CE 478: GROUND ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GROUNDWATER RECOVERY

(Dr. Bukari Ali, Geological Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi)

1 Introduction
Ground water
This is water occupying openings, cavities and spaces in rocks or earth materials. The principal
source of ground water is precipitation or meteoric water. However, two other sources, juvenile
water and connate water, are occasionally of some consequence.

Juvenile water (primary) arises from a deep magnetic source, while connate water is that retained
by sediments from the water from which they were deposited. Juvenile and connate waters are
sometimes important sources of undesirable minerals in groundwater.

All water originated from liquids and gases vented through the solidifying crust of the primeval
Earth to form the atmosphere. Fluids released this way are called magmatic water, and small
quantities of magmatic water continue to enter the atmosphere.

Hydrological Cycle
Water moves in a regular cycle, being evaporated from the seas, carried as vapour in the
atmosphere and returned into the sea either directly or through some combination of over land
and underground routes. This pattern of movement is referred to as the hydrological cycle, and
its general character is as illustrated below (Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2).

Figure 1.1: A schematic presentation of the Hydrologic Cycle (Shaw, 1988)

Approximate distribution of water is as follows:

Seas and oceans 97.20%
Snow and Ice 2.14%
Groundwater 0.63%
Lakes and Rivers 0.02%
Water Vapour 0.01%

The amount of water that circulates into the ground depends on how precipitation is dispersed i.e.
on what proportions are assigned to immediate run-off and as evapotranspiration. The remainder
constitutes the proportion allotted to percolation. Geology significantly affects three stages of the
cycle; these are a) Infiltration, b) Percolation, and c) Groundwater flow.

Evapotranspiration Precipitation

Intercept Overland
flow
Infiltration

Channel network of
Unsaturated soil Interflow

streams
moisture

Groundwater
recharge

Saturated Base flow

groundwater
Figure 1.2: Block diagram of the simplified Hydrologic Cycle

Infiltration and Percolation

Infiltration is the movement of surface water into the ground and is closely related to percolation,
which is its subsequent movement to the zone of saturation. In reality, one cannot be separated
from the other. If the surface soils or rocks are porous and water infiltrates into the ground, it
will percolate downwards under the influence of gravity until it reaches the zone of saturation.
Infiltration is partially controlled by:
(i) the transmissive properties of the surface,
(ii) the stability of these properties under changing surface condition, and
(iii) the transmissive and storage properties of the material beneath the surface.

The rocks and soils which are most likely to permit appreciable infiltration have large pores and
fissures; poorly cemented gravels, grits and sandstones usually provide such surface as do soils
which have an open crumb structure, rocky slopes and colluvial fans, and jointed igneous,
metamorphic and well cemented sedimentary rocks. Infiltration most readily occurs through:
i. open fractures such as joints in exposed rocks,
ii. cracks that may develop in zones of tensile strain flanking areas of “mining” subsidence
and around landslides; and
iii. pores of the superficial deposits that cover most areas.

Deposits of gravel, sand and scree permit infiltration without difficulty. Clay-rich soils retard the
ingress of water; they also remain characteristically wet long after periods of rainfall. Vegetation
protects the delicate porous structure of many superficial deposits, especially the crumb-structure
of the topsoil. Grounds covered by vegetation have more uniform infiltration than bare ground;
the impact of raindrops may disturb the soil structure and render the surface impermeable.

The infiltration capacity is also influenced by the rate at which rainfall occurs (which also affects
the quantity of water available), the position of the zone of saturation, the initial ground moisture
content, the porosity and vegetation cover. Gentle rainfall infiltrates more than heavy rainfall. If
a soil is relatively dry when rain begins to fall, there is a strong capillary action in the subsurface

2 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

layers, which acts in the same direction as gravity and hence improves infiltration. The capillary
forces decline, and so the infiltration, as the surface layer becomes semi saturated.
The retention of water in the soil depends upon the capillary force and the molecular attraction of
the particles, and these depend on the dryness of the surfaces surrounding the voids. A measure
of the water requirement of a soil system is the moisture potential, which is expressed either as
the vacuum necessary to balance soil suction, or the logarithm of the head of water (in cm)
equivalent to the pressure difference between this vacuum and atmospheric pressure. Fine-
grained soils such as clays can develop high potentials when dry, which are satisfied only by
considerable quantities of water.

