Geology in Civil Engineering
- application of geological knowledge
- wide applications in various fields especially in urban
planning and expansion.
- site investigation such as dams, factories, and heavy
buildings.
Main Goal of Engineering Geology
- seeks to identify potential geologic hazards that could
affect human-made structures/ urban developments.
- to understand earth-structure interactions and
recommend action to reduce potential hazards
- to ensure potential risks from ground conditions are
investigated.
- make recommendations to maximize the safety of any
project.
Geology and Civil Engineering Relationship
- works are carried out either on site of within the site.
- erosional and geological process which cause the
stability of the rocks and ground and their changes
Relevance of Geology to Civil Engineering
- projects entail either loading the Earth by building on
it/involving some soil and rock excavation.
- excavated rocks may be used in building materials or
comprise a significant portion of the final product for
example reservoir, freeway cutting/site.
- significant impact on project’s viability, planning and
design, construction and price, and safety.
What is Engineering Geologists
- performs investigations and studies to determine how
human-made structures and the earth interact.
- task can fall under environmental, geotechnical or
geological studies.
- perform soil analysis and rainwater studies to minimize
the impact of urban development on the environment.
Geotechnical Engineering - provide meaningful
recommendation for construction project in
densely populated areas.
- grading, shoring, and drainage
recommendations
Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering
- provides systematic structure and properties of
construction materials their occurrence.
- enable them to consider aggregate, as building stone,
roofing material for decorative purpose.
- selection of site is important from the viewpoint of
stability of foundation and availability of construction
materials.
- provides knowledge used in the construction of
buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways, and
bridges.
- identify are susceptible to failure due to geological
hazards such as earthquake, landslide, weathering, etc.
- help in planning projects. provides information about
structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area.
- helps determining earthquake-prone areas
- knowledge of erosion, transportation, and deposition
(ETD) helps soil conservation, river control, coastal, and
harbor works.
- knowledge of groundwater necessary for connection with
excavation works, water supply, irrigation, and many other
purposes.
- knowledge about nature of the rocks is necessary for
tunneling, construction roads, and determining stability of
cuts and slopes.
Geology plays a crucial role in Civil Engineering, it provides
essential information about Earth’s composition, structure, and
behavior. It is vital for the successful planning, design, and
construction of civil engineering projects.
Branches of Geology
Geology - study of earth
- deals with all the earth’s surface and origin,
composition, structure and inhabitants
1. Physical Geology
- concerned with work of natural processes bring
changes upon earth’s surface
2. Petrology
- different kinds of rocks
3. Mineralogy
- study of minerals, composition and properties
4. Structural Geology
- study of the structures of the rocks in the earth’s
crust
5. Stratigraphy
- studies rocks layers (strata) and layering
(stratification)
6. Palaeontology
- study of fossils
7. Historical Geology
- study of stratigraphy and paleontology
8. Economic Geology
- study of minerals of economic importance
- concerned with earth materials used for
economic and/or industrial purposes
9. Mining Geology
- study of application of geology to mining geology
10. Engineering Geology
- study of application of geology to civil
engineering.
Earth’s Structure and Composition
Layers of the Earth
1. Crust - outermost layer and surface of the earth
a) Continental Crust = 20 - 70km average
- composed of crystalline and granitic
rocks
b) Oceanic Crust = 5-10km average
- composed of basaltic igneous rocks
2. Mantle - most internal heat of the Earth is located
- composed of iron and magnesium
4 Layers of Mantle
a) Lithosphere - includes the crust and upper part
most portion of mantle
b) Asthenosphere - top layer of the upper mantle
c) Lower Mantle - probably, mostly silicon,
magnesium, and oxygen
d) Upper Mantle - made up of mostly olivine and
pyroxene
3. Core - very hot, very dense center of our planet.
- found about 2900km below Earth’s surface.
a) Outer Core - hot and liquid layer mainly of nickle
and iron.
 Gutenberg discontinuity - transition
space between outer core and mantle
b) Inner Core - made of solid iron and little amount
of nickel
 Lehmann discontinuity - transition
region between outer and inner core
Ocean - vast body of salt water, cover 3/4 of the earth
Trenches - tectonic plate slides at a subduction zone
Hot spot - small area with high temperature
Continent - one of earth’s 7 main division of land
Oceanic ridge - under water mountain system
Island Arc - type or archipelago composed of chain of
volcanoes with arc shape

Elementary Knowledge on Continental Drift
Continental Drift - by Alfred Wegener 1912
- fits like a puzzle
- once part of supercontinent that drifted
away from each other over time.
