CET 202 Module 1

Royal college of engineering
CE202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
MODULE 1
Syllabus:
➢ Relevance of Geology in Civil Engineering (1)
➢ Weathering of rocks -Types of weathering, –Engineering
significance of weathering (1)
➢ Processes of Origin of Products of weathering like sand, clay,
laterite and soil, Soil profile (1)
➢ Soil erosion and soil conservation measures. (2)
➢ Geological processes by rivers. (1)
➢ Landslides-types, causes and controlling measures (1)
➢ Coastal Processes-Geological work by waves and currents (1)
➢ coastal protection measures (1)
points in black = to study = DO NOT SKIP

points in grey = to understand = read carefully for better score
1
Relevance of geology in Civil engineering
1.1 GEOLOGY -Definition

1. Geology is the science that deals with the origin, age,
composition, internal structure, surface features and history of
Earth.
2. Applied science to advance our understanding of the
processes that can result in natural disasters such as
earthquakes, Tsunamis, landslides, floods etc.
3. Geology is the study of Earth
It includes:
➢ Processes taking place inside Earth
➢ Discovering Earth’s mineral wealth
➢ Techniques to preserve Earth
Deals with evolution & modifications of various surface features like:

mountains, rivers, coastlines etc.
1.earth science
general - origin-age-atmosphere- earth crust
geology 2.palentology- fossils
Geology 3. mineralogy- minerals
Eng. geology
petrology
study of Rock
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1.1.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Application of geology to civil engineering projects is known as
Engineering geology.
It is the application of geological data, techniques & principles for the
study of:
➢ Naturally occurring rock & soil materials
➢ Surface and subsurface fluids
➢ Interaction of induced materials & processes with geologic
environment
➢ Geological factors affecting planning, design, construction,
operation & maintenance of Engineering structures
➢ Recognition, protection, development & remediation of
ground water resources
Branches of Engineering geology:
i. Physical geology:- study of weathering, erosion,
transportation
ii. Structural geology:- arrangement of rocks, defects of rocks
etc.
iii. Field geology:- structural composition & mineralogy of
materials in the field
iv. Hydrology:- aquifer, aquifuge, aquiclude
v. Earth’s movement and volcanic activities:- earthquake,
landslide, volcanic eruption etc.
vi. Civil engineering geology:- selection of suitable site,
suitable material for construction, Fixing civil engineering
problems related to geology( rock, soil, natural agents like
wind, water) and foresee challenges might occur during
construction.
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1.2 NEED / SCOPE/ RELEVANCE/ SIGNIFICANCE/

NECESSITY/ IMPORTANCE/ APPLICATION/
OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

-/or/-
OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1. To ensure: geological factors affecting the location, design,

construction, operation & maintenance of engineering works
are recognized & adequately provided
Extend of natural bed

Availability of natural
▪ Width of rock bed of Dam
construction materials
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2. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material,

its occurrence, composition, durability and other properties.
E. g.: Building stones, road metal, clay, lime stones and
laterite.
3. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as

water, wind, ice and earthquakes help in planning and carrying out
major civil engineering works.
E.g.: knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition helps
greatly in solving the expensive problems of river control, coastal and
soil conservation.
4. Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks.

The knowledge about its quantity and depth of occurrence is required
in connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation and many
other civil engineering works.
5. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are
directly concerned with the geology of the area where they are to be
built.
In these works, drilling is commonly undertaken to explore the
ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in interpreting the drilling
data.
6. In tunnelling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining

the stability of cuts and
slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very
necessary.
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7. Before starting a major engineering project at a place, a detailed

geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in planning and constructing
the projects.
8. ground water exploration, watershed development & Ground water

pollution: needs knowledge of geology
➢ To decide the accurate method & ➢ To identify fault in rocks/

precisely analyse the data permeable soil strata b/w
oil reservoir/ waste
disposal and ground water
1.2.1 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION

all types of heavy construction jobs such as buildings, towers,
tanks, dams and reservoirs, highways and bridges, traffic and
hydropower tunnels, embankments and retaining structures,
lining of irrigational and navigational canals and water bodies,
laying of pipelines for oil, gas and water transport, platforms and
aerodromes and so on, needs full geological information about
the site of construction (or excavation) and about the natural
materials of construction in all the three aspects of each
construction: planning, designing and execution.
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A. Planning stage
Following geological information is greatly useful in proper planning
of an engineering project:
(i) Topographic Maps.: → give details of relief features
(characteristics related to a specific area)
→essential to understand all the possible sites for the
proposed structure.
→The presence and nature of slopes, size, contours and
depth of valleys and gorges (narrow valley) and rate of
change of elevation in various directions can be easily
computed from such maps.
(ii) Hydrological Maps.: These maps give broad details about

the distribution and geometry of the surface water
channels
→also, the occurrence and depth contours of ground
water below the surface of the earth.
→Such data is of great importance in proper planning of
many engineering projects. This is because surface water
and groundwater are most important factors that influence
the stability and cost of engineering structures in many
ways.
(iii) Geological Maps.: →Petrological and structural

characteristics and disposition of rock types existing in the
proposed area are shown in geological maps.
→It is from these maps and sections drawn across them in
different directions an engineer can obtain much useful
information regarding fracturing and displacement that
the site rocks might have undergone in the past.
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→These maps also give an idea about the availability of the

construction materials in the area.
→ Further, these maps guide to locate and limit the
exploratory operations (test holes etc.) for subsurface
investigations in the area of interest.
B. Design stage:
→To identify the existence of hard bed rocks and their depth
from and inclination with the surface. – type/depth of foundation
→To know the mechanical properties along and across the site of
the proposed project;
#Compressive strength,
#Shear and transverse strength,
#Modulus of elasticity,
#Porosity and permeability,
#Resistance to decay and disintegration.
→to know:
→Presence, nature and distribution pattern of planes of
structural weakness (joints, faults, folds, cleavage,
schistosity and lineation etc.)
→ zones of weak materials (as shear zones, fault zones,
clay bands, schistosity zones etc.)
→The position of ground water table in its totality
including points of recharge and discharge and variations
during different periods of the year.
→Seismic character of the area as deciphered from the
seismic history and prediction about future seismicity.
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C. Construction stage
→The engineer responsible for the quality control of construction

materials will derive enormous benefit from his geological
background of the natural materials such as sands, gravels,
crushed rocks and soils.
→Properties of all of these materials are best understood when
studied in a proper geological perspective.
→for construction in geologically sensitive areas as those of
coastal belts, seismic zones, and permafrost regions, knowledge
of geological history of the area is of great importance.
→ In the coastal areas, behaviour of rocks towards waves,
currents ad marine environment must be fully understood both at
the planning stage and more so during execution of the work.
Special type of construction may become essential in these areas.
→It is true about construction in seismic regions where weight
of the construction material becomes a critical factor because
the construction has to be well balanced and essentially light
weight as far as possible. Architectural fancies are to be avoided
or else very carefully designed and constructed.
→Construction in permafrost regions (where soil remains
permanently frozen up to a certain depth all the time), presents its
own problems that can be solved only by proper understanding of
the ground below.
1.2.2 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN DAM CONSTRUCTION

→To know the Extent of rock bed available for foundation
→Existence of Narrow River valleys: dam is constructed at the short
width across river
→To know the Occurrence of rock bed at shallow depth, Competent
rock to offer strong foundation
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→to identify the presence of forms of weakness in rock →faults, folds,

fissures etc.,
1.2.3 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
1.2.4 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN WATER RESOURCE

DEVELOPMENT
→ Geological information is of fundamental importance in

exploration of water resources of a region from surface and
subsurface reserves of water.
→The water resource engineer has to understand the water cycle
in all essential details.
• Study of water cycle is an essential pre-requisite for
effective planning and execution of major water resource
development programmes on national and regional levels.
→ The water bearing properties of rock bodies (aquifers) as well
other factors that influence storage, movement and yield of water
from aquifers are essentially geological problems.
• They require thorough geological knowledge about the make-
up and disposition of strata for designing a dependable water
supply project.
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1.2.5 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN TOWN PLANNING &

REGIONAL PLANNING:
❑ Utilisation of land aesthetically & efficiently
❑ Maintain equilibrium b/w surface features & prevailing
environment
❑ Every meter of land taken out from the natural system will affect
the system as a whole
❑ Change in natural setup leads to series of changes in the
adjoining & even distant area
Knowledge of natural setup = Geology
→The materials making the land (rocks, soils, vegetation, water bodies
etc.) and the roles played by each of them in the evolution of the natural
landscape has to be understood.
Questions??
1. Explain relevance of geology in Construction engineering (6 marks)
Ans) 1.2.1
2. Explain relevance of geology in Civil engineering
Ans) 1.2 + 1.2.1 (8 mark)
1.2.1 +3/4 points from 1.2 (6 mark)
1.2.1 (3 mark)
1.2.1 +1.2+ 1.2.2 + 1.2.3 +1.2.4+1.2.5 (14 mark)
3. List out various sub-divisions in geology (5 Marks)
Ans) 1.1 +1.1.1
4. Scope of geology in civil engineering/

Ans) 1.2 + 1.2.1 (8 mark)
engineering geology 1.2.1 +3/4 points from 1.2 (6 mark)
1.2.1 (3 mark)
5. Importance of geology in civil engineering 1.2.1 +1.2+ 1.2.2 + 1.2.3 +1.2.4+1.2.5 (14 mark)
6. Role of geologist in civil engineering projects
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CE202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1.2 weathering
MODULE 1
KRISHNENDU V R
Asst. Professor
Dpt. Of CE
RCET
Course Outcomes
DPT. OF C E ROYAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 2