As the pores in the soil become thoroughly wet, the capillary force declines so that gravity
becomes more effective. When no more water can be held by the soil against the pull of gravity,
the soil is said to have reached its field capacity; the moisture potential is then 2.7. Further
supplies of water from infiltration drain to deeper levels and this water is described as gravity
water to distinguish it from capillary water, which is held on the surface of the soil particles. A
wetting front thus moves down through the ground. In this way, downward percolation can
continue after infiltration has ceased, but as the soil dries up so capillary becomes important. No
further percolation occurs after the capillary and gravity forces are balanced, thus water
percolates into the zone of saturation only when the retention capacity is satisfied. This means
that rains, which occur after the deficiency of soil moisture has been catered for, are the ones that
count as far as supplementing the groundwater supply is concerned.

The capillarity of a soil depends upon surface tension, which in turn depends upon size, shape
and packing of the grains. For example, clay develops a very high potential capillarity when dry
which is only satisfied by considerable amount of water, and as a result does not allow much
percolation to take place. Conversely, granular soils do not develop a high capillarity and
therefore allow water to percolate through them.

Although grain size and texture are important, mineral composition should not be overlooked,
particularly if the soils and/or rocks contain minerals that can expand when wetted. Clay
minerals of the montmorillonite group have this property because water can be taken directly into
their lattices. The disintegration or slaking that can accompany the wetting of shales and
desiccated clays should be noted.

The Water Table and Capillary Fringe

Percolating water may eventually arrive at a depth where all the voids are full of water, and the
moisture potential of the ground is zero (0). Water, which fill stable pores within the zone of
saturation is frequently referred to as phreatic water, and the upper surface is commonly referred
to as the water table. The pressure of pore water at this level is atmospheric; when a hole is
bored to this depth water collects at the bottom. Above the zone of saturation is the zone of
aeration in which both air and water occupy the pores. The water in the zone of aeration is
commonly known as vadose water. Meinzer (1942) divided this zone into three belts; those of
soil water, the intermediate belt and the capillary fringe. These zones are demonstrated in the
figure below (Fig. 1.3).
Percolating water will eventually reach a zone of saturation where all interconnect voids are full
of water. Just above the water table is a zone where all the voids are full of water yet there
remains in the ground unsatisfied capillary forces.

3 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

 Soil water Hygroscopic Discontinuous

Infiltration
capillary saturation
Aeration

Vadose
Intermediate Pellicular Semi-continuous

Percolation
capillary saturation

Capillary fringe Capillary Continuous capillary

saturation
Water table
Saturation

Phreatic
Phreatic Unconfined
Zone Groundwater groundwater

Figure 1.3 Zones of ground water (Meizer, 1942)

A hole drilled to just below this level will not encounter a static water level. The sides of the
hole will however be moist and water will drain out of the sides into the base where it will re-
enter the ground. On further deepening of the hole, a level will be reach where water from the
sides will collect and pond at the bottom. The stabilised water level of this pond is the water
table. Above this water level and the upper surface of the saturation zone is the capillary fringe
and the water in the pores is attracted to the soil skeleton by capillary forces, i.e. saturation is due
to capillary forces.

The height of the capillary fringe depends on the size of the voids in the ground, and the dryness
and temperature of the atmosphere. Normally, it is not more than 1.5m – 2.5m above the water
table. The upper surface of the capillary fringe will be recorded by geophysical surveys as the
surface of saturation (water table). However, water within the capillary fringe is held in place
through suction (negative pressure). Thus, in site investigation, boreholes can differentiate the
capillary fringe from the water table but geophysical methods cannot distinguish them.

