UNIT 5 LIFT IRRIGATION

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Occurrence of Ground Water
I 5.3 Ground Water Flow
t 5.4 Types of Wells

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5.5
5.6
5.7
Tube Wells
Construction of Open Wells
Method of Construction of Tube Wells and Well Development
5.8 Water Lifting pevices
5.9 Pump Selection, Installation and Maintenance
5.10 Summary
5.1 1 Key Words
5.12 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Ground water has a great significance in our daily life both in urban and rural
areas. As for as irrigation is concerned, open wells and tube wells are very popular
means of irrigation in different parts of the country. Even in the areas where canal
water is available, ground water is used, at the tail end of the canal, in conjunction
with surface water to meet the irrigation requirement. Unit 1 covers sources of
irrigation water and basics of surface water hydrology that deal with surface
runoff. Study of subsurface flow is equally important since about 30% of the
world's fresh water resources exist in the form of groundwater. Further, the
subsurface water forms a critical input for the sustenance of life and vegetation in
arid zones. Because of its importance as a significant source of water supply,
various aspects of groundwater dealing with the exploration, development and
utilization have been extensively studied by workers from different disciplines,
such as geology, geophysics, geochemistry, agricultural engineering, fluid
mechanics and civil engineering. Ground water is the underground water that
occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness and depth, below the earth's
surface. In fact, pores and cracks in the existing rocks and unconsolidated crystal
layers make up a large underground reservoir where percolated precipitation is
stored. Ground water is tapped for irrigating crops to a large extent and about 46%
of our total irrigated area gets irrigated thorough ground water sources. Most of
Minor Irrigation scheme are accomplished using water fiom wells and tube
wells. Various lifting devices using animate, mechanical and electrical power
sources are used to bring under ground water to the surface. This chapter
confines itself to only an elementary treatment of the subject of groundwater as a
part of irrigation engineering.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand ground water and its occurrence, define confined and
unconfined aquif'crs.
Irrigation Engineering describe ground water flow and define related tenns,
explain types orwell and proceciure of constr~rctiono f open nells and
tube wells, and able to detemline yicld o f an opctiitube wcll, and
leain neth hods of lifiing water, selcctior~ of pumps and their
installation and, maintenance.

5.2 OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER

The possibility of occurredce of ground water depend mainly upon the porosity of
the rocks and the permeability of the rocks. The rainfall that percolates below the
ground surface, passes through the voids of the rocks and joins the water table as
these voids are, in general, interconnected allow the movement of the ground
water. However, at times, voids of certain rocks are isolated, movement of water
is arrested. Thus, the mode of occurrence of ground water depend s largely upon
the geology of the region.
Forms of Sub-surface Water
Water in the soil mantle is called sub-surface water and is considered in two
zones as given in (Figure 5.1) :
(a) Saturated zone, and
(b) Aeration zone.
Land Surface

1 zone
I Zone of
Areation
Intermediate
Water table

Saturated Zone of saturation

(Ground water zone)
Unconfined

Bedrock

Figure 5.1 : Different Sub-surface Zones

Saturated Zone
This zone, also known as groundwater zone is the space in which all the
pores of the soil are filled with water. The water table forms its upper limit
and marks a free surface, i.e. a surface having atmospheric pressure.
Zone of Aeration
In this zone the soil pores are only partially saturated with water. The space
between the land surface and the water table marks the extent of this zone.
Further, the zone of aeration has three sub-zones :
Soil Water Zone
This zone lies close to the ground surface in the major root zone of the
vegetation from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration. This is the zone in which roots of the plant are
spread and thus, plant is able to take nutrient and water from soil.
 Life Irrigation
Capillary Fringe
In this zone, the water is held by capillary action. This zone extends
from the water table upwards to the limit of the capillary rise.
Intermediate Zone
This lies between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe.
The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones
depend upon the soil texture and moisture content and vary from
region to region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration is of
importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering. We
would like to confine the present unit to saturated zone as other
aspects are discussed in Unit 2.
Classification of Saturated Zone