- rejected due to lack of proper
explanation
Tectonic Plate - explain how major landforms are created
and why paltes move.
- series of papers between 1965 &1967
- moves because intense heat from the
core causes magma in the mantle
- believes all continent were once single
supercontinent and eventually reconnect
in the future
1. Major Plates - African, Antarctic, Eurasian,
Indo-Autralian, North American, Pacific and
South American
2. Minor Plates - Arabian, Caribbean Cocos,
Juan de Fuca, Nazca, Philippine Sea,
Scotia, and Somali Plates
Tectonic Boundaries - movements creats 3 types of
boundaries
- move at a rate of 1 to 2 inches
1. Divergent
2. Convergent
3. Transform
Earth Processes - forces that shape the physical planet
1. External Processes
 Degradation - surface of the earth are worn away
and general level is lowered includes:
1. Weathering - deterioration of rocks, soils, and
minerals through contact with water,
atmospheric gases, sunlight, and
biological organisms.
2. Erosion - materials worn away and transported
by natural forces such as wind and water.
2. Internal Processes
 Diastrophism (Earth Movements) - deformation of
Earth’s crust by natural processes.
1. Orogeny - a mountain-building process that
takes place at a convergent plate margin
when plate motion compresses the
margin
2. Epeirogeny - upheavals or depressions of land
exhibiting long wavelength and little
folding apart from broad undulations.
Magmatism - process of development, movement and
solidification of magma giving rise to igneous
rocks.
Metamorphism - transformation of existing rock to rock
with a different mineral composition or texture
EARTHQUAKE
- known as quake, tremor, or temblor
- sudden release of extreme energy from the earth
resulting in shaking and displacement of the ground along
with the creation of seismic waves.
- cause loss of life and destruction of property
- ground shakes violently
Seismic Waves - energy moving outward from the focus
of an earthquake
1. Primary Waves - compressional or push-pull
- propagate parallel to the direction
- solid to liquids
2. Secondary Waves (S) - shear waves
- propagate perpendicular to the direction
3. Surface Waves - complex motion
- up and down, side to side
Focus - location of initial slip on the fault, earthquake
origins
Epicenter - spots on Earth’s surface above the focus
Tsunami - epicenter of larger earthquake is situated in the
offshore seabed displaced
- triggers landslide and occasionally volcanic
eruptions.
WHY DO EARHQUAKES OCCUR?
Geological Faults - planar fracture or discontinuity in a
volume of rock
a) Normal Fault - when crust is extended
b) Thrust Fault - when crust if compresses
c) Strike Slip Fault - near vertical and motion
results from shearing forces.
VOLCANOES
1. Teleseismic Earthquake
2. Regional Earthquake
3. Local Earthquake
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
1. Primary Hazards: Rapid Ground Shaking
a) Structural Damage
b) Buckled roads and rail tracks
2. Secondary Hazards:
a. Landslides
b. Avalanches
c. Alterations to Water Courses
d. Fire
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
 Seismometers - detect seismic waves
 Seismographs - record intensity, height, and
amplitude of seismic waves
MEASURING THE SIZE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Magnitude
a) Richter Scale - measure energy release by fault
movement
b) Logarithmic Scale - quantitative measure
2. Intensity - energy released by fault
- geology of the location
- surface substrate: magnify shock waves
a) Mercalli Scale - measure particular location
- measures destructive effect
EARTHQUAKE MONITORING
Identification of faultlines
a) New Madrid Tennessee
b) San Andreas Faultline
Remote Seismograph Positioning - seismic activity as it
is registered on seismometer
Analog Image - recording of eathquake
- flat lines are periods of quiescence
- larger & squiggly line ia an eathquake
Digital Seismogram - stored electronically and easy to
access, manipulate, and much more
accurate & detailed
Tiltmeter - attached to the sides of volcano
- detects small changes in the slope of volcano
Changes in Groundwater Levels - hydro geological
responses to large distant eathquakes
- improves our insights into responsible
mechanisms
- improve frustratingly imprecise ability to
forecast the timing, magnitude, and
impact of earthquakes
Observation of Strange Behaviors in Animals
- unusual animal behavior
- smaller P wave travels fastest from the
earthquake source arrives before larger S
wave.