In hot arid areas, the capillary fringe may rise several metres above the water table, and can reach
ground level in low-lying areas. In such areas, groundwater rich in dissolved mineral salts is
lifted from the water table to the surface where evaporation precipitates the dissolved
constituents to form a mineral crust that fill the pores near the surface with mineral cement.

2 Groundwater
The water table is the upper surface of the saturated zone at which pore water is at atmospheric
pressure. This level is virtually the same as the depth to water in an uncased borehole or hand-
dug well. The water table roughly mimics the topography of the region, being highest beneath
highest ground and intercepting the ground in valleys. The intersection between the water table
and the topography is called the spring line; it represents a level below which water issues from
the ground. No infiltration can occur beneath the spring line of any geological unit.

Water Table Movement

Water table movement is a function of the natural rate of drainage; when percolation exceeds
drainage the voids in the mass begin to fill resulting in the rise of the water level, and when
drainage exceeds percolation, the voids in the mass drain and there is a fall in the water level.

4 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Drainage will normally continue until the hydraulic gradient is not sufficient to permit further
movement of water.

Observations of water level in one hole rarely represent those over a large area –it varies from
place to place, being greatest beneath upland areas. Water level changes should be considered in
3-D and one of the easiest ways is to construct maps which show the changes.

Areal variations in the magnitude of water level fluctuations are largely controlled by:
i) the distribution of infiltration,
ii) the proximity of discharge points, and
iii) the variation of storage and transmissivity.

It should be noted that all three factors normally operate simultaneously in practice to influence
water level fluctuations.
i. Distribution of Infiltration
Geological characters vary over an outcrop and will certainly vary from one outcrop to the
other. Thus, a uniform distribution of rain will rarely result in uniform infiltration and the
consequent rise in the water table. In any case, uniform distribution of precipitation is a rarity.
ii. Proximity of Discharge points
Discharge can be both natural and artificial -sink holes, springs, underground caverns,
discharging wells, pumped sumps, drainage galleries and tunnels, etc. These may be considered
as sinks with the general system of groundwater flow and their strength can vary with time.
Water table fluctuations will therefore vary with the proximity and capacity of local sinks.
iii. Variation of Storage and Transmissivity
The volume of pores and fissures (storage) vary from rock to rock, and often varies within the
same rock formation. For a given volume of water, the rise in water level in any formation will
depend on the storage available. Thus, a uniformly distributed infiltration will not necessarily
result in a uniform rise in water level, and hence areas of high water level will not necessary
mean areas of large volumes of water.
The diameter, opening and continuity of pores and fissures influence the frictional forces that
retard the flow of water in rock masses. Since water table rise is a function of how fast the water
drains from the recharge area, high water table may be associated with low transmissivity.
Groundwater moves at various speeds depending upon its flow path; near surface (local) flows
move the fastest, and normally supply most of the water that discharge into springs.

A spring-line (or simply spring) is defined by the intersection of the water table with ground
level. As the water table moves so will the spring line; it migrates up a topographic slope in
response to periods of recharge (wet season) and recedes down-slope in periods of dry weather.
The headwaters of rivers fed by springs that migrate will move up and down the valley. The
velocity with which water circulates in the ground gradually decreases with depth, and the
movement of deep groundwater may be extremely slow.

5 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Figure 2.1 Rapid circulation of groundwater near surface; deeper slower circulation; and the very slow
circulation of regional flows at great depth.

Figure 2.2a Schematic representation of topographic springs.

Figure 2.2b Schematic representation of geologic structures commonly associated with springs: s 1 stratum spring
between aquifer and aquiclude; s2 fault spring; and s3 valley spring.

6 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Figure 2.2c Schematic representation of geologic structures commonly associated with springs: s 4 overflowing
spring; s5 artesian spring associated with a fault; and s6 submarine spring.