Syllabus
➢Relevance of Geology in Civil Engineering (1)
➢Weathering of rocks -Types of weathering, –Engineering significance of weathering(1)
➢Processes of Origin of Products of weathering like sand, clay, laterite and soil, Soil profile (1)
➢Soil erosion and soil conservation measures. (2)
➢Geological processes by rivers. (1)
➢Landslides-types, causes and controlling measures(1)
➢Coastal Processes-Geological work by waves and currents (1)
➢coastal protection measures (1)

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Definition
Process of decay and disintegration of rocks—under the influence of certain physical

and chemical agencies—of atmosphere.
-/or/-
Natural process of in-situ mechanical disintegration and/or chemical decomposition of

the rocks of the crust of Earth by certain physical or chemical agencies of atmosphere

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4) Combined/ Spheroidal
1) Mechanical / Physical 2) biological weathering weathering 3) Chemical weathering
weathering
exfoliation
Block Granular disintegration
disintegration Shattering
Hydration & carbonation
Hydrolysis
Due to temperature
variation:
Abrasion : By solution process Colloid formation
Frost action, insolation Oxidation &
Running water, wind, etc
biological activities: reduction
unloading
Animals, vegetation
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical weathering-types
According to the pattern According to the agents causing weathering
exfoliation Shattering Due to temperature Abrasion : Salt growth

variation: Running water, wind, etc
Granular disintegration Frost action, insolation
Block disintegration
biological activities: unloading
Animals, vegetation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical weathering
❑Disintegration of rocks by physical process without a change in their composition
❑Weathered products has same chemical composition as the parent rock
❑Physical agencies: Temperature change, vegetation, movement of water & wind, actions of
animals etc.
❑Types: exfoliation, block disintegration, granular disintegration
❑Slow process: take years to disintegrate rock and form soil

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical weathering—types-cause/agents/conditions/process
1. Temperature variations
A. Frost action:frost shattering/ ice wedging, frost heaving
▪ Water →freezing →10% increase in volume →expansion → pressure of rate 140 kg/cm²
▪ Freezing of water within the pores, cracks, fractures, cavities of rocks →original opening
widens →accommodate more water → subsequent cycles of freezing & thawing
→gradual disintegration of rock due to internal stresses exerted in the pores

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
A. Frost action: E.g. : frost shattering/ ice wedging, frost heaving
▪ Frost formed fragments are angular, sub angular, irregular in outline
▪ If the parent rock is having flat surface/ slope → spread over parent rock
▪ If the parent rock is having significant slope → heaved up from crevices &cavities→ roll
down the slope under gravity →accumulate at the base: scree deposits
▪ If the slope are stabilised and the gravity pull is weaker →fragments remain unevenly strewn
over the surface of the slopes :talus slopes

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Parent rock
Scree deposit
Scree deposits/ scree slope

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Cliff/ free face

crest
Parent rock Talus slope
Pediment slope
Talus slopes

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical weathering—Types
Frost/ ice heaving
→high altitude of Artic tundra
→high altitude vast open spaces
→ with low growing grass and spares vegetation:: more like bog
→underlaying by permanently frozen soil ::permafrost
→ only upper layer thaw in summer:: active layer—involves in frost heaving

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Frost/ ice heaving (cont…)
→@summer::thaw:
→water migrate down through soil
→pools against permafrost
→@winter::freeze
→water expands vertically
—lifts upper layer

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Frost shattering/ ice wedging

→due to frost action
→occurs at high altitudes
—where is definite summer & winter
→commonly seen in granites

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Exudation
Process similar to frost action
Except disintegration takes place due to the formation of crystals of sodium chloride or similar
Common in the porous rocks near seashore

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
B. Thermal effects (Insolation):
→in arid, desert & semi arid region—summer and winter temperature differ
considerably
→ Temp.(day) & Temp.(night) , Temp(summer)& Temp. (winter)
→E.g. Kara Qum:: 78-80º C to -10º C (summer to winter)
→rocks :: expand on heating & contract up on cooling—gradually break into small

pieces (especially top layers) –by the tensile stresses
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
B. Thermal effects (Insolation):
→Exfoliation : in layered rock/ thick rock bodies
▪ Upper layer get affected more due to temperature variation—virtually peal off
▪ In some cases this is also accompanied by chemical weathering—@ margins or
boundaries of separated layers—develop a curved surface
phenomenon of pealing off of curved shells from rock under the influence of thermal
effect in association with chemical weathering is called exfoliation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2. Unloading
→large scale development of fracturing in confined rock masses attributed to removal

of overlying rock due to prolonged erosional work of other agencies
→remain confined at sides & expand upward due to relief of pressure from above
→develops joints parallel to the uncovered surface( parallel to earth surface)—divide

the rock into sheets (some times referred as exfoliation sheets)—mechanical breakdown
–makes the rock available for further weathering along the joint planes

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2. Unloading
→unloading of deeply buried plutons is often the cause of development of concentric

joints in them
→further mechanical weathering along these joints leads to pealing off of slabs and
converting the pluton into an exfoliation dome
→exfoliation is a form of Weathering due to unloading also
→Commonly seen in igneous rocks (GRANITE)

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2. Unloading

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
3. Abrasion
→wearing or grinding of rock by small sediments carried out by wind, water, ice etc.
Wind abrasion
@national park,
Utah

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Sea abrasion glacier abrasion

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Salt growth
→Seawater or other water containing dissolved salts may also penetrate into cracks,
especially in coastal areas. Upon evaporation of the water, salt crystals form and their
growth generates localized, but significant, forces that can further open cracks in the
rock.
→commonly seen on sandstone in dry and arid region
Exudation
Process similar to frost action
Except disintegration takes place due to the formation of crystals of sodium chloride or similar
Common in the porous rocks near seashore

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Salt growth Exudation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
5. Biological activities
→vegetation(roots), animal activities

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical weathering—Types—pattern
a) EXFOLIATION: pealing off of curved shells from rock under the influence of
thermal effect/ unloading in association with chemical weathering
b) SHATERING : disintegration through cracks/joints by wedge formation etc. and
shattering to small pieces
c) BLOCK DISINTEGRATION :The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is
called block disintegration. It commonly occurs in those regions where there is a
high difference in daily range of temperature
d) GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION: in hot and arid regions:::: differential heating
(diff mineral diff rate) :::: rock breaks up into mineral grains

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2. Biological/ Organic weathering
❑Both physical & chemical processes
❑Simple braking (E.g. plant roots), movement (E.g. human activities), & mixing (E.g.
burrowing by animals like ants )
❑CO₂ produced by respiration—forms carbonic acid
❑Organisms influence the moisture content of soil
❑Various secreted chemicals reacts with rock minerals, soil

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2. Biological weathering
Role of plants & Organisms
→contribute to mechanical and/or chemical decomposition
→Plants:
→H⁺ ions released by plant roots during growth & metabolism
→replaces K ⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ from rock minerals
→Root system of conifers & other big trees creep into pre-existing cracks
→loosening apart of fragments of rocks followed by their rolling down slope

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Role of plants & Organisms
→contribute to mechanical and/or chemical decomposition
→human activities:
→greatest destroyer of rocks
Decay/ decomposition of rock by living things (plants, animals, human) are some time
referred as Organic weathering

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
3.Chemical weathering
❑By chemical decomposition brought about by atmospheric gases and moisture/
transformation of one mineral into other by chemical processes
❑CO₂, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
❑Rocks—are made up of minerals—all of which are not in chemical equilibrium with
atmosphere around
❑Chemical weathering is, essentially a process of chemical reactions b/w the surface of
rocks and the atmospheric gases in the direction establishing a chemical equilibrium
❑Weathered product has a different chemical composition and poorer physical
constitution than the parent rock
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
→happens in number of ways depending upon mineralogical composition & nature
of chemical environment surrounding:
1. Solution
2. Hydration & Hydrolysis
3. Oxidation & Reduction
4. Carbonation
5. Base –exchange
6. Colloid formation
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Solution :When substances are dissolved in acids or water, then the water or
acid with dissolved substances is called a solution.
→occurs when minerals in rock dissolves in water
→depends upon the solubility of a mineral in weak acids or water
→rocks contain one or more minerals
→some minerals might be soluble in water to some extend
E.g. rock salt, gypsum, calcite
→ because of the high solubility of its constituents like sulphates, nitrates, and
potassium, etc. in water/ acid
→these minerals are simply leached out without leaving any remains in rainy climates
and accumulate in dry regions

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Solution :
→Minerals like calcium/ magnesium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate present in
limestone are soluble in water containing carbonic acid and are transported away in the
water as a solution
→Carbon dioxide formed by decomposing organic matter along with soil water
significantly assists in this reaction.
→carbonated water is better solvent than pure water

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Solution :
➢Sodium chloride is also a rock-forming mineral and is vulnerable to this process of
solution.
➢Carbonation, oxidation and Hydration go hand in hand and accelerate the weathering
process
➢common in rocks containing carbonates (E.g. Limestone)
also affect rocks with large amount of halite/ rock salt

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1. Solution
Limestone under solution

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
→direct attack of atmospheric moisture –on individual minerals –ultimately affect the
structural make up of the rock
→interior of the mineral is in electric equilibrium( net 0 charge) –surfaces have
partially unsatisfied valences
→water is bipolar
→polarised water come in contact with rock crystals::
1) hydration
2) hydrolysis
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1) hydration ::addition of water molecule
→ions on surface of rock crystal –hold the polarised water molecule & form a
hydrate
E.g. hydration of iron oxide (ferrous) – Fe++ hold water –water-iron complex or a
hydroxide
& calcium sulphate crystals/anhydrite—gets slowly converted to gypsum
→CaSO₄ + 2H₂O ➔ CaSO₄ 2H₂O
anhydrite water Gypsum

