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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecohyd

The Ecohydrological Approach in Water Sowing and

Harvesting Systems: The Case of the Paltas Catacocha
Ecohydrology Demonstration Site, Ecuador
Marco Albarracín a,b,c,d,∗, Galo Ramón e, Jorge González a, Carlos Iñiguez-Armijos f,
Thomas Zakaluk g, Sergio Martos-Rosillo d,h
a
Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Quito, Ecuador
b
International Society for Ecohydrology (ISEH), Faro, Portugal
c
UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
d
Iberian-American Network for Water Sowing & Harvesting in Natural Protected Areas
e
Fundación de Desarrollo COMUNIDEC, Quito, Ecuador
f
Laboratorio de Ecología Tropical y Servicios Ecosistémicos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Técnica
Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
g
Universidad de Granada, Granada, España
h
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Granada, España

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water sowing and harvesting (WS&H), a term adopted from Latin America, is an ancestral
Received 7 June 2021 process that involves gathering and infiltration (sowing) of rainwater, surface runoff, and
Revised 28 July 2021
groundwater to recover it (harvesting) later and/or elsewhere. The WS&H systems follow
Accepted 29 July 2021
the approaches of integrated water resource management, nature-based solutions and the
Available online xxx
recovery of ancestral knowledge for water management. In this paper, we present some
Keywords: representative types of WS&H in Latin America, Spain, and Portugal, and then, we focus
water sowing and harvesting on the Paltas Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site in southern Ecuador as a study
ancient practices case. The recovery of such local ecohydrological knowledge in the study case has made
artificial wetlands enabled the regulation and retention of water in the aquifers through the restoration of
ecohydrology artificial wetlands (cochas) and stream dams (tapes or tajamares). Also, this ancestral way of
water management water management has recently supported and reactivated several biological aspects and
Ibero-America human activities. The experience of the Paltas Catacocha site shows that there are more
Ecuador
appropriate and sustainable alternatives to gray infrastructure projects for water resources
Andes
management and denotes the need to study ancestral water and soil management systems.
© 2021 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction gion, 26% of the population do not have access to drink-

Awareness has grown in the 21st century that wa-
ter is a scarce resource (World Economic Forum, 2015).
For instance, in the Latin American and Caribbean re-
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marcoalbarracin@gmail.com (M. Albarracín).
ing water and 69% have no appropriate sanitation systems
(JMP, 2019; Paltan et al., 2020). Therefore, to generate low-
cost and eco-friendly alternatives to facilitate the path to-
wards achieving the Agenda for Sustainable Development
Goals is a must-to-do task to access clean water and sani-
tation (UN, 2015).
The artificial recharge of aquifers via green infrastruc-
ture is an alternative that has many advantages over

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2021.07.007
1642-3593/© 2021 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: M. Albarracín, G. Ramón, J. González et al., The Ecohydrological Approach in Water Sowing
and Harvesting Systems: The Case of the Paltas Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site, Ecuador, Ecohydrology &
Hydrobiology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2021.07.007
JID: ECOHYD
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M. Albarracín, G. Ramón, J. González et al.
the construction of water reservoirs. Aquifers are the
main store of fresh and unfrozen water on the planet
(Gleeson et al., 2016), reduce water losses due to evap-
oration, and protect water from contamination, among
others (Sprenger et al., 2017). To recharge aquifers, the
retention of rainwater and surface runoff in the sub-
soil through nature-based solutions (NbS), such as the
construction of artificial wetlands and simple infrastruc-
tures for water infiltration, has been used by many cul-
tures throughout history (Albarracín et al., 2019; Castro
& Fernández, 2007; Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020; Ochoa-
Tocachi et al., 2019; WWAP/UN-Water, 2018). For instance,
Ochoa-Tocachi et al. (2019), mention as examples the qanat
systems in northern Africa and the Middle East, the paar
in the western Rajasthan region of India, the careo system
in Spain and the amunas in Peru, among others. Many of
these practices have been maintained over time and are
currently presented as valid options for adaptation to cli-
mate change, resilience to desertification processes, and for
the sustainability of river basins.
In several Latin American countries and in the Iberian
Peninsula, ancestral aquifer recharge practices have been
grouped into what has been called water sowing and har-
vesting (WS&H) systems. This process involves the catch-
ing of rain and/or runoff water and its infiltration into
the aquifers (sowing), and then the recovering of that
groundwater afterwards (harvesting) through intakes at
springs, drainage galleries, and wells or simply through
the diversion of water from waterways, increasing the dis-
charge due to these ancestral water management systems
(Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020).