It is sometimes important to know the direction of groundwater flow, and if resources are
available, one of the easiest ways of estimating it is the three-point rule. In this method, the
elevations of static water levels in three places (not in a straight line) are used as demonstrated in
Figure 2.3.

o
6

o
8

9 o
Figure 2.3: A demonstration of the three-point rule.

7 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Aquifers
By definition, an aquifer is a geological formation –rock or soil- that contains water, but it is
practically used for those formations that yield water comparatively freely and in economic
quantities. This definition can be deceptive since water, and hence saturation is emphasised,
however, a dry formation may later become saturated. It is therefore essential to consider storage
and transmissivity when investigating formations with reference to water. Alternatively, since all
aquifers are either permeable or pervious (many are both), rock/soil masses may be defined as
aquifers based on their transmissive properties. Formations that transmit water at very slow rates
are termed aquicludes –non-water bearing. In fact, all formations will transmit water given time.
Many rock/soil mass properties normally differ from the material, and transmissivity is no
different –i.e. the material may be impermeable while the mass is pervious. Some near surface
deposits also crack in several places when dry, making otherwise impermeable materials very
pervious.
When an aquifer has the ground level as the upper boundary it is termed unconfined, and the
water table is at atmospheric pressure. However, aquifers can store water under pressure; water
will rise to the piezometric level when a cased well is bored into such aquifers. Where the
ground level is lower than the piezometric level, the well will overflow, in some cases fountains
result. High piezometric levels are an advantage in water supply engineering since they affect
pumping lifts. In geotechnical (or construction) engineering however, they indicate uplift
pressures at the top of an aquifer. Where pore pressures are lowered through pumping, changes
(increases) in the magnitude of effective stresses within the solid skeleton may occur. This can
result in partial collapse or consolidation of the aquifer, and settlement at ground level. If the
solid skeleton of the aquifer is mechanically very strong, there still exists the possibility of
surface settlement resulting from the drainage, hence consolidation of the confining formation
(aquiclude). Typically, dewatered sands and gravels, which lie beneath silts and clays experience
such effects.
Flow below the Water Table
This depends on the geology and it is very well influenced by such geological features as joints,
faults and impermeable boundaries. The geological variability of any aquifer (anisotropy and
heterogeneity) and the flow regime of the aquifer should be appreciated in engineering works.

8 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Most geological materials are not uniform in character and therefore the transmissive properties
of such materials will depend on the direction in which they are measured. Due to rootlet holes
and animal burrows, soils and rocks are more transmissive in the vertical direction than the
horizontal. The collection of fine particles on bedding planes results in higher transmissivity in
directions parallel to bedding planes than across them. The mass is said to be anisotropic in
transmissivity. Transmissivity is highest in fissure systems -as in pervious rocks (i.e. those that
derive their transmissive properties from fracturing). These factors that result in the anisotropy
of soils and rocks are not uniform within the same material (aquifer) and thus the aquifers are
also described as heterogeneous.
Note that larger or regional features such as joints, faults, and folds should be considered with
small scale features like porosity, bedding planes and other forms of layering which occur in the
rock mass. In site investigation one should take note of solution channels in limestone areas,
lavas may form lava tunnels; shallow deposits -e.g. alluvium- and varying thickness of differing
materials; all these affect the regional flow. Different formulae are used to assess the velocity of
flows and their associated seepage forces. The formulae depend on the flow region –i.e. whether
it is through the tortuous channels resulting from the inter-connected system of pores and other
small openings or the larger more regular channels of open fissures and joints. It is often
possible to determine which of the two is dominant from the geology. In most aquifers the flow
is either essentially through pores or fissures. However, in jointed but well cemented porous
sediments borehole test across jointed and unjointed portions of the aquifer should be used.
Flow through Aquifers:
Water levels, and hence fluid potentials, of a flow system can be carefully measured, but the
directions of flow can be very variable due to interceptions of the water table by such
topographic features as valleys, that greatly influence the drainage path. Flow in most natural
groundwater systems is unsteady because it is the result of discharge from storage.
Infiltration increases saturation flows, and drainage from storage decreases with time and results
in decreasing flows. Thus factors such as discharge, head, etc., which are dependent on naturally
reduced flows should include functions of time in their calculations.
Permeable Aquifer
Permeable aquifers transmit their water through pores and similar openings -e.g. poorly cemented
sands and gravels, porous limestone, sandstones, conglomerates, fossil soils and weathering
profiles. The majority are sedimentary in origin. Many igneous and metamorphic rocks are
porous but their pores are usually not continuous and hence practically have no permeability.
Porosity has little relationship to permeability, except for the same material. The velocity of flow
is dependent on the smallest dimension through which water must pass (bottle-neck effect) and
not volume of the pore. The critical dimension is controlled by the shape of the grains, their
packing, size and the degree of cementation between them; for example clay, with porosity of
over 40%, has a higher porosity than sand (less than 40%), but sands are more permeable due to
higher capillary forces which tend to retard flow in clays.
Material Permeability (cm/s) Porosity (%)
Clean Sand 10-2 – 10o 45 – 40
Sandy gravel 10-3 – 10o 40 – 25
Fine Sand and Silt 10-3 – 10-5 50 – 45
Silty Clays and Clays 10-5 – 10-9 55 - 35

