GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

MODULE 1
GEOLOGY
“GEO” means earth
“LOGY” means to study
- Geology is the study of the earth
- Geology is the primary Earth Science and looks at how the earth formed, its origin, physical structure
and composition, and the types of processes acting on it

Engineering Geology
- Engineering Geology is the application of geology to engineering studies to ensure that the geological
factors related to the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works
are recognized and taken into account.
- The engineering geologist or geotechnical engineers are civil engineers that specialized the behavior of
rock and soil, its properties and asses the risk and solved the problems.
- They observe and record geological information then translate this data into practical engineering
design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering projects.

Other Branches of Geology

Petrology – study of rocks
Pedology – study of soil
Soil Mechanics – study of stresses and strain in soil
Rock Mechanics – study of stresses and strain in rock mass
Seismology – study of minerals
Geomorphology – study of origin and shape of earth surface

Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering

- The construction of large civil engineering projects requires knowledge of the geology of the area
concerned. It provides systematic knowledge of flowing water, blowing wind, ice, earthquakes, etc. for
planning and carrying major civil engineering works.
- Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of construction materials and their
occurrence. The civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks accurately to enable them to
consider different rocks for any required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal, as concrete
aggregate, as building stones, as the roofing material for decorative
- The selection of a site is important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation and availability of
construction materials. Geology provides knowledge about the site used in the construction of buildings,
dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges
- Geology helps in determining the earthquake-prone areas. If any geological features like faults, folds,
etc. are found, they have to be suitably treated to increase the stability of the structure.
o Mapping – The engineering geologist has to prepare a geological map of the area based an aerial
photo or satellite imagery interpretation and field observation.
o Exploration/Site Visit – The engineering geologist has to prepare a geological map of the area
based on aerial photo or satellite imagery interpretation and field observation.
o Project Planning – Project planning is the most important aspect in civil engineering.
 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
MODULE 2
EARTH STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITION
Earth’s Layers: The Earth has a radius of 6470 km
The Earth can be divided into one of two ways:
1. Chemically
2. Mechanically

Composition (Chemical) Layers of Earth

1. Crust - This layer makes up only 1% of the entire volume of the Earth. It is 3-5 miles thick under the ocean
and approximately 25 miles thick under the continents. It consists of several elements such as iron
magnesium silicate igneous rocks (like basalt).
Two types of crust:
a. Oceanic Crust (Basaltic) 71% - It is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create
basalt lava flow; or cools deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro. The sediments coat the
seafloor, thickest near the shore.
b. Continental Crust (Granitic) 29% - It is less dense and composed of sodium potassium aluminum
silicate rocks, like granite. It is thicker than the oceanic and varies between 6 to 47 miles in
thickness depending on where it is found.
2. Mantle - It comprises 82% of Earth volume. It is about 1800 miles deep and consists mostly of silicate
rocks rich in magnesium and iron
3. Core – Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel.
Two Parts of Core:
a. Inner Core - It has a radius of ~1,220 km or 760 miles and it is estimated about 5,400 °C. It is the
solid part of the core.
b. Outer Core - It is composed of 80% iron, along with nickel. The temperature of about 4500°C. It
is the liquid part of the core.

Mechanical (Physical) Layers of the Earth:

1. Lithosphere - The solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the
crust, the outermost layers of Earth structure. It is bounded by the atmosphere above. It is sometimes
called the geosphere itself.
2. Asthenosphere - The soft upper layer of the Earth’s mantle below the lithosphere. Relatively low
resistance to plastic flow and convection is tough to occur.
3. Mesosphere - It is essentially the lower mantle. Despite the high temperatures, the intense pressure in
this region restricts the movement of the silicate molecules, making it extremely rigid.
4. Outer Core - Extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases. It is the only layer of
the Earth that is a true liquid. Its strong magnetic field is caused by convection.
5. Inner Core - Solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers. It spins at a different speed
than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the Earth’s magnetic field.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONIC
Continental Drift
- Today, most people know that the landmasses on Earth move
around. But people haven’t always believed this. It wasn’t until the
early 20th century that German scientist Alfred Wegener suggested
that the Earth’s continents were drifting. He called this movement
Continental Drift. He was not the first or only person to think this, but
he was the first to talk about the idea publicly.
- Wegener came up with this idea because he noticed that the coasts
of western Africa and eastern South America looked like puzzle
pieces. He wondered if they might have once fit together and then
drifted apart. Looking at the continents he theorized that they had
once been joined together as a supercontinent around 225 million years ago. This continent was later
named Pangea
- People now think that other supercontinents may also have existed. These supercontinents are thought
to have come before Pangaea. The idea of moving landmasses seems obvious now, but Wegener’s
Theory of Continental Drift was not accepted for many years. Why? Well, for one thing, Wegener did not
have a convincing explanation for the cause of the drifting. First, he suggested that the continents were
moving around due to the Earth’s rotation. This later turned out to be wrong. Secondly, he was a
meteorologist, not a geologist. This meant that geologists didn’t think he knew what he was talking about
and did not take him seriously
Fossil Evidence

- One type of evidence that strongly supported the Theory of

Continental Drift is the fossil record. Scientists have found fossils
of similar types of plants and animals in rocks of similar age. These
rocks were on the shores of different continents. This suggests
that the continents were once joined.
- For example, fossils of Mosasaurs, a freshwater reptile, have been
found both in Brazil and western Africa. Also, fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus have been found in
Africa, India and Antarctica.

Plate tectonics
- The theory that Earth's land masses are in constant motion. The realization that Earth's land masses
move was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, which he called continental drift. He is shown here in
Greenland. We don't perceive that the continents we live on are moving.
- The Theory of Plate Tectonics builds on Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift. In the Theory of Plate
Tectonics, it is tectonic plates, rather than continents, which are moving.
- Tectonic plates are pieces of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the crust and the upper
mantle. These pieces float on a layer of partly liquid rock called the asthenosphere. Tectonic plates are
able to move because the lithosphere is stronger and denser than the rock below.
- Earth has seven major tectonic plates:
1. African Plate 2. Antarctica Plate 3. Eurasian Plate 4. Australian Plate
5. North America Plate 6. Pacific Plate 7. South America
Plate
Did you know?
- Tectonic plates not only move land masses, they also move oceans! This is because both continents and
oceans are on the Earth’s crust.
- You may imagine that these plates are zipping along, but in fact, they are moving VERY SLOWLY! Some
move as slowly as 10–40 mm/year. This is about as fast as your fingernails grow. Others move as fast as
160 mm/year. This is about as fast as hair grows.

Moving Plates
- Geologists came to accept the Theory of Plate Tectonics in the late 1950s and early 1960s after coming
to understand the concept of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading happens on the seafloor where
oceanic plates are moving away from each other. We say that these plates are diverging. When this
happens, cracks occur in the lithosphere. This allows magma to come up and cool, forming a new
seafloor.
- The opposite of divergence is convergence. This happens when plates are moving towards each other.
Material may push upwards forming mountains or downwards into the mantle. When the material from
one plate is pushed on top of another, we call that abduction
EARTH PROCESS
Earth Processes are dynamic actions that take place within the earth or on its surface. Processes can be slow or
fast. The Earth's natural forces can be divided into two groups:
a. Constructive Earth Processes – any process that builds earth forms.
b. Destructive – any process that destroys earth forms

3.1 EROSION
Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces
such as wind or water.
- A similar process, weathering, breaks down or dissolves rock, but does not involve movement. Erosion
is the opposite of deposition, the geological process in which earthen materials are deposited, or built
up, on a landform.
- Most erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of glacier)

Agents of Erosion
Erosion by Water - Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain,
rivers, floods, lakes, and the ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly
wash away the sediment. Rainfall produces four types of soil erosion: splash
erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion.
- Splash erosion describes the impact of a falling raindrop, which can
scatter tiny soil particles as far as 0.6 meters (two feet).
- Sheet erosion describes erosion caused by runoff.
- Rill erosion describes erosion that takes place as runoff develops into
discrete streams (rills).
- Finally, Gully erosion is the stage in which soil [particles are transported
through large channels.