Seen as a transdisciplinary approach to support the in-
tegrated management of water and natural resources, eco-
hydrology emphasizes the need to understand the close
interplay between the abiotic and biotic aspects within a
watershed to develop management tools (Acreman, 2001;
Baird & Wilby, 1999; McClain et al., 2012; Rodriguez-
Iturbe, 20 0 0; Zalewski, 20 0 0, 2013; Zalewski et al.,
1997). As a scientific discipline, ecohydrology is based
on a ‘double regulation’ between hydrology and biota
(Zalewski et al., 1997). In turn, the principles of the eco-
hydrological approach are based on the understanding that
water is the driver of all biotic and ecosystem structures.
Thus, the generation of ecohydrological solutions based on
nature are focused on improving the capacity of the wa-
tershed to recover from external impacts (e.g., anthropic,
climatic, demographic, etc.), strengthening its potential for
sustainability in terms of water, biodiversity, ecosystem
services, resilience, and cultural heritage (WBSR-C) in man-
agement models (Albarracín et al., 2019; Zalewski, 2013,
2018).
In this work, we aim at presenting and describing
some of the most representative types of WS&H in Ibero-
America, and then focus on the Paltas Catacocha Eco-
hydrology Demonstration Site in southern Ecuador as a
study case. We also demonstrate how WS&H systems
and the ecohydrology approach complement each other as
tools for the integrated management of water resources in
seasonally-dry environments.
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2. Sowing and harvesting of water in Ibero-America
The WS&H systems of Ibero-America are water manage-
ment models that apply NbS and recover ancestral knowl-
edge (Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020; Ochoa-Tocachi et al.,
2019). Overall, a WS&H system is characterized by the
management of the rate of flow from rainwater, snowmelt
and runoff for its subsequent infiltration into the sub-
soil. The infiltrated water ends up reappearing in springs
downstream or is caught through infiltration galleries or
wells. In this manner, it is possible to retain water in the
aquifers to use it during the dry periods for irrigation, do-
mestic uses, drinking troughs, etc. (Barberá et al., 2018;
Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019, 2020; Ochoa-Tocachi et al.,
2019; Yapa, 2013, 2016). For instance, in Latin America
and in the Iberian Peninsula there are several sites ap-
plying WS&H systems with well documented evidence
(Fig. 1).
WS&H systems are commonly used by Andean com-
munities and denote the close relationship between pre-
Columbian inhabitants and the yakumama (in Quechua,
yaku = Water and mama = Mother) (Ochoa-Tocachi et al.,
2019; Yapa, 2013). This ancestral worldview has been
maintained over time and contains the indigenous wisdom
of water management that has been used in arid and semi-
arid areas in the Andean highlands (Ochoa-Tocachi et al.,
2019). Likewise, in the Sierra Nevada of Spain such an-
cestral practices have been continuously used since the
Arab culture settled in southern Spain, a territory known
to Muslims as Al-Andalus (Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019).
In Peru and Ecuador, the most common WS&H sys-
tem is known as qochas or cochas (Quechua for lake or
pond), also called albarradas, atajados, jagüeyes, pataquis
(Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020), or high-altitude wetlands
(Ramón, 2018), which are artificial ponds for infiltration
(Fig. 2A, C). These infiltration ponds are generally in ero-
sive depressions of glacial and periglacial origin where
water tends to be retained naturally. The permeability at
the bottom of the ponds allows a slow water infiltration
and consequently the aquifer recharge. On many occasions,
the storage capacity of the ponds is increased through
the construction of low-tech dams (Martos-Rosillo et al.,
2020). The size of the ponds is variable, but their sur-
face water storage capacity can be considerably large, giv-
ing them a lake-like appearance (Fig. 2C). Also, altogether
those ponds can store large amounts of water, e.g. in
Quispillacta (Ayacucho, Peru) the community manages 102
artificial ponds that together store around 1.7M m3 of wa-
ter (MINAGRI, 2016). There are shallow ponds known as
cuchacuchas, waterbodies between 2 m and 12 m in diame-
ter with depths ranging from 0.3 m to 0.6 m, and a storage
capacity significantly lower than cochas. They are mainly
found above 4,0 0 0 m a.s.l. and generally in arid zones of
the Andean highlands (Yapa, 2016).
WS&H systems also vary in types which are briefly de-
scribed below. The tajamares or tapes (Fig. 2B), very com-
mon in arid environments of Ecuador, consist of small
dams disposed along intermittent rivers and ephemeral
streams (IRES) to dam water during the rainy season and
favor its infiltration to be captured downstream through
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Fig. 1. Synthetic hydrogeological map indicating the location and type of the main water sowing and harvesting (WS&H) systems in South America, Central
America and the Iberian Peninsula (Modified from BGR-UNESCO, 2008 and Martos-Rosillo et al. 2020).
dug wells or infiltration galleries (Martos-Rosillo et al.,
2020). The same WS&H system has been also used ances-
trally in countries like Kenya (Lasage et al., 2008).