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All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore.spaces. Although these
pores are completely saturated with water below the water table, from the
groundwater utilization aspect only such material through which water
moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are significant.
On this basis the saturated formations are classified into four categories. We
will defme all these categories :
(a) aquifer,
(b) aquitard,
(c) aquiclude, and
(d) aquifbge.
Aquifer
An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth rhaterial, which not only
stores water but yields it in sufficient quantiq. Thus, an aquifer
transmits water relatively easily due to its high permeability.
Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
Aquitard
It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the
yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is partly permeable. A
sandy clay unit-is an example of aquitard. An appreciable quantities of
water may leak, through an aquitard, to an aquifer below it
Aquiclude
It is a geological formation, which is essentially impermeable to the
flow of water. It may be considered as close as for as water movement
is concerned even though it may contain large amounts of water due
to its high porosity. Clay is an example of an quiclude.
Aquijiuge
It is a geological formation, which is neither porous nor permeable.
There are no interconnected openings and hence, it cannot transmit
water. Massive compact rock without any fractures serves an example
- of aquifuge.
These terms related to saturated zone like aquifer, aquitard and aquiclude as
explained above are relative. A formation which may be considered as an
aquifer at a place where water is at a premium (e.g. arid zones) may be
classified as an aquitard or even aquiclude in an area where plenty of water
is available.
Irrigation Engineering 5.2.1 Aquifer Types - Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
The availability of groundwater from an aquifer at a place depends upon the rates
of withdrawal and replenishment (recharge). Aquifers play the roles of both a
transmission conduit and a storage. Aquifers are classified as unconfined aquifers
and confined aquifers on the basis of their occurrence and field situation.
Confined Aquifer
A confined aquifer, also known as artesian aquifer, is an aquifer which is
confined between two impervious such as aquicludes or aquifuges (Figure
5.2). At certain locations the observed piezometric is higher than the land
surface and any puncture into the aquifer, would allow free flow without the
aid of any pump which is called artesian well. In fact, the term "artesian" is *
derived from the fact that a large number of such free flow wells were found
in Artois, a former province in north France. Such artesian wells are found
in India particularly in the foothills of Himalayas.
Characteristics of ConJnedAquifer
Recharge of this aquifer takes place only in the area where it is
(a)

(b)
expose the ground surface.
The water in the confined aquifer will be under pressure and
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hence the piezometric level will be much higher than the top
level of the aquifer.
(c) At some locations the piezometric level can attain a level higher
than the land surface and a well driven into the aquifer at such a
location will flow freely without the aid of any pump.
(d) A confined aquifer is called a leaky aquifer if either or both of
its confining are aquitards
Well-tapping confined aquifer Recharge of
/ , Piezornetric Confined aquifer

Spring
Seep -

Figure 5.2 :A Sectional View of Confined Aquifer

IJnconfined Aquifers
An unconpned aquifer, also known as water table aquifer, is one in which a
free water surface, i.e. a water table exists (Figure 5.3). Only the saturated
zone of this aquifer is of importance from groundwater view of point.
Characteristics of Ur~col?jit~eci
rlquiJ;.r*s
(a) Recharge of this aquifer takes place through infiltration of
precipitation from the ground surface.
(b) A well driven into an unconfined aquifer will indicate a static
water level corresponding to the water table level at that
location.
 Water table is the free wat& surface in an unconfined aquifer. Life Irrigation
(c)
: The static level of a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer
indicates the level of the water table at that point.
(d) The water table is constantly in motion adjusting its surface to
achieve a balance between the recharge and outflow from the
subsurface storage.
(e) Fluctuations in the water level in a dug well during various
seasons of the year, lowering of the groundwater table in a
region due to heavy pumping of the wells and the rise in the
water table of an irrigated area with poor drainage, are some
common type of the fluctuation of the water table.
(0 The water table follows the topography of the surface.
(g) If the water table intersects the land surface the groundwater
comes out to the surface in the f~ of springs or seepage
Perched Water Table
Sometimes a lens or localised patch of impervious stratum can occur inside
an unconfined aquifer in such a way that it retains a water table above the
general water table (Figure 5.3). Such a water table retained around the
impervious material is known as perched water table. Usually the perched
water table is of limited extent and the yield from such a situation is very
small. In groundwater exploration a perched water table is quite often
confused with a general water table.

Impervious stratum
General water tale

-
v
-
-
Unconfined Aquifer

Figure 5.3 : A Sectional View of Unconfined Aquifer Showing Perched Water Table

(a) Effluent stream

(b) Influent stream

Figure 5.4 :Flow of Ground Water Versus Stream Water

Irrigation Engineering Recharge of Ground Water by ~treirn
The position of the water table relative to the water level in a stream
determines whether the stream contributes water to the groundwater storage
or the other way about. If the bed of the stream is below the groundwater
table, during periods of low flows in the stream, the water surface may go
down below the general water table elevation and the groundwater
contributes to the flow in the stream. Such streams which receive
groundwater flow are called effluent streams (Figure 5.4(a)). Perennial
rivers and streams are of this kind. If, however, the water table is below the
bed of the stream, the stream-water percolates to the groundwater storage
and a hump is formed in the groundwater table (Figure 5.4(b)). Such
streams which contribute to the groundwater are knows as influent streams.
Intermittent rivers and streams which go dry during long periods of dry spell
(i.e. no rain periods) are of this kind.