Erosion by Wind – Wind carries dust, sand, and ash from one place another;
polishes rocks and cliffs.
- Most common in deserts and beaches
- Affected by land condition
- Causes and dunes and venti facts
- Can be damaging

Erosion by Ice - Ice, usually in the form of glaciers, can erode the earth and
create dramatic landforms. In frigid areas and on some mountaintops,
glaciers move slowly downhill and across the land. As they move, they
transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders.
- Can erode land through:
o Plucking – featured bedrocks are incorporated into the ice
o Abrasion – happens when ice and its load of rock fragments
slide over a bedrock

Factors Impacting Erosion

 CLIMATE  TOPOGRAPHY  VEGETATION  TECTONIC ACTIVITY

3.2 WEATHERING
Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks, minerals, and artificial materials due to
prolonged exposure to the environment. When a particle is loosened by a chemical or physical process but does
not move, it is called Weathering. But when moved away by gravity, water, ice, wind, etc. is then known as
erosion.

TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. Physical weathering - Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering, is a process that causes
the disintegration of rocks, minerals, and soils without chemical change. The primary process in physical
weathering is abrasion.
- Physical Weathering may occur due to the following reasons:
o Thermal Stress
o Freezing and Thawing
o Organisms
 2. Chemical Weathering - It is the type of weathering in which the rock minerals are attacked by water,
oxygen, or by alkaline or acidic materials dissolved in the water. The chemical structure of the rock
minerals is altered.
- Chemical Weathering may occur due to the following processes
and reactions:
o Carbonation
o Hydrolysis
o Oxidation

3.3 WORKS OF RIVER

Geological Works by River
- During life while flowing from head to mouth, the rivers are capable of exerting greatly modifying
influence over the topography of the region through which they follow.
- The geological work by the river may be broadly divided into three well-defined phrases: erosion,
transport, and deposition.
Method of River Erosion
- By erosion, meant the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks and soil material by a natural agent
through mechanical, chemical, and other physicochemical processes accompanied by the
removal of the disintegrated or decomposed product to far-off places by the same agent.
- Streams and rivers are the most powerful subaerial agents of erosion. Others are wind and ice.
River Valleys
- A valley may be defined as low land surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and mountains. Every
major river is associated with a valley of its own. In fact, rivers are responsible for the origin
development, and modification of their valleys through the well understood process of river erosion.
Waterfalls
- These are defined as magnificent jumps made by the stream or river water at certain specific parts of
their course where there is a sudden and considered drop in the gradient of the channel.
- Many falls are easily attributed to unequal erosion of the channel rocks within a short distance due to
the inherent nature of rocks.
Deposition by Rivers
- An entire load of the stream or a river will normally remain in transport unless there is a change in one
or other factor responsible for its transport. The process of dropping down of its loads by any moving
natural agent is technically called deposition. Wind rivers, glaciers, and marine water are the important
natural agent that makes typical deposits.
-
3.4 EARTHQUAKE
- An earthquake is the shaking of the ground caused by sudden motions along faults, or fractures in the
earth.
- The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The focus is point inside the earth where the
earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth directly
above the focus is called the epicenter.
- Earthquakes also originate from a volcanic eruption, bomb blasts, landslides, or anything else that
suddenly releases energy on or in the Earth.
Two ways to measure the strength of an earthquake:
1. Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at the focus. It is calculated from
earthquakes recorded by an instrument called seismograph. It is represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g.
4.8, 9.0).
2. Intensity is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in a certain locality. It is a
numerical rating based on the relative effects to people, objects, environment, and structures in the
surrounding. The intensity is generally higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals
(e.g. II, IV, IX).
Occurrence of Earthquakes
- Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks and there is rapid motion along
a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
- During and after the earthquake, the plates or blocks of rock start moving—and they continue to move
until they get stuck again. The spot underground where the rock first breaks is called the focus, or
hypocenter of the earthquake. The place right above the focus (at the ground surface) is called the
epicenter of the earthquake.
There are two types of earthquakes:
1. Tectonic earthquakes – are produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
2. Volcanic earthquakes - earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.
 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
MODULE 3
ELEMENTS CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEM AND MINERALS AND ITS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Introduction
- Mineralogy is the scientific study of minerals, comprising of crystallography, mineral chemistry,
economic mineralogy, and determinative mineralogy (concerned mainly with physical properties)
- Definition of the term “MINERAL”: A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a characteristic
chemical composition and a crystalline structure.
- An understanding of mineral structures and properties allows us to answer more immediate questions,
such as why quartz and diamond are so hard, and why solid granite rock is destined to become soft,
sticky clay.
- Minerals are natural resources, providing raw materials for many industries. Therefore, understanding
minerals has geological as well as economic applications.