Acequias de careo in Sierra Nevada (Fig. 2D and 2F) and
amunas or mamanteos in Peru (Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020;
Ochoa-Tocachi et al., 2019) consist of unlined canals dug in
the ground (irrigation ditches) which are designed for wa-
ter infiltration in the upper parts of the mountain slopes
(Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019). The two types of canals are
over a thousand years old; amunas were built by pre-Inca
cultures in South America while acequias de careo by mus-
lim settlements in the Iberian Peninsula. In both cases, the
need to increase the rate of flow during in dry periods led
to an understanding of the natural processes necessary to
manage water wisely.
Bofedales in the Andes (Fig. 2E) and borreguiles in the
Sierra Nevada are wetlands with associated hydrophilic
vegetation and diffuse groundwater discharge areas that
serve to feed camelids, sheeps, and livestock. In many of
these wetlands, the construction by locals of complex canal
networks (called camellones or acequias) to spread the wa-
ter promotes the growth of the vegetation simultaneously
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increasing the water regulation capacity, which allows that
water flows slowly from springs and waterways down-
stream (Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020).
As shown above, most WS&H systems are linked to
the existence of ancient cultures with a knowledge of na-
ture and the water cycle in particular. Also, certain cir-
cumstances across sites are repeated such as a marked
intra-annual rainfall seasonality, recurrent droughts, geo-
logical substrates of moderate permeability, and sloping
aquifers. Many of the WS&H systems are living examples of
what is currently known as NbS (WWAP/UN-Water, 2018),
which are widely recognized as an alternative or a com-
plement to the construction of multipurpose gray infras-
tructure (Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020; Bridgewater, 2018).
For instance, as an example of the negative impact of
gray infrastructure, we can mention the dams. Hydropower
dams influence the nutrient balance and biogeochemical
cycles in aquatic ecosystems due to factors such as hy-
draulic retention time, variations in the proportions of ni-
trogen, phosphorus and solutes, changes in water temper-
ature, etc. (Albarracín, 2014). They can even affect coastal-
marine ecosystems by decreasing their ecosystem produc-
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Fig. 2. Types of WS&H systems used in Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. A) Cocha or albarrada at the Pisaca mountain in Ecuador during the dry
season in 2010 (photo credit: Municipality of Paltas). B) Tajamares or tapes during the rainy season in an ephemeral stream at the Pisaca mountain in
Ecuador (photo credit: José Romero). C) Panoramic view of the Pisaca’s cocha or albarrada during the rainy season (photo credit: Carlos Rosales). D) Water
flow diverted with an acequia de careo in the southern face of Sierra Nevada in Spain. E) Irrigation canals or bofedales or camellones in Caquena, Iquique,
Chile (photo credit: Luciano Mateos). F) Panoramic view of a recharging area using an acequia de careo in Sierra Nevada, Spain.

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tivity (Chícharo, 2018). However, a combination of gray in-
frastructure with a well-managed catchment using NbS so-
lutions could mitigate the environmental negative impact,
while simultaneously providing socio-economic co-benefits
(Bridgewater, 2018). As an example, the application of im-
proved landscape management and farming practices to
reduce the sedimentation in the reservoir of the Itaipú Hy-
dropower Dam in Brazil and Paraguay has multiplied its
economic life expectancy by six-fold, while improving farm
productivity and farmer’s incomes (Kassam et al., 2012. In
WWAP/UN-Water, 2018). Therefore, WS&H systems could
be integrated into the IWRM of a catchment.
Undoubtedly, WS&H systems show numerous advan-
tages such as the availability of water in dry periods thanks
to the infiltration of water into the subsoil during the rainy
season. Ochoa-Tocachi et al. (2019) indicate that through
the amunas or mamanteos in Huamantanga, Peru, the wa-
ter is retained for 45 days on average, with a transit time
of two weeks to eight months in the aquifer. Likewise, in-
filtration ditches (acequias) reduce erosion and runoff on
slopes (Locatelli et al., 2020; Somers et al., 2018). Also, it
has been shown that the irrigation ditches in Spain allow
the recharge of groundwater in the slopes retaining the
runoff from the thaw in the watersheds where it is prac-
ticed (Barberá et al., 2018; Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020). Na-
tive vegetation, as well as biodiversity in general, is notably
enhanced in areas using WS&H systems compared to sites
where they had not been implemented (Albarracín et al.,
2019; Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019; Yapa, 2013).