 5. Seismic - either on land or sea, from chemical explosions
IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION GROUNDWATER
 Property-related Changes - water found beneath the Earth’s surface in the cracks
- declined property values and spaces in soil, sand, and rock
- declined property tax revenues IMPORTANCE OF GROUNDWATER
 Financial Changes 1. Drinking water - source of drinking water for millions of
- reduced availability of insurance people worldwide
- reduced availability of mortgages 2. Agriculture - source of irrigation for agricultural
- change in investment patterns activities
 Population Movement 3. Ecosystem Support - sustains wetlands, lakes rivers
- Temporary relocation and streams by continuous flow of water
- Permanent relocation SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER
- Availability of evacuation centers 1. Meteoric Water - main source.
- Evacuation urged in high risk ares -from precipitation rain/snow
- Avoidance of hazardous areas 2. Connate Water - sediment water
 Level of Business Activity - entrapped in the interstices of sedimentary and
- Cessation of work activity volcanic rocks
- Decline in employment opportunities 3. Juvenile Water - magnetic water
- Decline in level of business activity - not magma enters due to volcanic action
 Preparedness Organization and Education Hydrogeology - study of the distribution and movement
- Preparedness training and information of groundwater in the subsurface
- Stress on preparedness organizations - understanding the geological formations,
- Released of damage assessment maps soil types, and rock characteristics
 Rescheduling of Public Events Groundwater Formation - process of filtration
 Reduction in Public Service - percolates download through the soil
MODE OF OCCURENCES & PROESPECTING and rocks
- provide valuable clues as to the origin of the element Aquifers - contains and transmits groundwater
 Geochemical process - serve as natural reservoirs that store and supply
 How the element will behave upon coal groundwater.
cleaning,utilization, leaching, disposal  Unconfined Aquifers - serve as vital sources of
What is ORE? water for wells and springs
- accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements  Confined Aquifers - under high pressure and
- mineral content must be in sufficient concentration to store significant amounts of water
make its extraction. HOW GEOLOGISTS STUDY GROUNDWATER
MODES OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS - drilling wells to measure water levels and quality
1. Veins and Lodes - igneous and metamorphic rocks - conducting hydrogeological surveys
minerals may occur in cracks, crevices, faults or - using geophysical techniques to map subsurface
joints. structures
i. Veins - smaller occurences - modeling groundwater flow
ii. Lodes - larger WEATHERING
2. Beds or Layers - work to weaken and break down rock at Earth’s surface
- occurs in sedimentary rocks - break rocks into smaller pieces
- result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in i. Pebbles
horizontal layers of the rocks ii. Silt
3. Decomposition of Surface rocks iii. Sand
- occurs with the removal of soluble constituents iv. Clay
4. Alluvial deposits/ placer deposits - changes Earth’s surface
- not corroded by water TYPES OF WEATHERING
- found in sands of valley floors 1) Mechanical - rocks broken down apart by physical
5. Ocean Water processes
- contain vast quantities of minerals - chemical makeup of rocks remains the
- economically not viable same
MODES OF PROPECTING  Plants: Root Pry
- first stage of the geological analysis  Animals
- search for minerals, fossils, precious metals, or mineral  Ice Wedging or Freeze/ Thaw
specimens  Exfoliation
- known as fossicking  Abrasion
MAJOR GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS  Gravity
1. Magnetic - mapping the depth size, type, and inferred 2) Chemical - dissolve the remains in rocks or change
composition of buried rocks them into different minerals
2. Gravimetric - aims at the detention ang study of bodies  Natural Acids: Carbonic Acid
and underground structures  Plant Acids
3. Electrical - detect the surface affects produced by  Lichen and Mosses
electric current flow  Oxygen: Oxidation
- one may measure potentials, currents, and  Hydration
electromagnetic fields  Air Pollution
4. Radiometric - or gamma-ray spectrometric
- used to estimate concentrations of the radioelements
 MINERALOGY Importance of Crystallography in the Field of Civil Engineering
- science dealing with minerals, their crystallography, -It provides essential insights into the structure and
properties, classification, and the ways of distinguishing properties of materials, which is crucial in designing
them. materials with specific properties. By studying
IMPORTANCE MINERALOGY IN THE FIELD OF crystallography, researchers can develop new materials
ENGINEERING that have improved properties, which can have a
- because physical properties of rocks are dependent significant impact on various industries.
upon the properties and composition of their constituent PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
minerals. Minerals - exist as inorganic solids in nature that have a certain
WHY WE STUDY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY? chemical makeup and crystal lattice structure
- useful for the identification of minerals. WHY WE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT MINERALS
- Study of crystals can provide new chemical information. - form through various processes
- Is of major importance to a wide range - crust of the earth contains more than 4000 minerals
of scientific disciplines, including physics, chemistry,
- only ten minerals account for the majority of the earth’s crust
molecular biology, material science, and mineralogy.