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
1) hydration ::addition of water molecule
→Minerals take up water and enlarge.
→This enlargement causes an increase
in the volume of the rock.
→This process is long and reversible,
sustained recurrence of this process causes fatigue in the rocks.
→This may lead to their disintegration of rocks

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2) hydrolysis ::ion exchange with H ⁺ & OH⁻ of water
→the addition of water at the molecular level to silicates
→ions from water enter into the crystal lattice of the mineral
→ common in hot, wet regions
→ occurs especially with granite
→causes rocks to whiten

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2) hydrolysis ::ion exchange with H ⁺ & OH⁻ of water
→ E.g. weathering of silicate (silicates are quite abundant in rocks)

creates a grain-by-grain breakup of the minerals in granite into a clay called
Kaollinite
& weathering of mineral Orthoclase, a felspar
→K+ Al Si₃O₈ + H⁺ ➔ H Al Si₃O₈ + K⁺
Ion from water Silicic acid like
Orthoclase structure

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
2) hydrolysis :: ion exchange with H ⁺ & OH⁻ of water
→mica & feldspar turn into clay
→clay is soft & expand in volume;
causes granular disintegration
→resistant minerals like quarts left unaltered
& stay as sand

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
→iron is a chief constituent of various rock minerals
→iron bearing minerals/ rocks are especially prone to Oxidation & Reduction
→Effects of oxidation & to some extent reduction weathering are easily observed from the
colour changes produced in iron bearing rocks
→Rock in which iron has been oxidized to ferric state (oxides, hydroxide & hydrates) →
brown colour
→in which oxidation has reached to only ferrous state → green, blue & grey

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Oxidation:
→ferrous iron (Fe ++) is oxidised to ferric iron(Fe+++) by the exposure to air rich in
moisture
→ Ferric iron is unstable:: further oxidation:: ferric hydroxide
4 Fe + 3 O₂ → 2 Fe ₂O₃
Fe ₂ O₃ + H₂O→ Fe ₂ O₃. H₂O

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Oxidation:
4 Fe + 3 O₂ → 2 Fe ₂O₃
Fe ₂ O₃ + H₂O→ Fe ₂ O₃. H₂O
Similarly,
→Pyrite ( a natural & common iron mineral , present in small amounts(E.g. in lime stone))
→Undergo oxidation and hydration in sequence → forms sulphuric acid → ultimately corrode the
carbonate rock (lime stone)
2 FeS₂ + 7O ₂ + 2H₂O → FeSO₄ + 2 H₂SO₄
pyrite Fe sulphate Sulphuric acid

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
Reduction :
→in swamp environment ;where soil is rich in decaying vegetation—supplies the
carbonaceous content causing reduction
→minerals containing iron oxide undergo reduction of oxides to elemental iron

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Carbonation
→under the combined action of atmospheric carbon dioxide &moisture
→CO₂ + moisture = mildly reacting carbonic acid
→excessive effect on silicate bearing rocks
→silicate of potassium, sodium & calcium are particularly vulnerable to carbonation
→E.g. : feldspar orthoclase—very common, important constituent of many igneous,
sedimentary, metamorphic rocks
→ 2 KAlSi₃O₈ + 2H₂O + CO ₂ → Al ₂ Si ₂ O₅(OH)₄ + K ₂ CO ₃ + SiO ₂
orthoclase Carbonic acid kaoline Pot. carbonate silica

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Carbonation
→→ 2 KalSi₃O₈ + 2H₂O + CO ₂ → Al ₂ Si ₂ O₅(OH)₄ + K ₂ CO ₃ + SiO ₂
orthoclase Carbonic acid kaolinite Pot. carbonate silica
→end product: a clay mineral, a soluble bicarbonate & silica

→Na, Ca maybe present instead of K; according to the type of feldspar → kaolinite is
formed in all cases
→only the soluble carbonate differs in accordance with metallic ions of feldspar

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Carbonation
→ 2 KalSi₃O₈ + 2H₂O + CO ₂ → Al ₂ Si ₂ O₅(OH)₄ + K ₂ CO ₃ + SiO ₂
→After effect of carbonation:

→A soft clay mineral (Kaolinite, H=1) is formed in place of hard mineral (feldspar, H=6)
→Carbonates are removed in solution and silica from colloids→ partial/ total conversion of a
strong igneous rock (granite) into a mass of soft clay
→Common in : Granite, Granodiorites, syenites, basalts & porphyries → feldspar is chief

component

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4. Carbonation
→→ 2 KalSi₃O₈ + 2H₂O + CO ₂ → Al ₂ Si ₂ O₅(OH)₄ + K ₂ CO ₃ + SiO ₂

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
5. Ion exchange

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
6. Colloid formation
→oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis & reduction under different atmospheric conditions
may not always end in the formation of stable end products
→Often results in splitting of particles into smaller particles : colloids
→Colloids: characteristic by atoms with only partially satisfied electrical charges
→Common in weathering of clay minerals, silica & iron oxides
→Colloids then soon precipitated as their charges are satisfied & they form stable
products

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4.Spheroidal weathering
→complex type of weathering
→ observed in jointed rocks
→original rock mass is broken into spheroidal blocks
→both mechanical & chemical weathering are actively cooperating
→original solid rock mass is split into small blocks –by the development of parallel
joints due to thermal effects (insolation)
→simultaneously, chemical weathering processes corrode the borders & surfaces of the
blocks → roughly spheroidal

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Types of Weathering
4.Spheroidal weathering

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Factors affecting weathering
1. Nature & chemical composition of the rock
→quarts (SiO₂) is highly weathering resistant mineral
→sand stone(quarts is main constituent ) is more resistant than granite when exposed
to hot & humid climate
→granite undergo a lot of chemical decay due to carbonation, hydration & hydrolysis
→dense structure will weather at a slower rate than fractured type
;bcs, gases and moisture find easy pathway into the body of rock through the
fractures and act from many places

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
2. Climate
→cold & Humid condition favour both chemical & mechanical weathering
→cold & Dry : neither chemical nor mechanical
→Hot & Humid : chemical predominates
→Hot & Dry (arid) : mechanical ( due to expansion & Contraction) predominates

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
3. Physical environment
→topography affects the rate of weathering
→rocks forming bare cliffs, mountain slopes devoid of vegetation, valley sides are
more prone to weathering
→level lands under vegetation is less vulnerable to weathering

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
4. total surface area of mineral or rock;
the processes of weathering increases proportionately with the amount of open space at the surface of
the rock and extend through the rock
5. Presence of lines of weakness in rocks
More crack/ fissures etc. more area of exposure
6. Human activity
air pollution → more acidic rainwater
agriculture, quarrying, mining → removal of overlying rocks, protective vegetation, exposing
underlying rocks to agents of weathering
7. Time
rocks develop more lines of weaknesses over time →increases their susceptibility to weathering
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
9. Degree of slope of parent rock
→steeper the slope→ more exposed rocks→ more weathering by exposure

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Products of weathering
→classified mainly into 2: Eluvium & Deluvium
Eluvium: end product of weathering that’s lie over & above the parent rock
→may consist of :
fragmentary materials →by disintegration-/or/-
fine powdered materials →by chemical decomposition -/or/-
mixture of both
→it may form thin/ thick layer depending on the duration for which weathering has been
operative
→when the cover is sufficiently thick, the parent rock is always traceable at some depth below
→ Regolith is a form of eluvium

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
→classified mainly into 2: Eluvium & Deluvium
Deluvium: end product of weathering that has been moved to some distance
→Transported soil
→Associated with weathering of slopes, gravity, wind, rain wash etc.
→Alluvial – river –gravel & sand
→Lacustrine →lake
→Marine—very low shear strength, high compressibility
→Aeolian →wind –loess –in arid, semi arid region –low Bearing capacity & density, high
compressibility
→Glacial →glaciers –drift, till
→Colluvial → gravity –talus

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Regolith
→broadly express all the weathered material, eluvium/ deluvium that covers the parent
rock or is lying close to it
→deposits of huge thickness in suitable environments –slow down further weathering
→exact depth at which effects of weathering stops varies place to place
depending upon :
--topography
--climate
--composition of rock

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Regolith
→depth is generally limited to a few meters only
→the term soil refers to the upper part of regolith that has further undergone
biochemical decomposition & modifications reducing it to a uniformly pulverised
state
→soils of almost all types are capable of supporting the vegetation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Defenition Soil profile
→the record of behaviour of the material –with depth below the surface –up to which
the effects of weathering can easily be established
→depends up on depth as well as quality O-Horizon
→consist of several soil horizons
→typical soil profile: 5 weathering zones: of varying depth
O- Horizon: organic horizon: litter zone
A- Horizon: top soil
B-Horizon: sub soil
C-Horizon: rock fragments
D-Horizon: Bed rock/ intact rock

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil profile
Horizon-O
→undecayed organic materials O-Horizon
→Contain vegetation & humus (organic acid produced
due to decay of vegetation)
Horizon –A: top soil
→entirely of completely weathered soil
→supporting the vegetation cover
→May or may not contain enough humus
→Where root thrives & seeds germinates
→Consist of sand & silt
→Minerals & clay have been removed by eluviation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil profile
Horizon-B: Sub soil
O-Horizon
→a.k.a Layer of Illuviation
→zone of mixed composition
→Partly of soil & partly of weathered rock
→Rock is dominant in depth
→contain mineral deposits that have settled down from
the upper layer