3. The ecohydrological approach
As a transdisciplinary science applied to solving prob-
lems related to water, nature, and society, ecohydrology
seeks to increase the sustainability of the basins based on
the close relationships between hydrological, geomorpho-
logical, and biological processes. Deeply understanding of
such relationships can be used as a systemic framework
to identify the ecosystem properties that can be used as
tools to strengthen the integrated management of water
resources and guarantee the environmental services. To ap-
ply the ecohydrological approach three sequential princi-
ples are proposed, i.e. the hydrological, ecological, and the
ecological engineering (ecohydrological) principles. During
the development of the first two principles, the possi-
ble necessary interventions (e.g. NbS) are recognized to
address the identified issues. Additionally, the improve-
ment of the watershed sustainability is managed from the
point of view of five multidimensional aspects: water, bio-
diversity, ecosystem services, resilience, and cultural her-
itage (WBSR-C). For more details see Bridgewater (2018),
Zalewski (20 02, 20 06, 2018) and Zalewski et al., (1997,
2008).
WS&H systems have goals in common with ecohydrol-
ogy and the two approaches can be enhanced, integrated,
and complemented. All WS&H systems emphasize water
flow management to address issues that put the water se-
curity of human-made systems at risk. Thus, the WS&H
systems do not only improve biodiversity, increase ecosys-
tem services such as water supply, and enhance resilience
and adaptive capacities to climate change, but also safe-
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guard or recover the concomitant ancestral knowledge de-
veloped through centuries.
On the other hand, ecohydrology has developed in-
novative solutions to problems such as the contamina-
tion of water resources. For example, sequential biofiltra-
tion systems (SBS) are used as ecohydrological biotech-
nologies for the mitigation of non-point agricultural pollu-
tants (Bednarek et al., 2010, 2014; Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017),
while molecular tools can contribute to the assessment
of water quality (Mankiewicz-Boczek, 2012) and tracers
help to evaluate the efficiency of constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment (Headley & Kadlec, 2007). In sum-
mary, both WS&H systems and ecohydrology propose NbS,
ancestral knowledge, and scientific development to achieve
water security in the long term.
4. The Paltas - Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration
Site
In 2018, UNESCOś Intergovernmental Hydrological Pro-
gram (IHP) recognized the Paltas Catacocha WS&H sys-
tem as an Ecohydrology Demonstration Site (hereafter De-
mosite). As indicated above, an artificial pond or qocha
such as Pisaca in the Paltas Catacocha Demosite is an ex-
ample of a WS&H system since rainwater and runoff are
derived towards the pond to recharge the aquifer. After the
rehabilitation of this site, locals have perceived that biodi-
versity has increased as well as some environmental ser-
vices, especially the availability of drinking and irrigation
water (GAD Paltas, 2017). However, scientific evidence is
needed to quantify the real benefits of this WS&H system,
which in turn poses the Demosite as a hotspot for research
development. In addition, the site highlights the rescue of
ancient knowledge for water management. Below, we de-
scribe the Paltas Catacocha Demosite focusing on hydro-
logical and ecological aspects as well as the integration of
ancestral practices and cultural heritage to find ecohydro-
logical NbS.
4.1. Demosite description
The Paltas Catacocha Demosite is located at coordinates
4°04 05” S, 79°37 11” W in the San Pedro Mártir catchment
(SPMC) in the Paltas cantón (municipality) of the province
of Loja in southern Ecuador (Fig. 3). Within the SPMC, at
1,876 m a.s.l., is located the city of Catacocha, the main
settlement of Paltas with approximately 7,0 0 0 inhabitants.
The SPMC is the main source of water for the zone sup-
plying more than 80% of the water used in domestic and
agricultural activities.
The SPMC is part of the Catamayo River Basin, which
is part of the Catamayo-Chira binational basin shared be-
tween Ecuador and Peru. The SMPC covers an area of 31.5
km2 and the main stream extends along 3.25 km from
the Pisaca pond. The catchment is composed by a den-
dritic fluvial network conformed by several intermittent
and ephemeral streams commonly found in the seasonally
dry environments of the Ecuadorian Pacific. Elevation of
the SPMC ranges from 1,320 to 2,413 m a.s.l., the average
slope is around 12% and the flooding risk is low.
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Fig. 3. Location of the San Pedro Mártir catchment (SPMC) within the Paltas Cantón in the province of Loja in southern Ecuador.