Definition of Crystallography
- CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the study of crystals. It includes the study of crystal form, crustal structure and
crystal symmetry.
- CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is a part of the entire study of mineralogy.
- Crystals are solids that form by a regular repeated pattern of molecules connecting together.
- In some solids, the arrangements of the building blocks (atoms and molecules) can be random or very
different throughout the material.
- In crystals, however, a collections of atoms called the Unit Cell is repeated in exactly the same
arrangement over and over throughout the entire material.
- Very slow cooling of a liquid allows atoms to arrange themselves into an ordered pattern, which may
extend of a long range (millions of atoms). This kind of solid is called crystalline.

Why Crystallography in Geosciences?

- Most of the Earth is made of solid rock. The basic units from which rocks are made are minerals.
- There are well over 4,000 officially recognized mineral species and as many as a hundred new ones are
described each year.
- The properties of rocks are ultimately determined by the properties of the constituent minerals, and
many geological processes represent the culmination - on a very grand scale - of microscopic processes
inside minerals.
- For example, large-scale processes, such as rock formation, deformation, weathering and metamorphic
activity, are controlled by small-scale processes, such as movement of atoms (diffusion), shearing of
crystal lattices (dislocation movement), growth of new crystals (nucleation, crystallization), and phase
transformations.

Structural Properties of a Crystal

All minerals are crystalline structures made from a mixture of different elemental compounds, and the shape of
a crystal is based on the atomic structure of these elemental building blocks.
 - Atoms within a mineral are arranged in an ordered geometric pattern called a "motif" which determines
its "crystal structure.“
- A minerals's crystal structure will determine a its symmetry, optical properties, cleavage planes, and
overall geometric shape.
- A crystal's growth pattern is referred to as its "Crystal Habit.“
- Shown here is the crystal structure of Diamond and Graphite.

Shapes of Crystals

In rocks the shapes of crystalline grains/crystals are often classified as Euhedral, Anhedral and Subhedral

- Anhedral: irregular; little or no evidence for its own growth faces (A)
- Subhedral: partly bound by its own growth faces, or growth faces only
moderately well developed (B)
- Euhedral: grains bounded by its own perfect to near-perfect crystal growth
faces (C)

What is a Mineral? A mineral: Quartz Amethys t- is South

Carolina’s state mineral
- Is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid
- Has an ordered internal arrangement of atoms
- Has specific physical properties that are either fixed or that vary within
some defined range.
- Has a definite chemical composition that may vary within specific limits

Chemical Composition and Internal Structure of Minerals

- Elements are the building blocks of minerals.

- Some minerals exist as single elements; however, most minerals consist of a combination of several
elements joined by a chemical bond to form a stable mineral compound.
- Elements chemically bond to one another when their atoms gain, lose, or share electrons with other
elements.
- Ionic bonds occur when valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another, constituting a
respective gain or lose between one and the other atom.
- Covalent bonds occur when atoms from different elements share their valence electrons with one
another to form a chemically stable bond.
- In addition to ionic and covalent bonds, other bonds can also occur through various combinations of
transferred and shared electrons.
- Of the 112 elements, only 92 are naturally occurring.
- Nearly 4,000 minerals are identified on the planet Earth, and new minerals continue to be discovered all
the time.

