Chapter 5 – SUBSURFACE WATER

SUBSURFACE WATER

The expression subsurface water (as distinguished from ground water) includes all water below
the land surface. The types of subsurface water of importance to the engineer are those that change
in quantity and therefore constitute items in the change-in-storage factor of the hydrologic
equation. On this basis the following types of subsurface water are of interest:

a. soil moisture (water) – defined as water existing in the soil zone or “root zone,” the zone
from the land surface to the depth of root penetration;
b. intermediate-zone water – existing in the sector below the root zone and above the
ground-water capillary fringe;
c. capillary-fringe water – rising above the saturation zone by capillary forces; and
d. groundwater – the general water body in the zone of saturation and the major subsurface
water storage item.
Occurrence of Subsurface Water

xerophytes

Soil water

Gravitational
Vadose zone

or influent stream
intermediate perched groundwater
vadose water artesian well
phreatophytes
spring
Capillary water

clay layer
Phreatic water water table
(groundwater)
Phreatic zone

aquiclude
Water in
unconnected pores Effluent stream

Artesian
water

Schematic cross section showing the occurrence of groundwater

The above figure is a schematic cross section of the upper portion of the earth’s crust with an
idealized column showing a suggested classification of subsurface water. The two major
subsurface zones are divided by an irregular surface called the water table. The water table is the
locus of points (in unconfined material) where hydrostatic pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Above the water table, in the vadose zone, soil pores may contain either air or water; hence it is
sometimes called zone of aeration. In the phreatic zone, below the water table, interstices are filled
with water; sometimes this is called zone of saturation. The phreatic zone may extend to
considerable depth, but as depth increases, the weight of overburden tends to close pore spaces
and relatively little water is found at depths greater than 3 km.
Local saturated zones sometimes exist as perched groundwater above an impervious layer
of limited extent. Groundwater is sometimes overlain by an impervious stratum to form a
confined, or artesian water. Confined groundwater is usually under pressure because of the weight
of the overburden and the hydrostatic head. If a well penetrates the confining layer, water will rise
to the piezometric level, the artesian equivalent of the water table. If the piezometric level is above
ground level, the well discharges as a flowing well.

MOISTURE IN THE VADOSE ZONE

Three moisture regions can be identified within the vadose zone. In the region penetrated by
roots of vegetation, ranging to 10 m below the soil surface is the soil water, which fluctuates in
amount as vegetation removes moisture between rains. Above the water table, moisture is raised
by capillary into the capillary fringe, which may have a vertical extent of several centimeters to
about a meter depending on the pore sizes of the material. If the water table is close to the ground
surface, the capillary fringe and the soil-moisture region may overlap, but where the water table is
deep, an intermediate region exists where moisture levels remain constant at the field capacity of
the soil and rock region.
The amount of water in storage in the root zone ordinarily varies between the limits of field
capacity and the wilting point. Field capacity is the amount of water that soil subjected to excess
infiltration will retain against the pull of gravity. The wilting point is the near-dry condition,
which, if prolonged, causes plants to wilt beyond recovery.
The amount of water in storage in the capillary fringe depends on the height of the fringe
and the porosity of the earth material. Capillary rise is higher in the case of a falling water table
than in the case of a rising water table because of lag in capillary movement and because of
irregularity in size of the openings.
The amount of water in storage in the intermediate zone varies mainly with the thickness of
the zone. Generally this zone is at, or above, field capacity, since no roots are present to draw
water upon the water and reduce it below field capacity.
Movement of Soil Moisture
Infiltration is the movement of water through the soil surface into the soil as distinguished
from percolation, the movement of water through the soil. When water is first applied to the soil
surface, gravity water moves down through the larger soil openings while the smaller surface
pores take in water by capillarity. Capillary pores also take in the downward-moving gravity
water. As capillary pores at the surface are filled and intake capacity is reduced, the infiltration
rate decreases. In homogenous soil, infiltration decreases gradually until the zone of aeration is
saturated. Normally, the soil is stratified, and subsoil layers are often less permeable than the
surface soil. In this case, the infiltration rate is eventually limited to the rate of percolation through
the least pervious subsoil stratum.
Infiltration from rainfall usually occurs with very shallow depths of water on the soil
surface. Quantities of water infiltrated are usually only of the order of 10 cm per day and rarely
sufficient to saturate a great depth of soil. When rain stops, gravity water remaining in the soil
continues to move downward as at the same time is taken up in capillary-pore spaces. Usually the
infiltrated water is distributed within the upper meter of soil, with little or no contribution to
groundwater unless the soil is highly permeable or the vadose zone thin.
Movement of moisture in soil is governed by the moisture potential following the equation