On the eastern slopes of the Pisaca mountain, at 2,075 meable because it is on a superficial weathered zone that
m a.s.l., an artificial pond of the same name is located, influences the soil formed by andesitic rocks allowing the
which is fed by a canal built around the mountain to di- recharge of superficial aquifers and the increase of the base
vert the superficial runoff. The bottom of the pond is per- flow for streams and springs. The Pisaca pond was restored

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Fig. 4. Precipitation (mm) and discharge (L/s) in the SPMC estimated from data of a nearest weather station for the period 1990-2015. Data source: INAMHI,
Catacocha meteorological station (cod. M- 515).
between 2005 and 2008 in the site that shows evidence of
the presence of an ancient artificial wetland attributed to
the pre-Inca culture known as Paltas. The pond was dried
out between 1948 and 1958 by a private owner in order to
use the land for agriculture and livestock. This pond would
not be the only one existing in the area. There is evidence
that the city of Catacocha (cata = large and cocha = pond
in quechua) was built on a terrain where the largest pond
in the area used to be (Albarracín et al., 2019). Therefore,
the drying out of these water bodies would be one of the
main causes of the depletion of aquifers in the area, lead-
ing to restricting the water supply in the city to only half
or one hour per day in 2001 (GAD Paltas, 2017).
4.2. The Hydrological Principle
The Paltas Catacocha Demosite is located in an area
with a shortage of water. Precipitation is influenced by
cold ocean currents and orographic conditions. The cold
ocean currents coming from the Pacific Ocean produce a
process of desertification that advances from the south
to the east of the Andes in Chile and Peru reaching
the southwestern Ecuador (Garreaud, 2009; Ochoa-
Tocachi et al., 2019). On the other hand, topographically
in the province of Loja, the Andes present an altitudinal
depression. This condition has produced a convergence
micro-zone perpendicular to the Inter Tropical Conver-
gence Zone (ITCZ) (OEA, 1994). These conditions are the
main causes for water to be a scarce resource in the
area.
The SPMC lacks a weather monitoring system but
we used data from the nearest weather station (2 km
approx., Catacocha station, cod. M-515, INAMHI) to un-
derstand both precipitation and discharge. In the area,
during the period 1990-2015 the rainfall regime was
unimodal with precipitation occurring from December
to May with the maximum peak occurring in March
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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (xxxx) xxx
(261.66 mm) and the minimum in August (2.43 mm)
(Fig. 4). Rainfall can occur during short periods and in only
a few days can accumulate most of the annual precipita-
tion. Also, there have been registered severe drought pe-
riods that have lasted for years. For example, according to
CAN (2009), between 1967 and 1969 there was an extreme
case of water scarcity that caused one of the largest emi-
grations in the province of Loja.
The current flow of the San Pedro Mártir stream de-
pends mainly on the rainfall and the water derived from
the Pisacaś qocha (see Fig. 5). As far as we know, there
are no gauging stations or discharge data for the San Pe-
dro Mártir stream. Therefore, using the precipitation data
between 1990 and 2015 from the nearest weather station,
we estimated discharge applying the Rational Method. This
method calculates the estimated peak rate of storm runoff
as the product of the catchment area, a peak rate of rain-
fall, and a runoff coefficient. The maximum average dis-
charge occurs in March, while the minimum in August
(Fig. 4). We predict that the discharge of the San Pe-
dro Mártir stream is actually higher during the dry
months due to the contribution of the water derived from
the WS&H system in the area. However, having an in-
situ field monitoring system and hydrogeological research
are crucial to provide better information for decision
making.
In terms of water security, the main problem in
the area is related to the extended dry period (May-
December). Thus, considering that water supports ecosys-
tems and human activities, appropriate water manage-
ment practices in the site can help to face the dry sea-
son. This was a very clear permanent concern for the an-
cient Paltas culture settled in the area that managed their
water resources by retaining water in artificial wetlands
(Ramón, 2018). However, such ancestral knowledge was
lost in the process of westernization that started in the
Spanish colonial period.
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Fig 5. Land use and land cover of the SPMC. (Modified from MAE, 2013 and MAG, 2015).

4.3. The ecological principle such as the availability of water, changes in temperature,
and the availability of nutrients (Baird & Wilby, 1999;
From an evolutionary point of view, terrestrial ecosys- Zalewski, 2002). In addition, hydrology has had an ef-
tems have adapted to variable environmental conditions fect on the distribution, structure, and functions of ecosys-

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tems, but also the biological processes of the ecosystem
have an effect on the hydrological cycle (Nuttle, 2002;
Zalewski et al., 1997). The ecosystems in the SPMC are
adapted to a seasonally dry environment leading to unique
relationships between all their biological and hydrological
elements.
In the SPMC there are two terrestrial ecosystems ac-
cording to MAE (2013). The lower montane semi-deciduous
forest widely dominates the landscape followed by the
foothill semi-deciduous forest. However, the anthropic ac-
tivities have largely transformed the ecosystems of the
SPMC. The land use and land cover (Fig. 5) indicate that
the predominant native vegetation is forest (32%), followed
by scrublands (27%), herbaceous (19%), pasture (15%), ur-
ban (5%), and agriculture (2%). The landscape of the SPMC
displays a high anthropic intervention where the ecosys-
tems have undergone transformations that could be af-
fecting the structure of the biological communities and
their close relationship with the ecosystems processes
(MAG, 2015).