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil profile
Horizon-C: Regolith
O-Horizon
→practically soil free zone
→slightly weathered rock
→settling on bed rock
→rock at this level is are already under attack by weathering
→But the rock is not disintegrated or decayed
→Even plant roots won’t penetrate this layer
→Accumulation of Ca & Mg→ lack of organic matter

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil profile
Horizon-D: parent rock
O-Horizon
→intact rock/ bed rock
→Un weathered
→Starts from base of C-Horizon

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil profile

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Engineering Considerations of weathering /
significance of weathering in Engineering
→ultimate product of weathering : soil→ for the better understanding of engineering
properties of soil, knowledge of genetic background is necessary
→when foundations are to be carried down to the bed rock; depth of weathered cover,
degree of weathering, trend of weathering has great influence on ultimate safety of the
project
→construction engineer should find out:

→extent of physically deteriorated area in of the site of proposed project
→likely effect of weathering on the construction materials

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
→knowledge about existing and upcoming weathering will help to decide :
1) whether it is necessary to remove the loose soil (weathered products)
2) the most effective structure for the proposed project which is durable against
the weathering in that area
→weathering is the main cause of instability in slopes, especially chemical weathering

:knowledge of weathering helps to provide slope stability and protection of slope
rocks

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
→to determine possible response of special stones ( marble, lime stone, granite) towards
the chemical-environment of the area
→hence avoid quite common effects of chemical weathering in stones like
Disfiguring, pitting, honey combing & loss of surface appearance

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
process of Formation of soil
ROCK CYCLE*
Weathered products like

→
sand, clay ,laterite
Compaction & →
sedimentation

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of sand*
→Sand forms mostly by the chemical and/or physical breakdown of rocks
→Rocks erode or weather over a long period of time, mainly by water and wind, and their
sediments are transported downstream. These sediments continue to break apart into smaller
pieces until they become fine grains of sand
→The most common rock to form sand is granite, where the feldspar minerals dissolve faster
than the quartz, causing the rock to break apart into small pieces.
→Sand dunes are a consequence of dry conditions or wind deposition
→Beach sand is also formed by erosion from the constant motion of waves and the sediments
build up.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of sand*
→River deposition also accelerate the process of creating a beach, along with marine animals
interacting with rocks, such as eating the algae off of them. Once there is a sufficient amount of
sand, the beach acts as a barrier to keep the land from eroding any further.
→Marine sand (or ocean sand) comes from sediments transported into the ocean and the erosion
of ocean rocks.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of Clay*
→formed from weathering of silica rich rocks, E,g. Granite
Process of formation:
→Bed rock weathering →transporting of weathered rock →sedimentation → incorporation of
carbonates
→The interactions of the five factors that affect soil formation – parent material, climate, biota,
topography and time – lead to the development of different clay minerals
→The chemical weathering of silica-bearing rocks over long periods of time leads to the
formation of clay soils.
→ As parent materials break down into smaller particles through the weathering process, they
combine with decaying organic material to become soils.
→The chemical weathering necessary for the formation of clay soils takes place more quickly in
warmer climates.
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of Clay*
→clay is also form locally from hydrothermal activity.
→Chemical weathering takes place largely by acid hydrolysis due to low concentrations of
carbonic acid, dissolved in rainwater or released by plant roots.
→The acid breaks bonds between aluminum and oxygen, releasing other metal ions and silica (as
a gel of orthosilicic acid)
→The clay minerals formed depend on the composition of the source rock and the climate.
→Acid weathering of feldspar-rich rock, such as granite, in warm climates tends to produce
kaolin.
→granite under alkaline conditions produces illite.
→Smectite forms by weathering of igneous rock under alkaline conditions,
→while gibbsite forms by intense weathering of other clay minerals
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of Clay*
→There are two types of clay deposits: primary and secondary.
→Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation.
→Secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water
erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit
→Secondary clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional
environments such as large lakes and marine basins.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of laterite*
→Laterite is both a soil and a rock type rich in iron and aluminum
→develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of the underlying parent rock, usually when
there are conditions of high temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods
→Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which
produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting
soils.
→The initial products of weathering are essentially kaolinized rocks called saprolites
→A period of active laterization extended from about the mid-Tertiary to the mid-Quaternary
periods (35 to 1.5 million years ago
→Laterites are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary rocks (sandstones, clays,
limestones); metamorphic rocks (schists, gneisses, migmatites); igneous rocks (granites, basalts,
gabbros, peridotites); and mineralized proto-ores
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Origin of laterite*
→An essential feature for the formation of laterite is the repetition of wet and dry seasons
→Laterite formation is favored in low topographical reliefs of gentle crests and plateaus which
prevents erosion of the surface cover
→The reaction zone where rocks are in contact with water is progressively depleted of
the easily leached ions of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium
→A solution of these ions can have the correct pH to preferentially dissolve silicon oxide
rather than the aluminum oxides and iron oxides.
→ Laterites consist mainly of quartz, zircon, and oxides of titanium, iron, tin, aluminum
and manganese, which remain during the course of weathering.

CE202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1.4 SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES

Relevance of Geology in Civil Engineering (1)
Weathering of rocks -Types of weathering, –Engineering significance of weathering (1)
Processes of Origin of Products of weathering like sand, clay, laterite and soil, Soil
profile (1)
Soil erosion and soil conservation measures. (2)
Geological processes by rivers. (1)
Landslides-types, causes and controlling measures (1)
Coastal Processes-Geological work by waves and currents (1)
coastal protection measures (1)
1.4 SOIL EROSION
➢ Removal of soil particles by the natural agents of transport like wind, water
&ice
✓ denudation of the upper layer of soil.
✓ It is a form of soil degradation.
✓ This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents:
▪ Water
▪ ice (glaciers),
▪ snow,
▪ air (wind),
▪ plants,
▪ animals (including humans).
➢ may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an
alarming rate causing a serious loss of topsoil.
➢ Result in:
✓ reduce crop production potential
✓ lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
✓ also cause sinkholes.
1.4.1 TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
According to the agents According to the pattern

causing erosion
Sheet erosion,
Water erosion
Glacial erosion Gully erosion
Wind erosion
Rill erosion
snow erosion
scalding
Zoogenic erosion
Anthropogenic erosion tunnel erosion

ACCORDING TO THE PATTERN:
a) Sheet erosion
➢ Uniform removal of soil in thin layers
➢ Can cover large areas of sloping land and go unnoticed for quite some time.
➢ Commonly observed on gently sloping fields
➢ Sheet erosion can be recognized by either
✓ soil deposition at the bottom of a slope
✓ presence of light - coloured subsoil appearing on the surface.
➢ If left unattended, sheet erosion will gradually remove the nutrients and
organic matter which are important to agriculture and Results in uniform
skimming of top soil
➢ eventually lead to unproductive soil.
b) Gully erosion: removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff.
➢ Gully erosion happens when runoff (runoff = rain water flowing through
surface) concentrates and flows strongly enough to detach and move soil
particles.
➢ occurs when water is channelled across unprotected land and washes
away the soil along the drainage lines
➢ Signifies the formation of evolution of downslope valleys
✓ often in multitudes
✓ develops on sloping soil covers due to continued soil erosion
➢ It is a consequence of sheet erosion
✓ Uniform sheet erosion is impossible for longer periods
✓ rate of erosion along different path will be different
✓ creates conditions for excessive concentrated erosion along some
paths
✓ These excessive erosion paths develop into gulleys with passage of
time
c) Rill erosion
➢ On Hill slopes and on gently sloping fields
➢ Rill erosion occurs when runoff water forms small channels as it concentrates
down a slope.
➢ These rills can be up to 0.3m deep.
➢ If they become any deeper than 0.3m they are referred to as gully erosion.
d) Scalding:
➢ can occur when wind and water erosion remove the top soil and exposes
saline or sodic soils.
➢ water or wind moving over the surface will remove more soil, and contribute
to sheet, rill and gully erosion.
➢ also tends to remove the lighter, smaller soil particles first (such as clay and
silt), leaving fine and coarse sand behind.
e) Tunnel erosion: the removal of subsoil.

➢ When water penetrates through a soil crack or a hole where a root has
decayed, the soil disperses and is carried away with the flow to leave a
small tunnel.
➢ Initially, the surface soil remains relatively intact but, with every flow,
the tunnel becomes larger and the soil may eventually collapse and
form a gully.
➢ The whole process speeds up significantly if an outlet is provided (such
as an existing gully or cutting in a roadside) as this allows free flow of
subsurface drainage water.
➢ common in –dispersible subsoils with naturally high levels of sodium.
: Such soils are referred to as being sodic and are called Sodosols.
When clods of these soils are exposed to water, they readily break down into
individual particles of sand, silt and clay which are easily removed as water
moves through the subsoil.
f) stream bank erosion
➢ major cause of stream bank erosion is the destruction of vegetation on river
banks and the removal of sand and gravel from the stream bed.
➢ Stream bank erosion can also be accelerated by factors such as:
✓ stream bed lowering or infill
✓ inundation of bank soils followed by rapid drops in flow after
flooding
✓ saturation of banks from off-stream sources
✓ redirection and acceleration of flow around infrastructure,
obstructions, debris or vegetation
✓ intense rainfall events (e.g., cyclones).
ACCORDING TO THE CAUSE:

a) Water erosion
Running water performs its erosive work in five ways:
✓ Hydraulic action,
✓ Cavitation,
✓ Abrasion,
✓ Attrition
✓ Corrosion
Sheet erosion and Gully erosion might occur as a result of water
➢ Hydraulic Action: mechanical loosening & removal of the material due to the
pressure exerted by the running water
✓ planes of weakness (joints, fissures, cavities & cracks) accelerate the
process
➢ Cavitation: distinct & rare type of hydraulic action
✓ observed where river water acquires exceptionally high velocity;
✓ E.g., at Waterfall, hydro power generation projects
➢ Abrasion: principal method of stream erosion
✓ the “tools of erosion” –load in running water (sand, pebbles, gravel)
causes abrasion, i.e; the wearing of bed rocks
✓ at river valleys, waterfalls, escarpments, gorges
➢ Attrition: wearing and tearing of load particles due to repeated mutual impacts
& collisions
✓ end products are spherical in outline, rounded & polished
✓ Produce very fine particles (2mm-0.6mm sand particles along river
banks)
➢ Corrosion: slow & steady
✓ Chemically (especially solvent) action
✓ Highly observed in: limestones, gypsum & rock salt
✓ Less in: sandstones, quartzites, granites & gneisses
b) Wind erosion
Most important forms of wind erosion:
✓ Deflation
✓ Abrasion
✓ Attrition
➢ Deflation: process of removal of particles of dust & sand by strong wind