(a) Define aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude and acquifuge.

(b) Discuss the characteristics of unconfined and confined aquifer.

5.3 GROUND WATER FLOW

Water Table
The static level of water in wells penetrating the zone of saturation is called
the water table. Figure 5.1 presents, along with other parts in sub surface of
soil, the position of water table. The water table is thus the surface of a
water body which is constantly adjusting itself towards an equilibrium
condition, with the water moving from the higher points to the lower points.
The falling level of water is a major concern in different parts of India due
to less recharge and over pumping of ground water.
The water is generally not horizontal and has high and low points. To attain
equilibrium water moves inside the ground. The rate at which water moves
depend on two factors permeability of soil and hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic
gradient is ratio between difference of elevation of two points (H) on the
water table and distance between them (L).
The flow velocity is given by Darcy's law which is expressed as
V=KI
where V is discharge velocity, cmlsec.,
K is coefficient of permeability, cmlsec., and
I is hydraulic gradient.
Cone of Depression
When the water level in the well decreases due to pumping, the water level
in the neighborhoods also falls down, farming what is called as inverted
cone of depression.
Radius of Influence
The base of the cone is circle of radius R, known as circle of influence. The
radius of this circle is called radius of influence. In other words,
The radius of influence is the distance from the centre of the pumped well
to the point where the drawdown is zero or inappreciable.
Depression Head
Hiight of cone of depression at some distance from the main well is called
depression head.

5.4 TYPES OF WELLS

A water well is a hole usually vertical excavated in the earth for bringing ground
water to the surface. The wells may be classified into two types :
(a) Open or dug well, and
(b) Deep dug well.
Open Well or Dug Wells
Open wells are generally open masonry wells, having comparatively bigger
diameters (2-9 m), and are suitable for low discharges of the order of
1-5 litre per second. Open well are generally less than 20 m in depth.
One of the recent methods used to enhance yield of a open well is to drill
8-10 cm diameter hole in the centre of the well so as to tap additional water
from an aquifer or the fissures of rock. Thus, with availability of above
provision, well can be classified as shallow and deep well. This
classification is purely on technical basis and has nothing to do with depth
ofthe well. A shallow dug well might be having more depth than a deep
dug well.
Shallow Well
Shallow well is one which rests in a pervious stratum and draws its supply
the surrounding material
Deep Dug Well
A deep dug well is one which rests on a impervious mota layer and draws
its supply from pervious formation lying below mota layer, through a bore
hole made into the mota layer.
A water from dug wells is drawn with help of rope and bucket. However,
now a days hand pumps are also fitted with open well and wells are covered
for avoiding possible contamination.

5.5 TUBE WELLS

From open wells the discharge is limited to 1 to 5 literlsec. To obtain large
amount of discharge mechanically tube wells are more suitable. Tube well is a
long pipe or a tube is bored into the ground, intercepting one or more
water-bearing stratum. We have an enormous storage of ground water in India, the
tube well provide excellent means of providing supplies and they are normally
used for irrigation
arisation E n g i n e e r i
Type of Tube Wells
Cavity Type Tube Wells
Screen Type Tube Wells
Strainer Type Tube Well
Circumstances under wbich Tube Wells are Recommended
The depth of the previous strata should be sufficient enough to meet the
water requirements :
(a) Availability of cheap power particularly electricity.
(b) Water of the area should be such that it is free from dlkaline and
salts.
(c) Well distributed demand of irrigation water in whole year.
(d) Area round the well should be intensively cultivated.
Depending upon the entry of water through a cavity or a screen, the tube
wells may be classified as :
(a) Cavity type tube wells, and
(b) Screen type tube wells.
A cavity type tube well draws water from bottom of the well and not from
the sides, (as in case of a screen type) as shown in Figure 5.6. The
difference in flow pattern of a screen well and cavity well is that whereas in
a strainer well, the flow is radial, the flow in a cavity well is spherical. In a
strainer well, the area of flow is increased by increasing the length of
strainer pipe, while in a cavity wall the area of flow is increased by
enlarging the size of cavity. The cavity formed with a certain discharge
enlarges in size if an increased discharge is pumped out.
The cavity type well do not have a strainer and draw water from one stratum
only. Drilling is started with the correct size of pipes which are left to serve
as tube for the well. Cavity is formed in water bearing sand stratum lying
b e l ~ wa suitable clay layer. The cavity is developed by drawing out a part of
the sand from this layer so that such a cavity act as storage reservoir for
pumping. The cavity well requires a strong and dependable stratum
immediately on top of the water bearing stratum.
Screen type tube wells are most widely adopted as it can trap a number of
aquifers. It is very popular in our country. Screen type tube wells can be
further classified in the following two categories Out of these two types
strainer wells are most important and are widely used in India.
(a) Perforated pipe strainer well
(b) Slotted pipe gravel pack tube wells
It essentially consists of a perforated or a slotted pipe with a wire mesh
wrapped around the pipe with smaller annular space between the two. In
India, whenever we refer to a tube well, generally it means a strainer type of
a tube well. In this type of tube well a screen is placed against the water
bearing stratum. The wire screen prevents sand particles from entering the
well pipe through the fine mesh (screen) and the sand particles of size larger
than the size of mesh, are kept away from entering the pipe. This reduces
the danger of sand removal and hence, larger flow velocities can be
obtained.
 In the strainer type tube wells drilling is continued through different layers Life Irrigation
and after ascertaining the water bearing strata, strainers are located opposite
these strata to allow the water to come into the tube well. Strainers are pipes
with fin'e perforations specially constructed for the purpose. Plain pipes are
to be located against those layers which are not water bearing. This is done
by joining the whole length of strainers and the plain pipes in the same
length and order in which they are to be lowered in the bore. For the strainer
type wells drilling is to be started with pipes of larger diameter (known as
casing of pipes) than the strainer and these pipes are to be extracted after the
strainers are installed. !
Ground surfaCe

