodiorite of Peru is a good example, where xenoliths are concentrated near the roof of the
intrusions (roof pendants)
but become smaller and more rounded when digested further within the intrusion.
In the Thorr granodioritic pluton of Donegal, Ireland many of the xenoliths are large (several
hundred metres) and their origin (e.g. limestone, schist) is still recognisable and can be correlated with
the surrounding rock structures. This means there was little movement in the xenoliths after they we re
incorporated from their parent rocks.
 Fig. : (A) Cracks and bedding planes are planes of weakness. (B) Concordant intrusions where
magma has intruded between sedimentary layers are sills; discordant intrusions are dikes.
Ring Dykes and Bell-Jar Plutons
Ring dykes form a cylinder around a subsided block of country rock, filling the ring-shaped
fracture with magma. Excellent examples of ring dykes are seen on the island of Mull, Scotland. Large
subsidence of a core of country rock can also form a circular pluton in the shape of a bell-jar.
Centred Complexes
In composite intrusions, some are arranged in concentric rings. These often formed as rings of
intrusion spread outwards from a focus. These are called centred complexes.
Sheeted Intrusions
Some intrusions form relatively flat-lying sheets, often with an undulating surface.
Diapiric Plutons : Diapirs are circular-shaped intrusions with vertical walls that force their way
into place, strongly deforming the surrounding country rocks. The diapirs probably rose as buoyant
magma, forcing their way up and through the denser country rocks. Diapirs are generally unfoliated
(unbanded) in their centre. They become more foliated (banded) towards the contact with the country
rocks, where numerous xenoliths have become more flattened. The foliation and flattening of the
xenoliths runs parallel to this contact. The adjacent surrounding country rocks are intensely deformed and
stretched out parallel to the intrusion.

Fig. : Diapirs of Magma Travel Upward from the Lower Crust and Solidify in The Upper Crust
Batholiths : In many parts of the world, granites extend for many hundreds of kilometres in large masses
called batholiths. These are not single intrusions but usually composite intrusions of similar magmas. The
individual plutons in batholiths vary in size but the largest are about 30 km across. The individual plutons
can show quite different forms and ages of emplacement (sometimes separated by millions of years). At
the surface, granites in batholiths often weather and erode into rounded masses called tors. The massive
batholiths represent repeated and voluminous production of magmas during a period of plate tectonic
activity. An excellent example is the Berridale Batholith of the Snowy
Mountains,
New South Wales.
Silica-Poor Intrusions
These denser magmas crystallise into several different shapes :
Flat-Lying Sheets : Flat-lying sheets (sills) range in size from less than a metre thick up to huge
intrusions underlying thousands of square kilometres. The Whin Sill of northern England is up to 100 m
thick and intrudes an area of over 5000 square kilometres. Although sills typically intrude along the
surrounding rock layers, almost all large sills vary in thickness and transgress into higher layers when
mapped over a large area. These transgressions can occur as abrupt steps. The dolerite sills of the
Karoo South Africa, the Transantarctic mountains and Tasmania occur as undulating discordant sheets.
Laccoliths : Laccoliths are lens-shaped intrusions where magmas were emplaced like a sill
b
i nettrwuseieonn ss.edimentary layers but then bulged up into a dome. This commonly happens in
dioritic An excellent example of a laccolith is the Prospect intrusion of Sydney, New South Wales.
Cone Sheets : Cones are thin intrusive sheets that expand upwards and outwards in cones.
Individual sheets are generally a few metres thick, but arranged so that the outer cones dip at lower
angles to the inner ones so that they all converge towards a common source at depth.
Funnel-Shaped Intrusions : These have a much thicker top that plunges down to a very narrow
neck. A classic example is the Skaergaard intrusion of Greenland.
Funnel Dykes : Funnel dykes are elongated in outcrop like a dyke but with a V-shaped cross-
section that narrows downwards. All known examples are very large (over 100 km in length). The Great
Dyke of Zimbabwe is over 700 km long and the Jimberlana dyke of Western Australia is over 180 km long.
Lopoliths : Lopoliths are the largest known intrusions of dense magma and form a thick saucer
shape within the surrounding country rocks. A famous example is the Bushveld Complex of South Africa,
which is over 550 km across and up to 8 km in thickness. Lopoliths contain many important economic
deposits of nickel, copper, platinum, palladium and chromium. The Sudbury intrusion of Ontario, Canada
formed in an oval-shaped depression probably caused by a large meteorite impact.
Dyke Swarms : Dykes reach their highest numbers in dyke swarms, which may form lines or
radial patterns. Radial dykes usually converge on volcanic centres or igneous intrusions. Linear dyke
swarms are more extensive than radial dyke swarms but can also be concentrated around large intrusions
or volcanic centres. In south-eastern Iceland, the Cenozoic lava succession is cut by thousands of
aligned near-vertical basaltic dykes averaging less than a metre thick.
Diatremes : Diatremes are steep pipe-like bodies filled with fragments of both igneous rocks and
wallrocks. They form by explosion which results from the release of contained carbon dioxide gas (CO
2)
and water vapour (H
2O) near the surface. Some very silica-poor magma types are economically important
as the host rocks for diamonds.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks form when magma reaches the Earth's surface a volcano and cools
quickly. Most extrusive (volcanic) rocks have small crystals. Examples include basalt, rhyolite, andesite,
and obsidian. Extrusive igneous rocks or volcanics, form when magma makes its way to earth's surface.
The molten rocks erupts or flows above the surface as lava and then cools forming rock. The lava
comes from the upper mantle layer, between 50km and 150km below the earth's surface.
 When lava erupts onto the earth's surface, it cools quickly. If the lava cools in less than a day
or two, there is no time for elements to form minerals. Instead, elements are frozen in place within
volcanic glass. Often, lava cools over a few days to weeks and minerals have enough time to form
but no time to grow into large crystals.
Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Andesite is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase with other
minerals such as hornblende, pyroxene and biotite.

Fig. : Andesite
Scoria is a dark-coloured, vesicular, extrusive igneous rock. The vesicles are a result of trapped
gas within the melt at the time of solidification. It often forms as a frothy crust on the top of a lava flow
or as material ejected from a volcanic vent and solidifying while airborne.

Fig. : Scoria
Rhyolite is a light-coloured, fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock that typically contains quartz and
feldspar minerals.

Fig. : Rhyolite
How to Spot an Extrusive Rock ?
The first clue is crystal size. Crystals take time to grow. Once it erupts on the surface, lava cools
down very quickly because the air is much colder than beneath the volcano. Often, the lava cools down
so quickly that there is only enough time for tiny crystals to form. Sometimes, the rock will cool so
quickly
that there is not enough time for any crystals to form. Obsidian is an extrusive volcanic rock that cools
so quickly that it forms a glass rather than forming individual crystals.
Some extrusive igneous rocks will have bigger crystals set within a finer matrix. These rocks are
called porphyritic. Don't be confused by this because these are still extrusive rocks, despite having
some
large crystals. In the case of these rocks, the bigger crystals actually formed deeper within the volcano,
where they had enough time to grow to a larger size. However, these crystals were then carried to the
surface by a liquid magma, where they erupted and the rest of the magma cooled. Because the
majority of the lava cooled on the surface, these porphyritic rocks are extrusive.
Fig. : This rock is extremely unique because it shows the contact between intrusive and extrusive
rock types. The left lighter side is an intrusive rock (granite) because you can clearly see its
crystals. The right side is an extrusive rock (basalt). The crystals on the extrusive side are so
small that you cannot see them without a microscope.