4.4. The ecohydrological principle
The construction of the albarradas or qochas in the
SPMC is aimed at recharging aquifers via storing rain-
fall and retaining the runoff from the mountaintop. These
nature-based infrastructures are mainly found on sites that
have been established for conservation. The areas adjacent
to the albarradas have been reforested with native plants
and the ponds have hydrophilic vegetation. Even if water
fluxes have not been studied yet, locals suggest that the
plants are helping to maintain humidity and promote wa-
ter infiltration. Currently, there are several albarradas and
tajamares built within the SPMC (Fig. 6). Also, to enhance
the influence of the WS&H system, and thanks to private
and public initiatives, two natural areas (green infrastruc-
ture) have been designated to protect water resources and
biodiversity.
Since the beginning of the recovery of the wetlands
from 2005 to 2013, a total of 28 albarradas have been built
in the SPMC (Fig. 6). The total water storage capacity of
the ponds is 182,482 m3 with an average of 6,517 m3 per
pond. The largest albarrada is an artificial pond called by
the locals as "Laguna Pisaca" and can store about 78,422
m3 , while the smallest one 143 m3 . Seventeen out of 28
albarradas, including the largest one, are in the Pisaca Re-
serve owned by a NGO called Nature and Culture Interna-
tional (NCI). These 17 albarradas have a storage capacity of
149,794 m3 , which is 82% of the total water storage ca-
pacity. The other albarradas are located on private proper-
ties of local farmers. For more details, see Albarracín et al.,
(2019) chapter 14th .
According to the inhabitants of Catacocha, in 20 0 0 the
municipal supply of water decreased to one hour per day.
But, after the restoration of the Pisaca pond and the imple-
mentation of new albarradas, the water supply in house-
holds has increased up to six hours per day (GAD Paltas,
2017). This fact fostered the construction of more albar-
radas and tajamares and, at the same time, generated en-
vironmental awareness in the authorities who decided to
protect new lands deemed important as water sources.
9
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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (xxxx) xxx
Also, the community is committed with the manage-
ment of the SPMC. Associations of students and farm-
ers are responsible for its maintenance, reforestation, pro-
tection, etc. They coordinate efforts with local authori-
ties and civil organizations such as NGOs. Also, the na-
tional government, through the Green Prize of the Devel-
opment Bank of Ecuador, recognized the value of these ini-
tiative and funded the construction of new infrastructure
and other activities in the SPMC. These new albarradas are
distributed in new sites within the SPMC, including the
northern part at high and medium altitudes.
Additionally, 150 new tajamares were constructed and
136 were maintained. Finally, the authorities are officially
protecting and conserving 1,401 ha in water-supplying
areas. Reforestation with native species, protection and
maintenance of the streams, and other ecohydrological ini-
tiatives have been also implemented for the management
of the catchment.
4.5. Cultural heritage and ecohydrology: intercultural
dialogue around the environment
Modern environmental discourses, based on sustain-
ability of natural resources, are not always accepted by
poor communities that survive from its daily use. Also,
the scientific indicators of causality are not well under-
stood by non-Western communities. In many cases, mag-
ical, mythical, cyclical or religious explanations have much
more force because they are an essential part of their cul-
ture and their identity. For instance, in the Paltas territory
the peasants explained the disappearance of water sources,
the continuous droughts, the variability of rainfall, and the
progressive loss of soil fertility are because of the “theft
of the Torito Cango”, a mythical bull, son of the mountain
goddess Pisaca, that made the rain start when it mooed
(Albalá, 1995; Ramón, 2018). This explanation led the peas-
ants to an attitude of resignation and longing, and scien-
tists to an arrogant disregard for popular beliefs. In such
conditions, there was a dialogue of the deaf, or rather, a
paralyzing isolation.
One of the possible solutions of this enormous gap is
the intercultural approach because it values the knowledge
of the other, seeks communication bridges, is open to dif-
ferent points of view, and is willing to build new things
from a respectful interaction (Pérez & Argueta, 2011). This
new approach has allowed discovering that behind those
supposedly simple myths, a sophisticated ancestral system
of water management developed by the Paltas culture was
hidden. Unfortunately, such heritage was persecuted, de-
spised, and destroyed by the long colonial process and af-
terwards (Ramón, 2008, 2015). Myths in the Andes do not
constitute a mechanism to disguise or distort reality, they
are rather supra-historic and often historical constructions
that communicate knowledge which must be decoded to
be understood.