Plug Impervious layer

Figure 5.5 : Screen Type Tube Well

The boring for such a well is generally carried out by a casing pipe of about 5 to
10 cm larger than the diameter of the well pipe. After boring the hole, the well
pipe assembly which is partly in ordinary plain pipe (called blind pipe) and partly
of strainer pipe, is lowered into the bore hole. The well is generally plugged at
bottom by the means of cement concrete.
t Ground level

Critical

Figure 5.6 :A Cavity Well

Slotted Type Tube Wells

It uses a slotted pipe without being covered by any wire mesh. If proper
depth of water bearing strata is not available even at deep depths of 85 to
100 m, so as to obtain the required discharge from a strainer well, and if a
suitable s t r ~ n gclay roof is not available for a caviv well, a slotted well is
adopted provided at least one good stratum having sufficient amount of
water is available.
Irrigation Engineering These wells are an improvement over the strainer type of well. Shrouding
refers to the filling of the shrouding strata of the strainer with a material
coarser than that of the natural stratum. The material used for shrouding is
gravel of suitable size selected depending upon the nature of the strata. The
shrouding increases the effective diameter of the well and as such augments
the discharge of the well. A carelessly done shrouding can decrease the
discharge of the well considerably. In shrouded wells, slotted pipes are used
as strainers and as such these wells are referred to as slotted tube wells also.

(a) What is Darcy's law. Discuss the assumptions made.

(b) Discuss cavity type and strainer type tube wells.

5.6 CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN WELLS

Construction of Open Wells
Open wells or dug wells are commonly used for drinking water supply and
to limited extent for irrigation. Open wells are generally of circular shape,
although large size rectangular or square shapes are also used. The diameter
of well may vary from minimum of 1.20 metre to metre or more. They draw
water mostly from unconfined aquifers. In a hard formation, the well may be
unlined. But lined well are used in most of the formations.
Open wells are constructed manually using pick axe and shovel. Persons
working at the bottom loosen the soil and fill up bucket. The bucket is lifted
,. by one person from the top either by a rope or by a rope and pulley. During
the process of digging when water starts seeping inside, the water is bailed
out either by bucket or by pumping. The well is lined either by brick -
masonry, stone masonry or by concrete curbs. This is done so that walls of
the well does not cave in.
The discharge of open wells can be significantly increased by connecting it
to a confined aquifer which may lie below it.
Yield of Open Wells
Hydraulics of open wells are different than that of a tubewell. In the case of
an open well with impervious lining and water entering from the bottom.
Assuming that the aquifer that is being tapped by the open well is an
unconfined aquifer, the flow into the well is essentially due to the difference
in elevation between the water table and the level of the well. The head h,
responsible for this flow is know as the dipression head. The rate of water
entry to the well is directly proportional to the depression head. The head at
which the entry of water dislodges the soil particles while entering the well
is known as the critical dipression head and entry velocity as the critical
velocity.
 Let the difference of level in the well and the water table be h = hl - h2 at Life Irrigation
any instant.
A = Cross-sectional area of the well sq. m.,
K
- = Specific yield of the well per unit area,
A
T = Time in hours,
hl = Depression head in the well when the pumping stopped (m),
h2 = Depression head in the well at time T after the pumping
stopped (m), and
H = Height of water table from the bottom of the well.
The equation for discharge, Q in cu. m. per hour

Yield of Tube Wells

K = Hydraulic conductivity, m per hour,

Re = Radius of influence, m,
b = Thickness of aquifer, m,
s = Draw down in metre it is vertical distance between the static
water level
and the pumping water level,
rw = Radius of tube well, m,
Q = Discharge, cubic metre per hour,

In UnconJinedAquifer

where H = Vertical distance from static water table to bottom of the

well, m,
hw = Pumping water level measured 'from the bottom of the
well, m,
K = Hydraulic conductivity, m per hour, and
Q = Discharge, cubic metre per hour.