✓ common in Dry & Loose sans, bare ground covered with dust
✓ common in desert region
✓ may cause formation of depression that might touch the water table
✓ E.g.: Blowouts: when developed on small scale
OASIS: extensive depression that intersect water table &
partially filled with water
➢ Abrasion: process of rubbing, grinding, abrading & polishing the rock surface
by wind with the help of its load when passing over it
✓ common in arid region
✓ E. g.: yardangs, pedestal, rocks, ventifacts & desert pavements
➢ Attrition: process of the wear and tear of load sediments of wind due to mutual
impacts during the transport
✓ responsible for reduction in size of load particles
AEOLIAN DEPOSITS: soil transported and deposited by wind

✓ Sand dunes
✓ loess
Dunes: hill of sand built by aeolian processes (i.e., wind)
✓ which can travel pretty quickly
✓ travel for considerable distance in any direction
✓ bury agricultural lands, forests & endanger townships
Loess: an aeolian sediment which forms by the accumulation of wind-blown silt and
lesser and variable amounts of either sand or clay
✓ settle down rapidly in the presence of moisture
✓ covers an area over a lot amount of time
✓ dangerous for foundation soils
Sand dunes
Sand loess
c) Glacial erosion
➢ Glaciers are solid ice that move extremely slowly along the land surface
✓ Glacial ice erodes and shapes the underlying rocks.
✓ Glaciers also deposit sediments in characteristic landforms.
The two types of glaciers are:
✓ Continental glaciers: large ice sheets that cover relatively flat ground.
• these glaciers flow outward from where the greatest amount of
snow and ice accumulate.
✓ Alpine or valley glaciers: flow downhill through mountains along
existing valleys.
Glaciers erode the underlying rock by abrasion and plucking.
✓ Glacial meltwater seeps into cracks of the underlying rock,
✓ freezes and pushes pieces of rock outward.
✓ The rock is then plucked out and carried away by the flowing ice of the
moving glacier
✓ With the weight of the ice over them, these rocks can scratch deeply into
the underlying bedrock making long, parallel grooves in the bedrock,
called glacial striations.
✓ Glacial striations point the direction a glacier has gone.
➢ Mountain glaciers leave behind unique erosional features.

✓ When a glacier cuts through a ‘V’ shaped river valley, the glacier
plucks rocks from the sides and bottom.
✓ This widens the valley and steepens the walls, making a ‘U’
shaped valley
➢ Smaller tributary glaciers, like tributary streams, flow into the main glacier in their
own shallower ‘U’ shaped valleys.
✓ A hanging valley forms where the main glacier cuts off a tributary
glacier and creates a cliff.
✓ Streams plunge over the cliff to create waterfalls
➢ Glacial erosion also includes processes of physical and chemical erosion by

subglacial meltwater
d) Erosion by Gravity: Mass movement
➢ is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in
mountainous areas
➢ It moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding
agents such as streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to
even lower elevations.
➢ Mass-movement processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes
landslide. →Rapid form of mass movement
a very slow form of mass movement is a→ scree slope
Slumping happens on steep hillsides
✓ occurs along distinct fracture zones
✓ often within materials like clay (once released, may move quite
rapidly downhill.)
✓ They will often show a spoon-shaped isostatic depression, in which
the material has begun to slide downhill.
✓ In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope
weakening it.
Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity
✓ usually not perceptible except through extended observation.
✓ the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5
to 1.0 mm in diameter by wind along the soil surface
Surface creep
e) Zoogenic erosion
➢ caused by or associated with animals or their activities zoogenic humus.
f) Anthropogenic erosion
➢ Due to human activities
➢ human activity can result in erosion in two ways
✓ directly: earth moving operations, such as quarrying, mining
✓ indirectly: whereby activities such as cultivation destabilize slope
materials and accelerate erosion though wind or water.
Tillage erosion
❖ occurs in cultivated fields due to the movement of soil by
tillage
❖ →Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by
mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging,
stirring, and overturning
❖ is a major soil erosion process in agricultural lands,
surpassing water and wind erosion
❖ especially on sloping and hilly lands
1.5 CONSERVATION OF SOIL MASS

Erosion control is done by Two categories:
✓ Agronomic
✓ Engineering practices
a) AGRONOMIC: protection of topsoil by special methods & schemes of crop

cultivation
USE OF VEGETATION: Crops and vegetables which cover the ground surface well
and have extensive root system reduce soil erosion.
Plant canopy protect the soil from the adverse effect of
rainfall.
The grasses and legumes produce dense sod (turf) which
helps in reducing soil erosion.
The vegetation provides organic matter to the soil.
i) Crop rotation:
✓ Crop rotation is planned sequence of cropping.
✓ an important method for checking erosion and maintaining
productivity of soil.
✓ A good rotation should include densely planted small grain crops,
spreading legume crop etc.
✓ commonly followed sequence is:
❖ cultivated crop→ small grain →grass
ii) Strip Cropping: alternative strips of cultivated crop & cover crop in the same field,
during the same period
✓ It consists of growing erosion permitting crop (e.g., Jowar, Bajra,
Maize etc.) in alternate strips with erosion checking close growing
crops (e.g. grasses, pulses etc.).
✓ Strip cropping employs several good farming practices including
crop rotation, contour cultivation, proper tillage, stubbles
mulching, cover cropping etc. It is very effective and
✓ practical means for controlling soil erosion, especially for gently
sloping land.
✓ It may be of different types as follows:
❖ Contour strip Cropping: Contour strip cropping is

the growing of erosion permitting and erosion
resisting crops alternately in strips across the slope
and on the contour line. This practice is useful
because it checks the fast flow of run-off water
increases the infiltration of water in the soil and
prevents soil erosion.
❖ Field Strip Cropping: Strips of crop are parallel to
the general slope of the land
❖ Wind Strip Cropping: Strips of crop are across the
direction of wind regardless of contour.
❖ Buffer Strip Cropping: In this, the severally eroded
portion of land is permanently kept under grass and
contour strip cropping is practices in the rest of the
area
iii) Cultivation of dense plant and grasses: Crops such as, ground nut, cover the
surface of the land and their roots bind the soil particles to form soil aggregates, thus
preventing soil erosion.
iv) Cultivation of proper crops: Cultivation of row crop in sloppy lands permits soil
erosion. In this filed, the crops particularly cereals, fodder crop etc. should be
broadcasted and the plants remain haphazardly in field.
✓ As a result, the movement of water gets obstacle and more water is absorbed in
the soil, thus reducing soil erosion.
✓ Mixed and intercropping practice checks the soil erosion and avoids the risks of
the crop failure.
v) The land should not be kept without crop: There is very scope of soil erosion if
there are no crops on the land.
✓ The soil erosion decreases in different way of cropped land.
vi) Afforestation: Afforestation means growing of forests where there were no forests
before owing to lack of seed trees or due to adverse factors such as unstable soil, aridity
or swampiness.
✓ Along with afforestation, reforestation should be undertaken which means
replanting of forests at places where they have been destroyed by uncontrolled
forest fires, excessive felling and lopping.
✓ Mulching: Mulches of different kinds such a leaf, straws, paper, stubbles, etc.
minimize evaporation and increase the absorption of moisture and
✓ protect the surface of the land against the beating action of rain drops.
✓ Later on, they decay to form humus which improves the physical condition of soil.
✓ Natural mulching also helps in the infiltration of water and the reduction of
evaporation.
vii) Organic manure: Organic manures improve the soil structure.
✓ The crumb and granular structure increase the infiltration and permeability in the
soil and conserve the soil water.
✓ Consequently, soil erosion decreases.
viii)Control of grazing: Grazing increases the soil erosion.
✓ But the grazing cannot be completely stopped in all areas.
✓ So, the restricted and rotational grazing may be helpful in checking soil erosion
to some extent.
✓ The area open to grazing for sometimes should be closed for the following year
to facilitate regeneration of forests and to maintain thick ground vegetation.
ix) Good tillage: Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil by different kinds of
implements.
✓ Tillage makes the soil loose and friable which helps in retention of water.
✓ The special method of tillage practices should be followed for the conservation
purposes.
✓ Tillage may consist of several types of soil manipulation such as ploughing,
harrowing, cultivation etc.
b) ENGINEERING/ MECHANICAL PRACTICES:
✓ include various engineering techniques and structure.
✓ Objectives:
o To divide a long slope of land into a series of shorter ones in order
to reduce the velocity of runoff water.
o To retain the water in the land for long period so as to allow
maximum water to be absorbed and held in the soil and less water
flows down the slope of the land at non-erosive velocity.
o To protect the soil against erosion by water.
The important mechanical soil conservation measures are as follows:
i) Excavation of Ditches: artificially created channel at suitable locations to divert
the excess water from approaching the affected areas
✓ especially in sloping regions
✓ should be designed carefully to avoid the development of erosional
velocities in them
✓ Two types of ditches commonly using are:
a) Diversion ditches: excavated above the cultivated
portion of sloping area
✓ Along the contour (same elevation)
✓ divert the runoff away from the field
b) Interception ditches: at regular and suitable intervals
✓ across cultivated fields
✓ drains away water from small strips,
✓ prevents the formation of thick sheets of
water
✓ Drains away volume of water from small
strips
✓ these ditches do not allow formation of
thick sheets of water capable of doing great
damage
Diversion ditch
Interceptor ditch
ii) Terraces construction: constructed along Suitable locations across the slope of hillside
✓ collect and conduct the run-off to an erosional-proof outlet
✓ spacing of terrace should be designed well
o i) built near enough to the upper limit of slope
▪ prevents the initiation of erosion
o ii) terrace should be uniformly graded
▪ to prevent ponding of water and
▪ prevents development of erosional velocities
There are different types of terraces as follows:
✓ Bench terracing: It consists of transforming relatively steeps land into a series of
level or nearly level strips or steeps running across the slope.
o The soil materials that are excavated from the upper part of the terrace is
used in filling the lower part and a small bund is also raised along the outer
edge of the terrace
✓ Channel terrace: It consists of making of wide but shallow channels across the
slope of the land either exactly on contour line or with a slight grade (0.1 to 0.2
per cent).
o In this process, the excavated soil is placed along the lower edge of the
channel in the form of low ridge.
✓ Narrow based terrace: It consists of making a number of narrow based ridges
or bunds at a distance of 1m to 2m across the slope of the land at suitable intervals
in high rainfall areas.
✓ Broad based ridge terrace: It consists of making wide but low bunds on the
contour lines by excavating soils from both sides of terrace.
o This is practiced in areas where the rainfall is relatively low.
iii) Check dam: constructed out of various materials
✓ Stones, timber, steel etc.
✓ extremely effective against gullying
✓ reduce the velocity of run-off
✓ cause deposition of materials which may support the vegetation
iv) Contour bunding: Contour bunding consists of building earthen embankment at
intervals across the slope and along the contour line of the field.
✓ A series of such bund divide the area into strips and act as barrier to
the flow of water.
✓ As a result, the amount and velocity of run-off are reduced,
✓ resulting reducing the soil erosion.
✓ Contour bunding is made on land where the slope is not very steep
and the soil is fairly permeable.
✓ Contour bunds are also called level terraces, absorption type terraces
or ridge type terraces.
v) Contour trenching: It consist of making a series of deep pit (i.e., 2ft. wide and 1ft. deep)
or trenches across the slope at convenient distance.
✓ The soil excavated from the trenches is deposited on the lower edge of the trenches
where forest trees are planted.
CE202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1.5 GEOLOGICAL PROCESS BY RIVERS