q = -K
x
where q is flow per unit time through unit area normal to the direction of flow, x is distance along
the line of flow, K is conductivity, and  is potential. After gravity water left the soil, the
principal component of total potential is the capillary potential. The above equation states that
flow is from a region of high potential to region of low potential. Conductivity increases with
moisture content and decreases with pore size. Thus capillary movement decreases as soil dries
and is least in fine-grained soil.

MOISTURE IN THE PHREATIC ZONE

Within the phreatic zone all pore spaces are filled with water, and the different states of
moisture, moisture tension, etc., are of little concern. Interest is centered on the amount of water
present, the amount that can be removed, and the movement of this water.
Aquifers
An aquifer is a body of earth material capable of transmitting water through its porous
openings in sufficient quantity to be of use for water supply purposes. An aquiclude consists of
earth material which can absorb water but whose openings are so small that the rate of
transmission is too slow for extraction by wells (ex. clay). An aquifuge is earth material that has
no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water (ex. rocks)
The amount of groundwater that can be obtained in any area depends on the character of the
underlying aquifer and the extent and frequency of recharge. The capacity of a formation to
contain water is measured by the porosity, which is the ratio of the pore volume to the total
volume of the formation. Porosity is a poor indication of permeability. Clay, almost impermeable
to transmission of water, has a higher porosity than most sands and gravels. At the other extreme,
closely packed gravel may have a low porosity, but because of the large size of the openings it
may be highly permeable.
The specific yield of an aquifer is the ratio of the water that will drain freely from the
material to the volume of the formation and is always less than the porosity. It is less than the
porosity because part of the pore space is occupied by water, which will not drain. The specific
yield of clay is almost zero, while its porosity is often as high as 40%. That part of the pore space,
which will not drain is called specific retention, which is about the same as the field capacity. The
specific yield plus the specific retention equals the porosity.
Problem 5.1 - In an area of 1.40 hectares, the water table drops 4.50 m. If the porosity is 0.30 and
the specific retention is 0.10, compute the specific yield and the change in storage
in hectare-meters.
Solution
Specific yield = porosity – specific retention
= 0.30 – 0.10 = 0.20
Change in storage = 0.20 (1.40)(4.50) = 1.26 ha-m.
If the water table drops within the root zone, the change in storage is eventually more than the
product of change in water level and specific yield, because the roots will extract part of the
specific retention water, reducing the soil moisture below field capacity.

Material Porosity, Specific yield, Permeability Intrinsic

% % m2 x m-1 m-1 permeability
Clay 45 3 0.0004 0.0005
Sand 35 25 41 50
Gravel 25 22 4100 5000
Gravel and sand 20 16 410 500
Sandstone 15 8 4.1 5
Dense limestone and shale 5 2 0.041 0.05
Quartzite, granite 1 0.5 0.0004 0.0005

Approximate average porosity, specific yield, and permeability of various materials

Movement of Groundwater
In 1856 Darcy confirmed the applicability of principles of fluid flow in capillary tubes, to
the flow of water in permeable media. Darcys law is
v = ki
where v is the velocity of flow, i is the slope of the hydraulic gradient, and k is a coefficient
having the units of v (meters per day).
The actual velocity varies from point to point through the medium. On the average, the
actual velocity at which water is moving through an aquifer is given by
v
vave = (seepage velocity)
n
The discharge q is the product of area A and velocity. The effective area is the gross area times the
porosity n of the medium. Hence
q = KniA = kiA
The coefficient k is called the coefficient of permeability or the hydraulic conductivity. It is
dependent on the properties of the fluid and the medium, and can be expressed as
w w
k = K = C d2
 