Mineralogists - scientist who research minerals
- It is very useful for solid state studies of minerals.
- Crystal heating therapy. - identification and classification of minerals is one of
- useful in phase identification. the task they must perform.
- understanding the structure and properties of cement. IMPORTANT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Crystallography - study of crystals  Color
a. Geometrical a. Color Play - when minerals reflect light or move in
b. Chemical different directions
c. Physical b. Color Change - occur at a somewhat gradual rate
Crystals - regular polyhedral form, bounded by smooth c. Iridescence - surface or interior of certain minerals
faces exhibit rainbow-colored hues
CRYSTAL SYSTEM  Streak - color of the mineral, more or less continuous
a. Cubic (Isometric) - three crystallographic axes are all  Luster - appearance of a fresh surface of a mineral
equal in length and intersect at right angles to each other a. Classy/ Vitreous Lustre - like a broken glass
i. Octahedron (8 faces) b. Metallic Lustre - like metal
ii. Trisoctahedron (43 faces) c. Pearly Lustre - like pearls
iii. Hexoctahedron (48 faces)  Structure - denote the shape and form of minerals
b. Trigonal (Rhombohedral) - All three axes are of equal
a. Columnar - thick or thin
length, and none of the axes is perpendicular to another
b. Bladed - like blade
- crystal faces all have the same size and shape.
c. Radiated - fibrous diverging from central points
c. Tetragonal - two of the three axes are in equal lengths
- three axes are perpendicular d. Lameller - made of separable plates
i. Simple Tetragonal e. Botryoidal - like bunch grapes
ii. Body-centered tetragonal f. Reniform - kidney shape
d. Orthorhombic - three axes are unequal in length  Hardness - resistance of mineral offers to abrasion
- all perpendicular to one another  Specific gravity - gravity of the mineral
i. Body-centered - lattice point in the middle of  Cleavage - tendency of a crystallized mineral
the unit cell - basis of perfection of the degree of easiness
ii. Base-centered - each of the two ends  Fracture - appearance of its broken surface
iii. Face-centered - middle of each side  Tenacity - balances, flexibility, elasticity
iv. Simple IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING MIERALOGY AS CIVIL ENGINEERS
e. Hexagonal - our axes, three are of equal length, are - to understand the physical properties of minerals used to
separated by equal angle choose appropriate building materials, design stable
- fewest substances foundations, anticipate settlements, and ensure geotechnical
- all crystals are uniaxial light travels through the project success
crystal at different speeds ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
f. Monoclinic - three axes, all unequal in length - commonly found in the Earth’s crust and responsible for the
i. Simple Monoclinic
formation of various types of rocks
ii. Base-Centered Monoclinic
IMPORTANCE OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
g. Triclinic - three axes are all unequal in length and
intersect at three different angles 1. Composition - combination and arrangement of different
SYMMETRY minerals in a rock
 Planes of Symmetry - two dimensional surface 2. Rock Classification - classified based on the mineral
 Rotation Axis of Symmetry - imaginary line through content and texture of the rock
the center of crystals 3. Rock Formation Processes - crucial in formation of rocks
i. Binary Symmetry 4. Properties and Behavior of Rocks - their strength,
ii. Tetragonal Symmetry durability, weathering resistance, and deformation
iii. Trigonal 5. Economic Significance - used as raw materials in various
iv. Hexagonal industries
 Center of Symmetry IMPORTANCE OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
- fundamental components in the formation of rocks,
determining the composition, classification, formation
processes, properties, and economic significance of rocks
BASIC COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
1. Chemical Composition - distinguish them from other
minerals
2. Crystalline Structure - well-defined crystalline
3. Physical Properties -
4. Texture - texture, size, and shape
5. Occurrence and abundance - distributed in the Earth’s crust
6. Role in rock formation - constituents that make up rocks

Allows geoscientists to identify, classify, and interpret rocks

and provides insights into the processes that shapes the Earth’s
crust, history, and resources
COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERALS
 Quartz - framework silicate mineral
- hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica
 Feldspar - group of rock-forming aluminum
- containing other cations
 Amphibole - group of inosilicate minerals
- can be green, black, colorless, white, yellow, blue, or
brown
 Micas - group of silicate minerals
 Olivine - magnesium iron silicate
- type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate
 Garnets - used since the Bronze Age
 Calcite - carbonate mineral and most stable polymorph
 Pyroxenes - group of important rock forming inosilicate
- known as clinopyroxenes
Mohs Hardness Scale - by Carl Friedrich Christian Mohs
- different minerals and other substances appear
- compairing the hardness of differenr minerals