profile (1)
miscellaneous + tutorial (1)
1.5 Work of RIVERS
✓ Streams: small surface bodies of water flowing in channels by their own
✓ River: many streams flowing in a large area joins together
o Two types:
▪ Perennial: water flowing throughout the year
• Variations in water level with seasonal variations
• Never gets dry
▪ Intermittent River: Starts flowing, often vigorously, during and
after heavy rainfall
• Flow occurs only in rainy season
✓ Drainage system: system of streams & rivers → collectively drain out all the
water from precipitation (rain, snow), spring, melt water etc.,
✓ Drainage basin: region that contributes water to the drainage system
1.5.1 Sources of Stream Water

1) Run off: portion of rainfall, flowing over and above the earth’s surface
2) Sub-surface water: flow below the surface
✓ Ground water
✓ Saturates considerable depth of soil→ become aquifer
✓ Aquifer yield water under pressure to the area of low pressure→
some time directly contribute to river
✓ Water table: the upper surface of ground water
✓ Spring: when water table touches the surface; water starts to flow
from sub-surface
3) Glacial melt water: glaciers melts at top during summer
1.5.2 GEOLOGICAL WORK
The geological work of streams may be broadly divided into three well-defined phases:
1. Erosion.
2. Transport
3. Deposition.
River erosion
i) methods of river erosion
Refer notes of soil erosion: type of erosion according to agents: water erosion
(Hydraulic, cavitation, abrasion etc.,)
ii) rate of river erosion
the capacity of a stream to perform erosive work depends on:
a) velocity of stream: high velocity → greater pressure → stronger impacts →
higher erosion
✓ Higher velocity: increases carrying capacity of load particles in the river
→ higher erosion
b) Lithology (Nature of the rock): composition, texture, structure etc,
✓ Lime stone (Hardness no., H= 3) erode at higher rate than sandstone
(H=7)
✓ Knickpoints: steep drops in elevation in river
o Due to the presence of rocks of unequal hardness at those
points
o Water fall develops at Knickpoints
c) Load: Volume of sediments
✓ Fully loaded: → can’t contain any further load→ can’t do further
erosion
✓ Under loaded: → higher erosive power
iii) Features of River erosion
Prolonged erosion by river and streams produces many interesting surface features like:
1. Potholes
2. River Valleys
3. Escarpments
4. Waterfalls
5. Stream Terraces
1. Potholes
✓ These are variously shaped depressions of different
✓ Due to excessive localized erosion by the streams.
✓ The potholes are generally cylindrical or bowl shaped in outline and range
from a few centimetres to many meters in diameter as well as in depth.
✓ These are commonly formed in the softer rocks
✓ The formation process for a pothole may be initiated by a simple plucking out
of a protruding or outstanding rock projection at the riverbed by hydraulic
action.
✓ This produces a small depression only at the place of plucking in the otherwise
normal bedrock.
✓ Some of the depressions so initiated may eventually become the spots where
pebbles and gravels of the stronger rocks are caught in eddies and thrown into
a swirling or churning motion.
✓ This causes a localized abrasive action on an enhanced scale within those
depressions leading to their further deepening and widening.
✓ In this way potholes continue to grow in size.
2. River Valley
✓ A valley may be defined as a low land surrounded on sides by inclined hill

slopes and mountain.
✓ Every major river is associated with a valley of its own.
✓ In fact, rivers are responsible for the origin, development and modification of
their valleys through well-understood process of river erosion
• Origin.: A river valley may have a modest origin when traced
backward in the geological history of the area.
o On a gentle sloping surface, river water gets collected
along lower level and flows as small streamlets.
o In a short time, small gullies are produced where
rainwater gets naturally collected from slopes, further
erosion deepens and widens an original gully that can
accommodate bigger volumes of water.
• Valley deepening: It is achieved by cooperative action of all the
processes involved in erosion.
o Deepening is obviously caused due to cutting down of the
river bed.
• Lengthening of river Valley.: A type of process headword
erosion is generally held responsible for lengthening of river
valleys.
• Stream achieved valley widening: The stream cut down more
their channels and also remove away the loose soil and rocks
from the banks thereby
Gorges and Canyons
✓ Gorges are very deep and narrow valleys with very steep and high walls on
either side.
✓ Their length varies considerably, from a few meters to several kilometres at a
stretch.
✓ A canyon is a specific type of gorge where the layers cut down by a river are
essentially stratified and horizontal in attitude
✓ The Grand Canyon of Colorado is the deepest canyon in the world. Its depth
varies from 900 to 1800 meters, width from to 90 meters in a length of 300 km.
✓ All the Himalayan Rivers and especially the Indus and the Shenab have
developed numerous gorges in their inner and middle Himalayan courses
3. Escarpments.
✓ These are erosional features produced by rivers in regions of alternating beds of
hard and soft rocks.
✓ The river easily erodes the soft layers whereas the hard layers resist the erosion
and stand projecting as ledges on the sides
✓ These ledges are gradually undercut by continued stream erosion.
✓ A time comes when a ledge is no longer able to support itself any further and
hence falls down the river giving rise to a steep slope in its place.
✓ It is this steep slope caused by falling of undercut ledge of hard rocks that is
referred to as an Escarpment.
4. Waterfalls.
✓ These are defined as magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain
specific parts of their course where there is a sudden and considerable drop in
the gradient of the channel.
✓ Many falls are easily attributed to unequal erosion of the channel rocks within a
short distance due to the inherent nature of the rocks.
✓ The stream literally falls (instead of flowing) from a considerable height before
acquiring normal flow again at a lower level.
Obviously, the velocity of water at point of fall increases tremendously.
5. Stream Terraces
✓ These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur on the sides of many river
valleys.
✓ From a distance, they may appear as succession of several steps of a big natural
staircase rising up from the riverbank
✓ They may be made up of hard rock or of soft rock, but the essential thing is that
they look like steps.
✓ Some of them are clearly features of river erosion indicating that the stream has
cut down its own channel not continuously but in a series of stages.
iiv) Sediment transport by river
✓ Every river receives enormous amount of material during its flow from head to
mouth.
✓ This material includes the rock and soil particles that the river acquires by its
own work of erosion along the channel.
✓ The other part is the load eroded and contributed by its tributaries in the form of
variously shaped particles, sediments and fragments.
✓ Seen in totality, it is estimated that each year streams carry many millions of
tonnes of continental material to the oceans.
✓ Load is distinguished into following three distinct categories:
1) Suspended Load
2) Bed Load
3) Dissolved Load
1. Suspended Load
✓ It is made up of fine sand, silt and clay sediments that are light enough to be
transported in the Stream water in a state of suspension.
✓ This load normally remains lifted up in the stream water and not allowed to
touch the base of the channel, due to eddies caused by turbulence in the flow.
2. Bed Load
✓ This fraction of the river load comprises the heavier particles of sand pebbles,
gravels and cobbles and all the other type of materials which are moved along
the bed of a river in different ways.
✓ Here, sediment transportation is carried out in a series of jumps.
✓ Rolling and sliding of the load sediments are some other methods employed by
the streams to transport their load along their beds.
3. Dissolved Load
✓ This fraction includes particles of materials soluble in water, which the river
may gain due to its solvent action
✓ Numerous rivers from the land part carry calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate
and sodium chloride and other soluble salts from limestone, gypsum, anhydrite
and rock salt etc.
v) Deposition by rivers
The entire load of a stream or a river will normally remain in transport unless there is a
change in one or other factor responsible for its transport.
✓ Thus, as, when and where there is a decrease in the load carrying capacity of
stream due to whatsoever reason, a part or whole of the load may have to be
dropped down.
✓ The process of dropping down of its load by any moving natural agent is
technically called deposition;
✓ the resulting accumulation of the load material is termed the deposit made by
that particular agent.
✓ rivers deposits on the surface of the earth are called fluvial deposits/ alluvial
deposits.
Types of Fluvial Deposits:
✓ All those deposits that are laid down by running water are called alluvial, fluvial
or fluviatile deposits.
✓ These differ greatly in size. shape. and aerial extent and even in exact mode of
origin.
✓ Following are some of the typical deposits:
1. Alluvial Fans and Cones
2. Flood Plains
3. Deltas
4. Channel Deposits
1. Alluvial Fans and Cones