where K is the intrinsic permeability of the medium, w is the specific weight of the fluid,  is the
absolute viscosity, C is a factor involving the shape, packing, porosity, and other characteristics of
the medium, and d is the average pore size of the medium.
The intrinsic permeability is expressed in darcys, which have the dimension of area (one
darcy = 0.987 x 10-8 cm2) and the hydraulic conductivity k has the dimension of velocity.
It is convenient to use the transmissibility, T to represent the flow rate per day through unit
area under unit hydraulic gradient:
T = kY
where Y is the saturated thickness of the aquifer. With this coefficient, discharge could be
computed using the equation
q = Tbi
where b is the width of the aquifer.
Problem 5.2 – At station A the water table elevation is 196 m above sea level, and at B the
elevation is 192 m. The stations are 335 m apart. The aquifer has a permeability of
12 m3 day-1 m-2 and a porosity of 14%. What is the actual velocity of flow in the
aquifer?
Solution

• Sta. A (Elev = 196 m)

Sta. B (Elev = 192)

•

335 m

vs = v/n
196 – 192
v = ki ; i = = 0.01194
335
k = 12 m3/day.m2 = 12 m/day
v = 12 m/day (0.01194 ) = 0.14328 m/day
v 0.14328
vs = = = 1.0234 m/day
n 0.14
Problem 5.3 – A soil sample has a coefficient of permeability of 3 x 10-7 cm3 s-1 cm-2. What is its
intrinsic permeability at 25 oC?
Solution
w
k = K ; w = 1 g/cm3
  = 0.0911 x 10-4 g-s/cm2 (dynamic viscosity of water at
25 oC)
1 g/cm3
-7 3 2
3 x 10 cm / s-cm = K
0.0911 x 10-4 g-s/cm2

K = 2.733 x 10-11 cm2

Discharge of Groundwater
Groundwater in excess of the local capacity of an aquifer is discharged by
evapotranspiration and surface discharge. A route for direct discharge by transpiration to the
atmosphere is provided whenever the capillary fringe reaches the root system of vegetation. When
the capillary fringe nears the ground surface, increasing quantities of water may be evaporated
directly from the soil.
Streams intersecting the water table and receiving groundwater flow are called effluent
streams. Perennial streams are generally effluent through at least a portion of their length.
If the water table or an artesian aquifer intersects the ground surface, water is discharged as
surface flow. If the discharge rate is low or the flow is spread over a large area, diffuse seepage
may occur and the water does little more than wet the ground from which it evaporates. A large
discharge from an aquifer concentrated in a small area is a spring. Large springs are generally
associated with fissures or caverns in the rocks. Springs associated with aquifers of large extent
and moderate or low permeability usually flow at relatively constant rates. Springs receiving their
flow from small or highly pervious aquifers may fluctuate widely in discharge and sometimes dry
up during droughts.
 spring

water table
Spring
Water hole or dimple spring

Impervious

Anticlinal spring

Pervious cover
Water table

Spring
Spring

Impervious

Perched spring

Spring from solution channel

Types of Springs

Φ Ψ Ω ξ ζ Σ Ψ Φ A CURSE Φ Ψ Σ ζ ξ Ω Ψ Φ

Anybody who reproduces this book without permission from the author is
doomed to fail in the Board Examination.

J. A. P
HYDRAULICS OF WELLS
Underground water constitutes an important source of water supply. The stratum of soil in
which the water is present is known as an aquifer. On the basis of their hydraulic characteristics,
wells are divided into two categories: gravity or water - table wells, and artesian or pressure
wells. If the pressure at the surface of the surrounding underground water is atmospheric, the well
is of the gravity type; if this pressure is above atmospheric because an impervious soil stratum
overlies the aquifer, the well is artesian.
The Equilibrium Equations for Flow of Water into Wells
When a water table is pumped, there is a drawdown of water in its vicinity and the hydraulic
gradient assumes a slope toward the well, thus forming an inverted cone of depression with the
well at the apex. The base of the cone is called the circle of influence. In the equilibrium analysis it
is assumed that no further drawdown will occur, and all water passing through the cylinder
extending downward from the circle of influence will be pumped out of the well.
R2
Q Pumping well
Static water table R1
Observation wells

z1 z2
Drawdown

Cone of H
Depression h1 h2

Gravity well

 k (h22 - h12)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)
where: h1, h2, R1, R2 are in meters
k = coefficient of permeability in m/hr
Q = discharge in m3/hr