Example 5.1

Calculate the discharge from a fully penetrating confined well of 300 mm

diameter if the thickness of aquifer is 20 m, draw down is 5 m, permeability
of aquifer is 20 mmlmin and the radius of influence is 450 metre.
Irrigation Engineering Solution
The discharge of a confined well is given by the formula

Given k= 2o ds=3.33 lo-4 d s

1000 x 60

Example 5.2

Calculate the discharge from an unconfined well of 0.20 m diameter, if the

draw down inside the well is 3 m and the saturated thickness of aquifer is 12
m. The permeability of the aquifer is 1.20 m/h and the radius of influence is
600 metres.
Solution
I
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The discharge of a confined well is given by the formula
I

n x 1 . 2 0 ~( 1 2 -g2)
~
Q= 600
In -
0.10
Q = 27.30 m3/h.

(a) Design an open well in a fine sand formation to yield a discharge of

0.004 m3/sec, when worked under a depression head of 3.0 metres.
Given specific capacity of open well as 0.5 m3/hr/m2of area under
unit depression head.
(b) An artesian well fully penetrates I0 m thick water bearing formation
of sand with hydraulic conductivity 0.005 mlsec. The radius of well is
12 cm and is to be worked under a drawdown of 5 m at the well face.
Find the discharge of the well. What will be the percentage increase in
discharge if the radius of well is doubled. The radius of influence is
250 m.
(c) A 25 cm diameter well penetrates 25 m below the static water table.
AAer 30 hr of pumping at the rate of 5500 litrelmin, the level in a test
well at 90 m is lowered by 0.50 m and in a well 30 m away the
drawdown is 1.OO m. Determine the drawdown in the main well and
hydraulic conductivity of acquifer.
 Life Irrigation
5.7 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF TUBE
WELLS AND WELL DEVELOPMENT
The process used in making opening in the ground for well construction purposes
is termed as drilling.
The important methods that are available for drilling tube wells are as follows :
Percussion Drilling (Also known as Cable Tool Method)
(a) Hand boring by rope or rod
(b) Mechanical boring with power rigs
Rotary Drilling
(a) Direct circulation hydraulic rotary
(b) Reverse circulation hydraulic rotary
(c) Rotary-air percussion drilling
Other Methods
I (a) Auger method
(b) Core drilling
(c) Water jet method
Percussion Drilling
Hand Boring by Rope
In the percussion method the bore hole is drilled by making vertical to
and fro motion of suitable tools for dislodging the soil, which is
subsequently removed. Simultaneously a casing pipe is lowered in
order to permit the drilling and to prevent the caving of the material
into the bore. In hand boring a pit is dug at the site measuring about
2.0 to 2.5 m in diameter and of the same depth. The casing pipe also
known as boring tube is lowered into the centre of the pit. It is
advantageous to fix a cutter shoe at the bottom of the casing pipe. The
cutter shoe is slightly larger diameter than the casing pipe itself so that
a clear passage is provided for the casing pipe as they are sunk. After
lowering the first casing pipe in the pit, it is clamped in position with
wooden blocks. The casing pipe is partially filled with water.
Mechanical Boring with Power Rigs
The mechanical equipment for percussion drilling consists of a
portable rig mounted on a truck chasis or trailer. A mast of at least
10 m high (foldable for easy transit), a two line hoist, one line for
operating the drilling tools and other for extmcting the bailer, a
spudder for raising and dropping the tools alid a diesel engine for
powering these operations are the important components of this
equipment. The process of drilling is same as that in the hand boring
method except that with the use of power, the speed of drilling is very
fast and large sized and deep boring in all types of strata become
possible.
Rotary Drilling
It is the most rapid method of boring in highly resistant materials like rock
and still type of clay. It is also called mechanical drilling. The method
 involves a continuously rotating hollow bit, though, which a mixture of clay
and water or mud is forced. The drill rod made of heavy pipe, carries the
drill bit at one end and is screwed to a square section known as Kelly. The
broken material moves up through the angular spaces and is collected in a
tube provided at the ground surface. This method is to be repeated till the -
required water-bearing starter is not obtained.
To hoist