✓ These are cone shaped accumulations of stream deposits that are commonly
found at places where small intermittent streamlets coming down from hill
slopes enter the low lands.
✓ The apex of such a deposit points up-hill and its slope may range nearly 50º
✓ Such a deposit is formed because the waterbody rushing down the slope with
enormous debris may suffer sudden reduction in its velocity when it reaches low
land area.
✓ The term Alluvial fan is used when the angle of slope is less than 10º
✓ The term Alluvial cone is used when the angle of slope is between 10º-50º
2. Flood Plains
✓ In the life of a stream, there may come times when it overflows its banks
✓ Floodwaters are invariably heavily loaded with sediments of all types.
✓ When these waters overflow the river and spread as enormous sheets of water in
the surrounding areas their velocity soon gets checked everywhere due to
inequalities of the ground and other obstructions.
✓ As a consequence, they deposit most of load as a thick layer of mud.
✓ Since such a process may get repeated after intervals, the low-lying areas
surrounding major rivers are actually made of varying thickness of flood
deposits.
✓ These are generally level or plain in nature and extensive in area; hence they are
aptly called Flood Plains
✓ These are invariably very fertile and hence have supported civilizations right
from the advent of the human race.
3. Deltas
✓ Deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of roughly triangular shape that are
deposited by major rivers at their mouths, i.e. where they enter a sea
✓ The formation of a delta is explained by the fact that wherever a river enters a
big body of standing water, its velocity is suddenly decrease
✓ The river loses its entity and becomes a part of the Sea.
✓ This process results in large scale, almost total deposition of the load being
carried by the river till that point and place.
✓ The process deposition may continue indefinitely and the deposit being laid by
it grows in size
✓ Three conditions necessary for the formation and growth of delta are:
o Absence of any strong sea currents or waves at the point of
entrance of the river into the sea; this is essential to prevent
carrying away of the sediments brought by the streams to deeper
faraway places in the sea by the currents.
o Presence of good quantity of load in the stream at the point of
entering the sea; this is essential because if the stream has already
deposited most of its load in the plain areas in upstream parts of
the course, it will have very little to deposit to actually develop in
the form of a delta; even if formed from small load, a delta will
take much longer times to grow in size
o The slope of seashore where the stream enters the seawater
must necessarily be quite gentle and wide enough allow the
incoming water spread in all directions from the point of entry. In
fact the upward apex of the delta has its typical shape mainly due
to availability of such a condition.
4 . Channel Deposits
✓ Many streams are forced by some natural causes to deposit some of their load
along the riverbeds.
✓ These are the so-called channel deposits
✓ They are of great economic use, being the source of sands and gravels quite
suitable for use as construction material.
✓ The channel deposits are made along the river courses especially in the flatter
regions where there are periodic changes in the velocity of a river.
✓ Quite often, the materials so deposited take the shape of long narrow ridges
called bars.
✓ Since the bars are commonly made up of sand grade material, they are also
called sand bars.
✓ Very often the sand bars are temporary in nature because with an increase in the
volume of water and increase in the river velocity, the bars are eroded and the
material taken downstream.
✓ The dried riverbeds often show a varied mixture of clays, silts, sand and gravels
and occasional
RIVER MEANDERING
When a stream flows along a curved, zigzag path acquiring a loop-shaped course, it is
said to mender.
✓ Menders are developed mostly in the middle and lower reaches of major stream
where lateral erosion and depositions along opposite banks become almost
concurrent geological activities of the stream,
✓ when a stream is flowing through a channel it cannot be assumed to have
absolutely uniform velocities all across its width.
✓ Thus, the same river is eroding its channel on the concave side and making its
progress further inland
Oxbow Lakes
✓ An oxbow lake is a U-shaped Lake that forms when a wide meander of a river is
cut off, creating a free-standing body of water
✓ In the advanced stages of a meandering stream only relatively narrow strips of
land separate the individual loops from each other.
✓ During high-water times, as during small floods, when the stream acquires good
volume of water, it has a tendency to flow straight, and some of the intervening
strips of land between the loops get eroded.
✓ The stream starts flowing straight in those limited stretches, thereby leaving the
loop or loops on the sides either completely detached or only slightly connected.
✓ This isolated curved or looped shaped area of the river, which often contains some
water are called oxbow lakes.
Incised Meanders
✓ In mountainous and rocky regions, streams flowing with vigorous speeds often
develop meandering courses by a process known as selective erosion.
✓ The rocks forming the stream channels in those areas are not of uniform
hardness all along the course.
✓ A stream flowing through such a sequence of rocks erodes the softer rock much
more easily and may even develop a change in its course that may involve
avoiding hard rocks again and again.
✓ With the passage of time such streams when viewed from the top seen flowing
through prominently meandering courses cut out or incised by them in rocky
sequence.
✓ This type of meandering where only cutting down of the channels is involved is
called incised meandering.
✓ The Incised Meanders are of two types:
o Entrenched Meanders: When the walls of the valley on either side of the
meander are broadly symmetrical
o Ingrown Meanders: The symmetry in the sides around the meanders is
absent.
CE202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1.6 LANDSLIDE
profile (1)
miscellaneous + tutorial (1)
1.6 LAND SLIDE (MASS WASTING)
✓ Landslide refers to the downward sliding of huge quantities of land mass.
✓ It occurs when part of a natural slope is unable to support its own weight.
✓ Occur along steep slopes of hills or mountains and may be sudden or slow.
✓ A true landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by

moving as a whole along a definite surface of failure.
o The surface of failure may be:
▪ planar
▪ or semi-circular in outline.
✓ It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure surface is
unstable
o the material of can be of any composition, shape and of varying degree
of consolidation:
▪ loose soil,
▪ rock fragments
▪ whole blocks
▪ slabs of rock.
1.6.1 MAIN FACTORS/ AGENTS Causing/ Aiding LANDSLIDES

1. Natural Factors
a) Gravity
b) Geological factors
c) Heavy and prolonged rainfall
d) Earthquakes
e) Forest fire
f) Volcanoes
g) Waves
2. Anthropogenic Factors
✓ Human actions most notably those that affect drainage or groundwater,
can trigger landslides
a) Inappropriate drainage system
b) Cutting & deep excavations on slopes for buildings, roads,
canals &mining
c) Change in slope/land use pattern, deforestation, agricultural
practices on steep slopes
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:
1. Inherent causes
2. Immediate cause
1. Inherent/Internal causes
a. Effect of slope
b. Effect of water
c. Effect of lithology
d. Effect of associated geological structures
e. Effect of human factors
a) Effect of slope
✓ Steeper slopes are prone to landslides due to greater gravity influence.
✓ Angle of repose/ critical angle:
• Most materials are stable up to a certain angle of slope.
• This is called the critical angle of slope or angle of repose.
• it varies from 300 for unconsolidated sediments to 900 for
massive rocks
• 600-900 for partially jointed rocks.
✓ But hard consolidated and fresh rocks remain stable even against any slope
o unless they are adversely affected by other lithological and structural
factors
b) Effect of water
✓ Most important factor which is responsible for landslide occurrence.
✓ It adversely affects the stability of loose ground in different ways.
✓ Presence of water greatly reduces the intergranular cohesion of the particle of
loose ground, thereby weakening the ground.
✓ On hill slopes, water percolates through overlying soil zone and flow down as a
thin sheet of water above the underlying hard rocks.
o Thus, acts as a lubricating medium and induces the downward
movement of overlying loose material along it’s direction of flow
c) Effect of lithology
✓ Rocks which are highly fractured, porous and permeable are prone to
landslides.
✓ Rocks which are rich in clay, mica etc are prone to landslides
▪ because they are easily leached out, causing porosity and
permeability.
✓ Thinner strata are more susceptible to sliding than thicker strata.
d) Effect of human factor