9 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

Pervious Aquifer:
Pervious aquifers transmit water through joints and fissures; these are normally more open than
the voids of permeable aquifers and hence the frictional resistance to flow can be lower. Jointed
and fissured rocks are among the best of all aquifers. Typical pervious aquifers are well-jointed
igneous and metamorphic rocks, and well-cemented but jointed sedimentary rocks; fissured clays
are a good example for soils.
Material Pore Permeability (cm/s) Joint Permeability (cm/s) Width of Joint (mm)
10-13 10-4 0.1
Limestone
10-9 101 6.0
Sandstone 10-11 10-3 – 10-2 0.4
Granite 10-10 101 2.0
(Louis, 1969)

Roughness and separation are the characters that influence flow through pervious aquifers;
separation can be greatly reduced by load and hence alter the hydraulic character. Fissures are
therefore very susceptible to flow and volume changes; even loads at higher levels can reduce the
transmissivity of rocks. (Note the consequences in foundation design of heavy structures such as
dams, and hence the transmissivity of the rock under such conditions). Joint porosity (volume of
joints per unit volume) decreases with depth due to lithostatic stress; the release of residual stress
associated with reduction in vertical stresses, for example, at ground level, may cause joints to
develop and/or open. Large underground excavations also result in stress release and hence the
formations of joints. Therefore, previously impervious rocks may become pervious after
excavation –i.e. from stress relief and blasting. Separation (joint opening) can change with time
and hence pervious conditions are less stable than permeable ones. Structural setting of
formations can help in the investigation of pervious formations.
For most practical purposes flow through pervious aquifers is better measured than calculated.
For permeable isotropic aquifers laboratory samples will have the same permeability as the rock
mass, but for pervious aquifers the joints and fissures are much more discrete structures, they
may or may not be an integral part of a particular volume of the aquifer. A laboratory sample
may contain just one fissure or two of some roughness, which may be different from other parts
of the mass. Again, even the number of joints will certainly influence the permeability. Thus the
permeability will vary as the volume beyond which the pervious aquifer will act as a continuous
body, i.e. the permeability will be independent of volume. At this stage flow can be predicted
with reasonable accuracy using Darcy’s relationship –i.e. Q = KiA
Below the threshold volume, the descriptions of flow should consider such parameters as joint
opening, roughness, spacing and continuity of fissures and the nature of their interconnections.
Hydrological Boundaries
Any geological surface may be considered a permeable or impermeable boundary.
Permeable Boundaries may be classified as recharge or discharge depending on the relative head
on either side of the interface. Where the fluid potentials on either side of the boundary are
equal, the boundary will be inactive. Natural recharge boundaries are the infiltration surfaces of
aquifers, which include the surface of an unconfined aquifer and the bed of an influent stream,
whilst natural discharge boundaries include the beds of effluent streams, the area below a spring
line. Surfaces of leaky aquifers may be surfaces of recharge or discharge depending on the
relative positions and head to their environment. Artificial boundaries include cut-offs beneath
dams. Natural occurrences of impermeable boundaries include:

10 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

 i) confining beds for confined aquifers
ii) unconformity with impermeable strata
iii) impermeable fault or dyke
iv) igneous and or metamorphic bodies

Dykes and impermeable faults may behave as underground dams and can develop large hydraulic
gradients across them. When such boundaries are penetrated by tunnels or other underground
works, they could result in the flooding. Excavations and dewatering operations in areas
adjacent to such dams could result in serious wall deformation as a consequence of large
differences in pressure across the boundary. The excavation walls may then fracture leading to
flooding.

Underground Dams: Underground reservoirs may be the voids in rocks –aquifers– into which
fluid may be injected and worked-out mines and cavities made especially for the purpose of
storage. Underground dams may be natural as mentioned earlier or artificial. Artificial
underground dams are usually in the form of cut-offs constructed in aquifers to prevent the
natural subsurface drainage of groundwater to lower levels. Wells are then installed to tap the
reservoir. The system is generally employed in narrow aquifers such as valley fill and can be
particularly effective when the aquifer overlies relatively impermeable formations.

Advantages
i) No support is required for the dam as the ground provides it,
ii) It needs not be completely water-tight,
iii) Little or no maintenance is required,
iv) No damage to life or properly when it fails,
v) It uses the storage potential of an a aquifer therefore the stored water is protected from
evaporation losses,
vi) Reduced risk of pollution –water reaches the reservoir by percolation and this is filtered,
and
vii) Flooding of upstream land surface is very unlikely.

Disadvantage
The most serious disadvantage is the question of its legality –i.e. the water rights of abstractors
downstream of the dam must not be infringed upon. However, once the reservoir has topped up,
it will over spill and any additional surface water would pass downstream as if the dam did not
exist. It is also not very suitable in developed areas as groundwater levels may rise to dry
foundations.

Pollution
Underground water may be polluted from injection wells, waste pits or seawater intrusion.

Injection Wells
These serve as conduits for pumping fluids into the ground. Their supply should be as clear as
possible and be free from suspended material, biological matter and entrapped air. These can
clog the pores and fissures and affect performance.

The pollution comes in because the waste or recharge water is usually chemically different from
the g/w which it displaces. If possible the fluid should be made chemically inert before injection
so that no unfavourable reaction with g/w or geological formation takes place. The most reactive
solid phase is the clay. Injection wells are also known to cause earth tremors due probably to the

11 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

increase in g/w pressures resulting from the introduction of the fluid under pressure. (Hubert and
Rabey 1959)

Waste Pits: Tipping wastes either on the ground or into pits are the most common methods for
disposing of solid and liquid matter. Suitable tipping sites include low lying lands, marsh,
foreshore, quarries, subsidence areas, ground to be reclaimed, undulating ground to be levelled,
valleys, cuttings and ravines to be filled.

Consideration for these includes social and economic factors. The main geological consideration
is usually groundwater. Two types of pits are recognized viz.:
a) Wet pits -where material is dumped into a flooded pit whose base in below the groundwater
table, and
b) Dry Pits -which are founded above the highest level of the water table.

Wet Pits constitute foreign bodies within the ground and the water in them eventually becomes
incorporated into the local systems of g/w flow. As a general rule such pits should be filled with
inert material or be situated in areas where there is little or not g/w flow eg in disused g/w pits or
in grounds which is neither an existing or potential aquifer for g/w supply.