Figure 5.7 : Rotary Drilling Method

Direct Circulation Hydraulic Rotary
In this method, mud laden water is forced down under pressure
through the drilling pipe and the bore hole and while it comes up it
brings along with it the drill cuttings. The mud mixing is the special
technique and the right consistency of the mud is to be maintained
depending upon the local conditions.
Reverse CirculationHydraulic Rotary
Drilling in heavy gravel or for drilling large sized bores the direct
rotary method is not suitable as it is difficult to circulate the mud
laden water. In such a case reverse rotary can be adopted. In this
method the water is pumped down through the space between the drill
pipe and bore hole. The water is drawn out through the drill pipe by
means of a centrifugal pump.
Rotary-air Percussion Drilling
In conventional rotary drilling energy is applied in two ways, viz.
(a) rotation of the bit, and
(b) static force exerted on the bit by means of weight on the
bit applied by drill string.
Rotary-air percussion drilling adds a third source of supply of energy
to the bit, in the form of percussion impact. Addition of this third
source considerably increases the rate of penetration.
Drilling by Augur Method
This method is suitable for drilling wells of small diameter generally for
domestic use. The depth of boring is generally small (20 to 30 m) and the
 formations encountered should be soft. Augers are special devices used to Life Irrigation
loosen the soil. The auger consists of a long steel shank. At the bottom
cutting edge is provided and at the top there will be a handle with which the
auger can tuned. Drill rods of lengths 2 to 6 m are used to suspend the
auger. For wells of 7.5 cm to 10 cm diameter hand operated augers are
employed. Hand pumps are fixed in these types of wells to lift water.

~1 Drilling by Water Jetting Method

It is suited where the adequate quantity of water is available because as we
know that water jet plant cannot be operated successfully in the absence of
sufficient water. It is also known as wash boring. In this method a casing
pipe is driven down into the soil. A drilling and rod is then lowered into
casing pipe. At such bottom of rod, a chopping bit is provided both rod and
chopping bit are hollow. The water is applied with great pressure and forces
the particle. These are collected in a tub the cleai water will be available
again for upward, use because the coarser particle will settle at the bottom.
Core Drilling
The operation of the core drilling is similar to that of the hydraulic rotary
drill. The core drilling is suitable where hard rock strata are encountered. It
is also used where uncontaminated samples of underground formations are
required. The cutting tool is known as the crown which is a short piece of
steel tube fitted at the end with black diamonds. special steel shots are also
used as cutting medium. The crown is rotated with help of the drilling pipes
and it cuts through the strata causing a core to rise up in the hollow tube.
5.7.1 Well Development
The purpose of well development is to remove sand, silt and other fine materials
from a zone immediately surrounding the well screen. Thus larger spaces are
created in the formation and more water can flow into the well. Methods
commonly employed for well developments are surging, pumping, use of
compressed air, jetting and use of dispersing/deflocculating agent (chemicals).
Developments by Surging
It is working of a block or plunger up and down in the well so that water is
alternately forced out into the surrounding formation and then allowed to
flow back into the well. This action loosens fine sand type or gravel
particles near the screen and carries finer particles into the well where they
can be removed. The tool normally used in called a surge plunger or surge
block. A heavy bailer may be used to produce the surging action, but is not
as effective as a close fitting surge block.
Developments with Pumps
Tube well may be developed by pumping, either by over pumping or by a
process called rewhiding the well. Over pumping means pumping the well
with excessive drawdown. This is not a very effective method of
development of well, particularly because the flow of water remains in one
direction and, thus encourages the phenomena of bridging. The process of
rewhiding the well consists of starting and stopping the pump intermittently
to produce relatively rapid changes in the head of well. While this may be
done with any kind of pump, it is most effective with a turbine pump
installed without foot valve.
Irrigation Engineering Development by Jetting
Jetting with water at high velocity is an effective method of well
development. A simple jetting tool, a high pressure pump, and the required
length of hose and piping are the main items of equipment needed. The high
velocity water jet is applied through the well screen agitates and rearranges
the sand and gravel particles of the aquifer around the screen. The mud cake
deposited on the bore hole in rotary drilling is broken and dispersed, The
turbulence created by the jet brings the fine materials into the well through
the screen openings.
Development by Dispersing
Adding a small quantity of a suitable poly-phosphate to the drilling mud to
the water used in backwashing and jetting and to the water standing in the
well helps in mud removal. The phosphates disperse the clay particles in the
drilling mud. Dispersal induces the movements of particles. A suitable
mixture is formed by adding 2 kg of the chemical to about 400 liters of
water.