✓ Human beings interfere with nature by virtue of their activities and cause
landslides.
o Eg: When undercutting are made along the hill slopes for laying
roads/railways
o When construction works are carried on hill tops,they act as heavy loads
on the loose zone of overburden.
e) Geological structures- Occurrence of inclined bedding planes, joints, fault or shear

zone are the planes of weakness, which create conditions of instability.
2. Immediate Causes
✓ Violent volcanic eruptions,
✓ fall of meteorite,
✓ occurrences of earthquakes,
✓ tsunamis
✓ blasting of explosives in quarrying
✓ road cutting
✓ mining.
1.6.2 TYPES OF LANDSLIDES (TYPES OF MASS WASTING)
a) on the basis of the type of movement involved in the failure)
1. Translational Slides
2. Rotational Slides
3. Rock falls/ rock topping
4. Debris Slides
5. Rock Slides
1. Translational slide
✓ the surface of failure is generally planar in character,
✓ speed of failure is quite rapid
✓ nature of mass involved in failing may be:
o rock blocks,
o rock slabs,
o debris
o soil cover
o a mixture of all of them.
✓ These slides are quite frequent on slopes made up of rocks and cohesive soils
1. Rotational Slides
✓ the failing surface is generally curved in character
✓ the speed of failure is quite rapid.
✓ Because of the nature of the failing surface, the movement of the mass takes the
form of a sort of rotation, rather than translation.
✓ The material involved in failure tilts downwards at the rear end and heaves up
at the front or toe.
3. Rock Topping and falls
✓ These are grouped along with slides although there may be little or no sliding
involved in their failure.
✓ In the falls, there is almost a free, a sudden and fast decent from a steep slope.
✓ Refers to the blocks of rocks of varying sizes suddenly crashing downwards
[from cliffs] along steep slopes.
✓ Common along steep shore lines and in higher mountain regions during the
rainy season.
4. Debris slides
✓ Debris is an earth material generally greater than coarse sand size
✓ A debris slide is characterized by unconsolidated rock and soil that has
moved down slope along a relatively shallow failure plane
✓ Debris slides form steep, unvegetated depressions in the head region and
irregular, deposits in the toe region.
✓ Depressions are likely to remain unvegetated for many years.
✓ These depressions can be recognized by the nature of the slope, steepness of the
slope etc.
✓ May occur on any slope where internal resistance to shear is reduced. ( Low
shear strength)
For any potential failure surface, there is a balance between the weight of the potential
landslide (driving force or shear force) and the inherent strength of the soil or rock
within the hillside (shear resistance).
✓ If available shear resistance is greater than the shear force then the slope will
remain stable.
5. Rock slides
✓ A type of landslide caused by rock failure in which material collapses in masses
and not in individual blocks.
✓ The rocks tumble downhill loosening other rocks on its way also smashing
everything in its path
✓ Rapid downward movement of newly detached segments of bedrock.
1.6.2 EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
✓ Damage construction, infrastructure. foundations etc.
✓ In Dam: causes widening of sidewalls of reservoir
o Cause flooding due to the sudden deposition of soil in the reservoir
o Silting, causing turbulence
✓ Affect water quality, availability etc.
✓ Causes disruption of transport/blocking of communications by damaging
roads/railways etc.
✓ Obstruction of river flow in valleys, leading to the overflow and floods.
✓ Damage to sewer and other pipelines.
✓ Loss of human life and property
✓ Loss of cattle and farming lands
✓ Loss of fertile top soil layer due to soil erosion
✓ Deforestation (soil carries trees along with it)
1.6.3 PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES

1. To counter the effect of slope
Retaining walls may be constructed against the slopes,
o so that the material which rolls down is prevented from further fall
o and also reduces the slope.
Terracing of slope
Afforestation
constructing retaining walls or buttresses:
o Stops the moving mass by force.
o Success depends on the correct analysis of force and weights acting in a
given slope
o Used in cases where:
1) Ground is neither too fine nor too plastic
2) Sliding mass is likely to remain dry
3) Movement is of shallow nature and limited extent.
Slope Reinforcement by Rock Bolting:
o Rock bolts are used to tie-up the different blocks together
o thereby improving the stability Used when the area of potential
failure is limited
o Rock bolt steel bar of 2-25 mm dia and length 0.6-5 m.
o one end is threaded, another end designed for expanding.
o Bolt is inserted into a hole drilled in the rock at a proper angle with
the plane of weakness and then its end within the rock is made to
expand whereby it fits tightly into the rock.
o The other end is tied on a plate with the help of a nut and washer.
o Rod is prestressed, and is always placed in tension
o The rock block helps up within the two bolt ends gets compressed
and hence stabilized against falling
Slope Treatment:
✓ Treats the top layer of slopes Guniting
✓ 1:3 mortar with little water is applied on the face under pressure Develops
sufficient strength on setting and hardening.
2. To counter the effect of water

✓ A proper drainage system is the suitable measure
o Involves quick removal of percolated moisture by means of surface
drainage and subsurface drainage.
Drainage:
✓ Removal of water from the mass, preventing further water to reach the mass.
✓ Achieved by surface drainage/subsurface drainage or both.
✓ 1) Construct series of drainage ditches at the top of the slope
✓ 2) Ditches lined to prevent erosion of sides.
o Backfill the trenches with asphalt/concrete to seal off surface flow.
o Slopes covered with granular material to remove excess rain water.
o Fill the cracks and fissures on slope surface with cement/bitumen/clay
mixture.
✓ 3) Interceptor drains to prevent interception of groundwater, thus reduces high
pore pressure.
✓ Oiling of slope surfaces, electro-osmosis, heating of slope materials
3. Avoid reducing the stability of existing slopes
✓ By not undertaking any undercutting’s on the surface slope
✓ By not undertaking any construction of top of the hill.
✓ Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations near the vulnerable places
4. Geological structures:
Weak planes or zones may cover or grouted to prevent percolation of water; this
increases the compaction of loose material.
1.6.4 MITIGATION MEASURES

Mitigation: reducing/ lessening the bad effects
1. Site-Specific Mitigation Measures
✓ Proper drainage management
✓ Bio-engineering and Afforestation
✓ Early Detection
✓ Slope stability measures
2. LANDSLIDE HAZARD MITIGATION PROGRAMME

In order to prevent and mitigate the landslide risk, national initiatives are to address the
following aspects:
1. Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ )
2. Mapping and monitoring of active landslides/vulnerable slopes
3. Early Warning Systems
4. Awareness generation
3. Additional advice for specific locations
4. Before the Disaster:
✓ Get a ground assessment of your property
✓ Minimize home hazards
✓ Watch out for
o Doors/windows stick or jam for the first time,
o new cracks appear,
o bulging ground appears at base of a slope,
o ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting in that
direction under your feet
o faint rumbling sound increases in volume as landslide nears
✓ Make evacuation plans, planning at least two routes allowing for blocked and
closed roads
✓ Develop an emergency communication plan
✓ Purchase flood insurance.
5. During the disaster
If indoors:
✓ Stay inside and get cover under a sturdy piece of furniture. : for shallow/ low
slide
✓ For heavy flow: get outside & do as outdoor plans
If outdoors:
✓ Try to get out of path of mudflow
✓ Run to nearest high ground in a direction away from path
✓ If rocks and other debris are approaching, run for nearest shelter such as a group
of trees or a building
✓ If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball and protect your head.
✓ Be cautious of sinkholes.
6. After the landslide

✓ Stay away from slide area
✓ Check for injured and trapped persons and give first aid where needed
✓ Listen to battery-operated radios for emergency information
✓ Remember flooding may occur after a mudflow or landslide
✓ Check for damaged utility lines and report damage to the utility company
✓ Check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage
✓ Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of
ground
✓ cover can lead to flash flooding.

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Royal college of engineering

points in black = to study = DO NOT SKIP

Relevance of geology in Civil engineering

1.1 GEOLOGY -Definition

Deals with evolution & modifications of various surface features like:

1.1.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

1.2 NEED / SCOPE/ RELEVANCE/ SIGNIFICANCE/

OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. To ensure: geological factors affecting the location, design,

Extend of natural bed

2. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material,

3. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as

4. Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks.

6. In tunnelling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining

7. Before starting a major engineering project at a place, a detailed

8. ground water exploration, watershed development & Ground water

➢ To decide the accurate method & ➢ To identify fault in rocks/

1.2.1 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION

(ii) Hydrological Maps.: These maps give broad details about

(iii) Geological Maps.: →Petrological and structural

→These maps also give an idea about the availability of the

→The engineer responsible for the quality control of construction

1.2.2 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN DAM CONSTRUCTION

→to identify the presence of forms of weakness in rock →faults, folds,

1.2.4 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN WATER RESOURCE

→ Geological information is of fundamental importance in

1.2.5 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN TOWN PLANNING &

4. Scope of geology in civil engineering/

6. Role of geologist in civil engineering projects

DPT. OF C E ROYAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 2

DPT. OF C E ROYAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 3

Process of decay and disintegration of rocks—under the influence of certain physical

Natural process of in-situ mechanical disintegration and/or chemical decomposition of

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exfoliation Shattering Due to temperature Abrasion : Salt growth

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❑Weathered products has same chemical composition as the parent rock

❑Types: exfoliation, block disintegration, granular disintegration

❑Slow process: take years to disintegrate rock and form soil

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Scree deposits/ scree slope

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Cliff/ free face

Parent rock Talus slope

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Frost shattering/ ice wedging

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Common in the porous rocks near seashore

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→ Temp.(day) & Temp.(night) , Temp(summer)& Temp. (winter)

→E.g. Kara Qum:: 78-80º C to -10º C (summer to winter)

→rocks :: expand on heating & contract up on cooling—gradually break into small

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→large scale development of fracturing in confined rock masses attributed to removal

→develops joints parallel to the uncovered surface( parallel to earth surface)—divide

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→unloading of deeply buried plutons is often the cause of development of concentric

→exfoliation is a form of Weathering due to unloading also

→Commonly seen in igneous rocks (GRANITE)

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