Dry Pits do not interfere so directly with the g/w regime; liquid from the dry pit in usually
filtered before it gets to the water table. The efficiency of the filtration depends on the porosity
and permeability of the ground, e.g. sands and gravels can be good filters for helmiths and
organic pollutants. Jointed and/or fissured rocks offer little filtration; such grounds should be
properly treated by filling all the fissures with sand, cement or some impermeable fill such as
clay. The base should also be provided with a drainage system which discharges into a sewer.
It should be noted that few natural materials filter chemical pollutants and there is no known near
surface geological deposit that will prevent the downward migration of gases such carbon
dioxide and methane –decomposition products of refuse tips. Travel paths of polluted waters
from pits are also critical in dispersion, dilution and decontamination of the waters. When pits
cross spring lines their bases can be eroded and, also any polluted infiltrate can be flushed out
from such pits. Permeable foundations, such as gravel bases, linked to a piped collector system
may be provided to ensure some degree of control.

Coastal Pollution: This results from sea water intruding into the coastal aquifers particularly as
a result of over pumping (abstraction) and also from tidal charges. Fresh water rests on top of
saline water that penetrates the subsurface of the coastal areas from the sea due to the former’s
lower density. Under static conditions where there is an immiscible contact the depth Zs of sea
water beneath mean sea level can be predicted from the height in of fresh water table above the
mean sea level according to the Ghyben-Hezberg relationship.

12 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST

This is an ideal situation since static conditions hardly exist and first water is normally flowing
out to the sea, deflecting the interface between the fresh and saline waters, sea ward, Tidal
fluctuates also mix the waters resulting in a zone of brackish water.

If a well is sunk at the coast and pumped, a cone of depression forms and a corresponding cone
of elevation results at the interface. If the aquifer is overdrawn seawater intrudes and pollutes the
aquifer. Saline intrusion may be controlled by:

1. The location of artificial recharge wells between the coast and the area where abstraction is
taking place. This raises the natural water level and results in a water mound that controls
the landward movement of sea water.
2. The location of a line of abstraction wells near the coast; the water abstracted is pumped
back into the sea and are deliberately allowed to increase in salinity.
3. Alternatively, selective pumping from the aquifer may be introduced.

Sinkhole Swallows Shocked Teenager's Car A family have been told to stay away from their house
after a 30ft-deep sinkhole opened up and swallowed
Sky News - 1 hr 35 mins ago* their car. Zoe Smith's Volkswagen Lupo disappeared
inside the 15ft-wide hole when it appeared without
warning on the driveway of her parents' home in High
Wycombe, Buckinghamshire.
The 19-year-old is said to be "absolutely gutted" after
losing her car but her parents, Liz and Phil Conran, said
they "just feel so lucky" their daughter was not hurt.
View Photo "My daughter went to go and let her horses out because
Sinkhole Swallows Car In High Wycombe she was going off somewhere for the day," Mrs Conran
said.
"She got herself all ready, got to the door, and saw her car wasn't there. She thought that was a bit weird ... so she
went round to the kitchen window and then she saw the crater and just started screaming."
The car flipped over and was facing in the opposite direction to which it was parked when it came to rest deep
beneath the driveway. "It's on its side, it's full of soil and (our daughter) certainly ... wouldn't have got out of it had
she been in it, had she driven in and it had happened," Mrs Conran said.
The family stayed with neighbours overnight and are waiting for their insurance company to assess the stability of
their house before returning home.
Sinkholes are a depression or cavity in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. They can
occur, often without any noticeable cracks or dips, when a layer of rock underneath the ground is dissolved by
acidic water and can be triggered by heavy rain or flooding. It is unclear what caused this latest sinkhole.

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Massive sinkhole swallows Florida resort villa Sinkhole swallows village pond in Bosnia

13 Dr. Bukari Ali, Geol. Engng. Dept., KNUST