The above equation can be simplified further by noting that

h22 – h12 = (h2 + h1)(h2 – h1)
and that if Z is small compared with H, h2 + h1 = 2 H, therefore,
2 k H (h2 – h1)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)
 since
h2 + h1
T  k  kH
2
Then
Q ln (R2 / R1)
T = --- (Transmissibility or Transmissivity)
2 (h2 – h1)

R2

Q R1

Confined aquifer h1 h2K H = thickness of aquifer

Artesian well
2 k H (h2 – h1)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)

Specific Capacity
A relationship suggested by the equilibrium formulas is that the output varies directly as the
drawdown. This has been found to be approximately true in practice, and it is therefore possible to
express the output of a well in terms of flow per unit drawdown, this is known as the specific
capacity. For example, if a well after prolonged pumping produces 600 m3/h and the drawdown
from the static level is 65 m, the specific capacity is 9.23 m3.

Problem 5.4 - A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the following
measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping was 10.6 x 10-3 m3/s; drawdowns
in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the pumping well
were 1.6 m and 1.4 m respectively, from the initial groundwater level. The initial
groundwater level was located at 1.9 m below ground level. Determine the
coefficient of permeability of the aquifer.
Solution
R2 = 30 m
Q
R1 = 15 m

1.9 m

15 m
h2
h1

 k (h22 - h12)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)
h1 = 15 – (1.9 + 1.6) = 11.5 m
h2 = 15 – (1.9 + 1.4) = 11.7 m
 k (11.72 – 11.52)
-3 3
10.6 x 10 m /s =
ln (30/15)
k = 5.04 x 10-4 m/s (100 cm/1 m)
k = 5.04 x 10-2 cm/s

Problem 5.5 – A 30 cm diameter well penetrates 24 m below the static water table. After 24 hr of
pumping at 69 l/s the water level in a test well at 97.5 m is lowered 0.54 m, and in a
well 33.5 m away the drawdown is 1.1 m. What is the transmissibility of the
aquifer?
Solution
R2 = 97.5 m
Q
Static water table R 1 = 33.5

z1 = 1.10 z2 = 0.54

24 m
h1 = 22.9 h2 = 23.46
 Q ln (R2 / R1) 0.069 m3/s ln (97.5 / 33.5)
T = =
2 (h2 – h1) 2 (23.46 – 22.9)
T = 2.095 x 10-2 m3/s.m = 1810.08 m3/day per meter width

Problem 5.6 – An artesian well is pumped at the rate of 1.6 m3/min. At observation wells 150 m
and 300 m away the drawdowns noted are 0.75 m and 0.60 m respectively. The
average thickness of the aquifer at the observation wells is 6 m. Compute the
coefficient of permeability of the aquifer.
Solution
R2 = 300 m

Q R1 = 150 m

0.60
0.75

Confined aquifer h1 h2K H=6m

2 k H (h2 – h1)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)
h1 = y – z1
h2 = y – z2
(h2 – h1) = [(y – z2) - (y – z1)]
= (y – z2 – y + z1)
(h2 – h1) = z1 – z2
2 k H (z1 – z2)
Q =
ln (R2 / R1)
2 k (6 m)(0.75 – 0.60)
1.6 m3/min =
ln (300/150)
k = 0.196 m/min = 0.00327 m/s
CE Board May 2008
A test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. Water is pumped from the test well at
uniform rate of 69 liters per second for a period of 24 hours. Drawdown in two observation wells
located 35 m and 95 m from the test well were 1.1 m and 0.5 m respectively.
a. What is the flow rate in MLD?
b. What is the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in meters per day?
c. What is the transmissibility of the aquifer in square meters per day?
Solution
Q = 69 li/s
95 m