In the study area, we proceeded to collect myths, sto-
ries, legends, and traditions in multiple meetings called
mingas. In these meetings, storytellers of all ages, men and
women, shared their stories taking as a general reference
the themes of water, rains, fertility, and droughts. On sev-
eral occasions, we found that the same story had different
JID: ECOHYD
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M. Albarracín, G. Ramón, J. González et al.
Fig. 6. Location and reference time of the constructed albarradas and tajamares in the Paltas-Catacocha Demonstration Site. Location of the natural areas
to protect the water sources is also indicated.
versions. It was set in different locations, evoked various
mythical beings, changed over time incorporating new ele-
ments or discarding others. Thus, the myth itself had a his-
torical evolution. This finding gave rise to extensive docu-
mentary research to search aspects of ancient water man-
10
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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (xxxx) xxx
agement displayed in wills, land disputes, property titles,
and interviews. In the documents appeared drawings of
extinct artificial wetlands (qochas), the existence of small
dams to control runoff (tajamares or tapes), water reser-
voirs (pilancones), among others. This information gener-
JID: ECOHYD
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M. Albarracín, G. Ramón, J. González et al.
ated meticulous fieldwork to observe and evaluate the ves-
tiges and those systems that still survived.
The linguistic work was also enlightening. For instance,
the name of the mountain goddess herself Pisaca means
partridge, a highly valued bird in the area, but also a myth-
ical goddess related to the rain cycle, and even a "dark
constellation" called Lluthu (Salazar, 2009). Little by lit-
tle, the ancient water management system described in
myths, vestiges, tutelary gods, petroglyphs, tacines, stone
carvings, beliefs, and evidence was aligned in a coherent
whole. As a result of this intercultural dialogue, it was pos-
sible to understand that the management system included
both understanding of, and predictions for, the hydrologi-
cal system. Also, we came to know the appropriate ways of
management and adaptation, the development of different
techniques, and the organization of work and society.
The Paltas people created a climate prediction system
managed by shamans who, supported by the consump-
tion of entheogenic plants, tried to anticipate the events
(rains, droughts, frosts, hailstorms, winds, floods, and mass
movements) that influence agricultural activity and hu-
man life. They also developed a set of measures of social
and spatial organization, risk dispersion, adaptation, mit-
igation, exploitation and even mediation with the deities
(Ramón, 2008). The climate prediction system demanded
from them an enormous knowledge of hydrological cycles,
dialogue, and the interpretation of complex and diverse
signs of cosmic, meteorological, and biological elements.
They also considered dreams and rituals to predict their
possible variations in order to guide actions that could in-
fluence singular and collective changes (from individual se-
crets to collective actions).
Meanwhile, the development of measures to face or
take advantage of variability demanded a complex societal
organization and the development of creative technologies
that, shared by all, were appropriate to the various chal-
lenges. The myth tells that the mountain goddess Pisaca
challenged her two suitors (the hills Cango to the west and
Guanchuro to the east of the mountain) that she would
give her love to the one who would provide the most wa-
ter. Cango won because he brought rain for four or five
moons, while Guanchuro only provided a few downpours.
Then she had a son with Cango who, being located to the
west, brought the waters from the sea in the events of El
Niño. But she never stopped flirting with Guanchuro, who
brought her a few rains from the Amazon, right in the
middle of summer, key showers to let the fruit trees flour-
ish. The myth codified the cycle of rains and the influence
of the great currents that regulate them.
They built ponds to collect rainwater in the months of
high rainfall after understanding that the rainfall system
was highly variable, that in the region have no high
mountains with glaciers, that irrigation is difficult because
the rivers and streams are located in gullies, that in the
terrain there is a rapid runoff and high erosion. They also
realized that because soils are not very permeable, there
is a low infiltration, and that waterways tend to dry out.
They determined that there are many months with high
solar radiation and strong winds, and that the combination
of both increases notably evapotranspiration reducing soil
moisture. They were located in the upper section of the
11
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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (xxxx) xxx
SPMC, in the sites with the greatest infiltration capacity
(altered and fractured rocks). In order to be sure that
the infiltrated water fed the target areas, they carefully
observed in the driest month the green line of certain
plants keeping their leaves because of soil moisture. This
made it possible to follow the direction of the subsurface
flow in this shallow aquifer. The myth of the Torito Cango
indicates that the bull only consumed “herbs from the
qochas”, thus those who stole it also had to take the
hydrophilic plants from the wetlands.