5.8 WATER LIFTING DEVICES

Water lifting devices are used both for irrigation and drainage. When the sources
of irrigation is at a higher level than the field to be irrigated water flows by the
gravity to the field to be irrigated. This is known as flow irrigation. When the
source is at lower level than the area to be irrigated, the water has to be lifted for
irrigation.
Water lifting devices may be classified into four groups based on the kind of
power commonly used for this operation.
(a) Devices operated by human power
(b) Devices operated by animal power
(c) Devices operated by mechanical power
Human Powered Devices
The swing basket is operated by two persons facing each other. Each
person holds two of the ropes and swing the basket, alternatively filling it
from the source and employing it into the delivery channel. Swing basket
can be used upto a lift of I m.
Archimedean screw consists of a wooden cylinder with an auger like
spiral. The spiral is made of short wooden boards of battens fitted on a
control shaft, one end of which serves as a handle. The spiral on the control
shaft is enclosed in a cylinder of wooden planks. The battens form a double
helix and help in the movement of water from the inlet end of the cylinder
to the outlet end. The device is portable and is operated by one or two men
facing each other in a sitting position. Modification in the Archimedean
screw has been made for its operation by pedals as in a bicycle.
Counterpoise Lift
It is another human powered water lift device. It operates on the lever
principle. The device consists of a long wooden pole which is pivoted
approximately at the centre by a cross bar. Tree trunks of suitable
shapes are used for the purpose. A weight in form of large stone or
bag filled with soils is fixed to the shorter end of the lever. This
 weight acts as counterpoise weight, one or the two men walk back and Life Irrigation
forth along top of the pivoted pole. The bucket could be a metal
container or leather bag. The counter weight helps in lifting the
bucket. The working range of the counterpoise lift is generally
between 1 to 3 m.
Table 5.1 : Output of Different Manual Operated Devices
Name Operating Conditions

Swing basket 4 persons (2 shifts of two each)

height lifted 2.5 m
Counterpoise lift 1 person operating height 0.45 m 3.0

L Archemedian
Screw

Animal Powered Devices

1 person 185 cm length and 40 cm
diametre
4.0

The animal powered devices can be broadly divided into two groups; those
which use the principle of pulley, rope and bucket and those that use a
rotating wheel or drum.
Rope and Bucket Lift
This device consist of bucket or bag of leather or canvas, attached to
one end of a long rope. The rope passes over a pulley set in a suitable
framework of wood installed over the well or other water source. A
pair or a single bullock is made to walk down a sloped earthen ramp
while pulling up the full bucket or bag and walk back up the ramp
after the bucket is emptied. The bucket is emptied into the outlet
channel by a person. The rope and bucket lift is generally suited upto
lifts of 10 m. The disadvantage of device is mainly with its operation
as the animals have to walk backwards up an inclined while the
bucket is lowered to the water source.
Persian Wheel
It is one of the most popular animal drawn water lifting device. The
main advantages are the rugged construction and reasonably good
amount of discharge it provides. The parts are durable and generally
needs very little maintenance. The device consists of an endless chain
of buckets passing over a circular drum made from angle irons. The
drum is rotated by a horizontal shaft which in turn is rotated by
vertical and horizontal cogwheels. The large wheel has a pole
extending from it horizontally. This pole is drawn by the animals
moving in a circular manner.
Wind Mill
Through wind mill we trap wind power to drive the pump unit. Wind
farms are used to generate electrical power. This is clean source of
energy and requires low operation cost. However, installation cost is
high. This device can be used only in those areas where a certain
minimum wind speed is available through out the year. Our coastal
belt is best suited for installing wind mills. Solar cells are also used to
draw water from shallow depths.
Irrigation Engineering Mechanicaljy Powered Devices
The Reciprocating pumps, centrifugal pumps, turbine pumps and
submersible pumps are powered with either diesel engine or electric motor
of different power ratings. The power rating primarily depends on depth of
water table. Over last five decades the use and so the population of electric
motor and diesel engine have increased multifold. The main mechanical and
electrical devices are :
(a) Diesel engine,
(b) Electric motor, and
(c) Tractor.