35 m

0.5
1.1

27 m

h1 h2
a. Flow rate in MLD
Q = 69 li/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)  1,000,000
Q = 5.962 MLD
b. Coefficient of permeability
 k (h22 - h12)
Q = h1 = 27 – 1.1 = 25.9 m
ln (R2 / R1) h2 = 27 – 0.5 = 26.5 m
 k (26.52 – 25.92)
0.069 =
ln (95/35)
k = 6.976 x 10-4 m/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)
k = 60.269 m/day
c. Transmissibility
T = k hw
= 60.269 m/day (27 m)
= 1627.263 m2/day
CE Board May 2010
A 300 mm test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. After 24 hours of pumping at 69
liters/sec, the water level in an observation well at a distance of 98 m from the test well is lowered
0.56 m and the other observation well at a distance of 34.5 m from the test well, the drawdown is
1.10 m.
a. What is the rate of flow in m3/day?
b. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day
c. Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m2/day
Q = 69 li/s = 0.069 m3/s
98 m
34.5 m

0.56
1.10

27 m

h1 h2
Solution
a. Flow rate
Q = 69 li/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)(1 m3/1000 li)
Q = 5961.6 m3/day
b. Coefficient of permeability
 k (h22 - h12)
Q = h1 = 27 – 1.10 = 25.9 m
ln (R2 / R1) h2 = 27 – 0.56 = 26.44 m
 k (26.442 – 25.92)
0.069 =
ln (98/34.5)
k = 8.113 x 10-4 m/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)
k = 70.095 m/day
c. Transmissibility
T = k hw
= 70.095 m/day (27 m)
T = 1892.575 m2/day
CE Board November 2012
A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. After 24 hours of
pumping at 69 liters/sec, the water level in an observation well at a distance of 95 m from the test
well is lowered 0.55 m and the other observation well at a distance of 35 m from the test well, the
drawdown is 1.10 m.
a. What is the rate of flow in m3/day?
b. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day
c. Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m2/day
Q = 69 li/s = 0.069 m3/s
95 m
35 m

0.55
1.10

27 m

h1 h2
Solution
a. Flow rate
Q = 69 li/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)(1 m3/1000 li)
Q = 5961.6 m3/day
b. Coefficient of permeability
 k (h22 - h12)
Q = h1 = 27 – 1.10 = 25.9 m
ln (R2 / R1) h2 = 27 – 0.55 = 26.45 m
 k (26.452 – 25.92)
0.069 =
ln (95/35)
k = 7.6169 x 10-4 m/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)
k = 65.81 m/day
c. Transmissibility
T = k hw
= 65.81 m/day (27 m)
T = 1776.88 m2/day
CE Board November 2017, CE Board May 2019
A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. After 24 hours of
pumping at 69 liters/sec, the water level in an observation well at a distance of 95 m from the test
well is lowered 0.50 m and the other observation well at a distance of 35 m from the test well, the
drawdown is 1.10 m.
a. What is the rate of flow in m3/day?
b. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day
c. Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m2/day
Solution
Q = 69 li/s = 0.069 m3/s
95 m
35 m

0.5 1.1

27 m

h1 h2
a. Flow rate
Q = 69 li/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)(1 m3/1000 li)
Q = 5961.6 m3/day
b. Coefficient of permeability
 k (h22 – h12)
Q = h1 = 27 – 1.10 = 25.9 m
ln (R2 / R1) h2 = 27 – 0.50 = 26.5 m
 k (26.52 – 25.92)
0.069 =
ln (95 / 35)
k = 6.9755 x 10-4 m/s (3600 s/hr)(24 hr/day)
k = 60.27 m/day
c. Transmissibility
T = k hw
= 60.27 m/day (27 m)
T = 1627.29 m2/day
Using formula,
Q ln (R2 / R1) 0.069 m3/s ln (95 / 35)
T = =
2 (h2 – h1) 2 (26.5 – 25.9)
3
0.069 m /s ln (95 / 35)
=
2 (26.5 – 25.9)
T = 1.8276 x 10-2 m3/s.m
= 1579.04 m3/day per meter width
Choose whichever is in the choices!