To maintain moisture in the soil they took care of the
headwater forests and protected the slopes with abundant
vegetation reducing erosion, and surface runoff, and creat-
ing a wet microsystem (Ramón, 2008). Also, these forests
capture moisture by intercepting the mist. To retain wa-
ter in their fields they created an agroforestry garden that
combined tall, shrubby, and creeping plants that imitated
the forest. Up to 56 associated species were combined in
those gardens (for. e.g., food, forage, medicines, and wood)
to protect the soil from wind erosion and solar radiation
(Ramón, 2015). They built those small dams in the streams
called tajamares to control runoff creating small ponds that
retain sediments, moisten the bank shores, and favor the
growth of protective plants for biodiversity (fish, snails, ed-
ible and medicinal plants). In the driest areas, they built
sunken terraces to keep moisture allowing farming in the
dry season. They built water reservoirs called pilancones at
the top of the orchards, and irrigation systems for dry pe-
riods and intensive production (Ramón, 2019).
Finally, they integrated the water management system
with the sacred territorial ordering, ritual calendars, power
management and relationship with the cosmos and super-
natural beings. They organized the ayllus (the basic Andean
social nucleus) into two groups that emphasized comple-
mentarity, community arrangements that were respected,
collective sanctions for transgressions of the norms, and
recognition of those who maintained harmony. They cre-
ated a ritual of all the space with sacred alignments that
united deities, ponds, springs, and ritual sites. They created
an agricultural and ritual calendar that organized the ac-
tivities of the society and the regulations of respect and
harmony. There was a cultural discourse that supported
practices and technologies that were appropriate for the
environment and that could be managed by the commu-
nity. The ritual exchanged the carved figure of the goddess
Pisaca with the carved figure of the mountain god Cango,
following the ritual line marked with the rock carvings.
The system was complete and obvious, only eyes were
missing to appreciate it.
5. Final remarks
Since the middle of the last century, the solutions to
water management problems have been searched exclu-
sively through the use of concrete and so-called gray in-
frastructure. In all that time, the ancestral knowledge of
the local indigenous and peasant communities has been
belittled. In some of the examples of WS&H systems de-
scribed in this work, a period of continuous operation of
more than a thousand years has been found. These sys-
tems have enabled the surmounting of drastic climatic
JID: ECOHYD
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M. Albarracín, G. Ramón, J. González et al.
and social changes that occurred during that time. They
are therefore resilient water management systems that can
serve as a proven example of adaptation to climate change.
They are also tools to minimize the effects of droughts and
have an indisputable cultural, social, and economic inter-
est. All of the above highlights the importance of the re-
search done on them.
The benefits provided by these systems and their tan-
gible and intangible values have deserved special atten-
tion and protection from different international institutions
such as UNESCO. However, these ancient water manage-
ment systems are at risk. The aging and reduction of the
local population, migration, the abandonment of local wa-
ter management systems, and mining, among other causes,
are contributing to drastically reduce the existence of these
ancient water and soil management systems. We must pre-
vent the interruption of the intergenerational transmission
of knowledge and the implantation of new forms of unsus-
tainable development. These systems of sowing and har-
vesting water require a greater effort for their preserva-
tion. This will be a contribution to the sustainable develop-
ment of disadvantaged populations, with minimal energy
and environmental costs.
The case of the Paltas Catacocha Ecohydrology Demon-
stration Site is an example to follow. It is a WS&H system
that improves the sustainability of the catchment in terms
of WBSR-C. The understanding of the hydrology of the area
determined that the long dry period (May - December) is
the main problem to be solved. By managing the runoff in
albarradas and tajamares the aquifers are recharged, allow-
ing a greater availability of water in the dry season. In this
way, the ecosystem services that depend on the water re-
source are increased while the resilience of the system is
enhanced and the effects of climate change mitigated. In
addition, the demonstration site is recognized for its im-
portant inclusion of ancestral knowledge that agrees with
the principles and foundations of ecohydrology. However,
it is necessary to conduct more scientific research that,
hand in hand with ancestral knowledge, will contribute
through this dialogue to a better and necessary harmony
between human beings and nature.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None declared.
Ethical Statement
The research was done according to ethical standards.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank to the Master Program in Water Re-
sources Management of the Universidad Politécnica Sale-
siana. Thanks to the Municipality of Paltas, the Univer-
sidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Nature and Culture In-
ternational, and the Intergovernmental Hydrological Pro-
gram (IHP) of UNESCO for their continuous help in the im-
plementation of ecohydrology in Ecuador. Additionally, we
thank to the Universidad de Granada, Spain, for financial
support of one of the authors (Ref. P18-RT-3836). We also
12
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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (xxxx) xxx
thank the Ibero-American Program of Science and Tech-
nology for Development (CYTED) for the financial support
of the network WS&H in Natural Protected Areas (Siem-
bra y Cosecha del Agua en Áreas Naturales Protegidas) (Grant
419RT0577).
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