5.9 PUMP SELECTION, INSTALLATION AND

MAINTENANCE
Three types of pump are generally used in order to lift water :
Centrifugal Pump
It works on centrifugal action and can lift water upto 6 to 8 meter. It is
available in two models
I (a) Pump and motor are built together
(b) Pump and motor are built separately and coupled together.
Bore Hole Type Pump
These pump consists of special centrifugal pump impellers connected in
series, mounted on a vertical shaft, and driven by a motor. Two types of
bore hole pumps are :
Submersible Pump
In this motor and pump are both attached together and lowered inside
the bore.
Turbine Pump
In this type of pump, the pump is driven by a direct, coupled electric
motor of a vertica shaft type and is placed at the top of line shaft at the
ground level.
Jet pump
A jet pump consists of a combination of a centrifugal pump and jet
mechanism and ejector. Here, the motor and pump constitute of a small unit
like mono-block pump and is placed at the ground.
While making selection of a pump a number of considerations are required,
for performing an assigned job, the best selection of pumps should be such
that it should work at its peak efficiency. Unfortunately, there is only one
head and discharge condition for each pump where the peak effi~iencyis
obtained and therefore, it is rarely possible to achieve the highest efficiency
for pumping condition. Manufacturers can't design and build so may
varieties of pumps to meet all operating condition. Test results and
characteristics curves are available from pump manufacturers, which should
be used to select the best pump for an operating condition.
 The characteristic curves relate the important parameters like head, Life Irrigation
discharge, efficiency, and power requirement. When pump is newly
manufactured it will have a unique characteristics and gradually slight
change takes place after it operates for some period of time. Due to use wear
takes place, which in effect reduces pump efficiency and head or discharge
capacity.
Data for Selecting Pump
(a) Source of water supply
(b) Vertical suction lift
(c) Length of suction pipe
(d) Numbers and kinds of bends required
I (e) Foot valve and strainer
(0 Static discharge lift
(g) Discharge head required
(h) Discharge capacity of pump
(i) Pump location
(j) Types of drive, etc.
Installation of Centrifugal Pumps
Installation of pumps consists o f :
(a) Location of the pump
(b) Proper foundation
(c) Alignment of coupling
In order to minimise the suction liR, the pump should be accessible for
frequent inspection. The location of pump sl~ouldbe such that it does not
get submerged in water. In open wells if there is possibility for water to rise
during monsoon season, there should be a provision for installing the pump
above the water level. Thus the pump will be having two locations - one for
low water condition and one for high water conditions.
The pump and the prime mover can be fixed on a trolley or on permanent
foundation. Permanent foundation consists of the base plate fixed to
foundation bolts embedded in concrete. The pump shaft and the drive shaR
should be aligned straight.
Wedges placed below the base plate are useful in alignment of the pump
with the prime mover as the wedges can be used to raise or lower the pump
unit.
Maintenance of the Pump
Regular maintenance of the pump as per the manufacturers'
recommendation must be taken up. Usual maintenance as cleaning, oiling
greasing and change of parts must be taken up as and when required. Pump
house must be constructed and it must have sufficient space to move for the
operator and maintenance mechanic.
Irrigation Engineering
A A

(a) Discuss percussion drilling and rotary drilling.

(b) Explain well development.
(c) How the pump is selected for tube well?

5.10 SUMMARY
This unit discusses the ground water hydrology, i.e. occurrence, distribution and
movement of water below the surface of earth. Estimation of discharge through
unconfined and confined aquifer is explained. The various types of open well and
tube well are given in details. Also the construction of open well and tube well is
discussed along with well development. Lastly, the types of water lifting devices
are described.

5.11 KEY WORDS

Aquifer : It is a saturated formation which not only
stores water but yield it in sufficient quantity.
Aquitard : It is a formation through which only seepage is
possible and thus yield is insignificant as
compared to an aquifer.
Aquiclude : It is a formation which is essentially
impermeable to the flow of water.
Aquifuge : It is a formation which is neither porous nor
permeable.
Cavity Type Tube Wells : It draws water from the bottom of the well.
Strainer Type Tube Wells : It consists of perforated pipe with wire mess
wrapped around the pipe with smaller annular
space between the two.
Well Development : It means the removal of sand, silt and other
fine materials from a core immediately
surroundings the well screen.
Water Lifting Devices : These are operated by human power, animal
power and mechanical power.

5.12 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1
(a) Refer Section 5.2.
(b) Refer Section 5.2.
 7

Life Irrigation
SAQ 2
(a) Refer Section 5.3.
(b) Refer Sections 5.4 and 5.5.
SAQ 3
K
(a) Q=-AH
A

12 = 0.5 x A x 3.0 -+ A = 8 m2

(b)
d::
Diameter of well = - x 8 = 3.19 m

Givenb=10m,k=0.006m/sec,r=0.12m,s=5m,R=250m
2~ k b s
91 = R
2.303 loglo -
r

I1 Case

% increase in discharge =
-
0.27 122 0.24660
0o = 9.3 %
0.24660

s = 25 - 21.33 = 3.67 m
SAQ 4
(a) Refer Section 5.6.
(b) Refer Section 5.7:
(c) Refer Section 5.9.