How do Minerals Grow?

- New minerals are forming everyday on the Earth’s surface, in the Earth’s crust, and deep within the
Earth’s interior.
 - Minerals form from molten rock and volcanic magma within the Earth’s interior and crust. In these
environments, changes in temperature and pressure and chemical composition influence the type of
minerals which form, the size of their individual crystals, and their growth rate.
- Minerals grow from saturated solutions in rock cavities. Differences in temperature, chemical
composition, and the saturation content of the solution influence the type of minerals which form, the
size of their individual crystals, and their growth rate.
- The arrangement of atoms during crystal formation determines what the mineral will be and what crystal
shape it will have.
- The crystal form is one of several characteristics that Geologists use to identify different minerals.

Minerals Properties

Minerals have distinctive physical properties that geologists use to identify and describe them. There are 7 major
physical properties of minerals:

1. Crystal Form
2. Hardness
3. Luster
4. Color
5. Streak
6. Cleavage
7. Specific Gravity

CRYSTAL FORM

- Crystal form is the external expression of the internally ordered arrangement of atoms.
- During mineral formation, individual crystals develop well-formed crystal faces that are specific to that
mineral
- The crystal faces for a particular mineral are characterized by a symmetrical relationship to one another
that is manifest in the physical shape of the mineral’s crystalline form
- Crystal forms are commonly classified using six different crystal systems, under which all minerals are
grouped.

The six major Crystal forms:

1. Isometric (cubic) C
- Isometric crystals are block shaped with relatively similar
and symmetrical faces. The crystal form has three axes all at
A B
90° angles and all the same length. Mineral Example: Pyrite
- Axes Length Relationships: A = B = C
- Angles:  =  =  = 90
2. Tetragonal
- Tetragonal crystals are shaped like four-sided pyramids or
prisms. The crystal form has three axes that are all
perpendicular to one another. Two axis have the same
length, and one is different. The axes that are the same
 length lie on a horizontal plane, with the third axis at a right angle to the other two. Mineral Example:
Zircon
-
- Angles:  =  =  = 90
3. Orthorhombic
- Orthorhombic crystals are shaped like a rectangular prism
with a rectangular base. The crystal has three axes of
different lengths and intersect at 90° angles. Mineral Example:
Topaz
- Axes Length Relationships: A  B  C
- Angles:  =  =  = 90
4. Hexagonal
- Hexagonal crystals have three symmetrical axes that occur in
the same plane and are all the same length. The fourth axis
may be either longer or shorter, and it intersects the other
three axis at 90° angles. The sides intersect at 120 ° angles.
Mineral Example: Amethyst
- Axes length Relationships: A = B = C ≠ D C
- Angles:  =  = 90and  = 120
5. Monoclinic
- Monoclinic crystals are short and stubby with tilted faces. B
Each crystal has three axes that are unequal. Two of the A
axes lie in the same plane at right angles to each other, the
third axis is inclined. Mineral Example: Gypsum
- Axes length Relationships: A = B = C ≠ D
- Angles:  ≠  =  = 90
6. Triclinic
- Triclinic crystals have three axis which are all different lengths
and all three axis intersect at angles other than 90°.
- Axes length Relationships: A ≠ B ≠ C ≠ D
- Angles:  ≠  ≠ 

HARDNESS

- Hardness is the ability of a mineral to resist abrasion or

Talc is a soft mineral
scratching on its surface.
that you can scratch
- One way geologists measure hardness is using a relative with your fingernail,
scale referred to as Moh’s scale of mineral hardness and has a hardness of
which ranks 10 common minerals along a scale from 1- “1” measured by
10 (1 refers to the softest minerals while 10 refers to the Mohh’s relative scale
hardest mineral). of mineral.
 - Geologists measure a mineral’s hardness by scratching the surface of a mineral using minerals of known
hardness, or by scratching the surface using a variety of other hardness indicators such as fingernails,
pennies, or glass.

Moh’s Scale of Mineral Hardness

Hardness of Common Minerals: Common Scratching Tools:

SOFTEST 1. Talc  ....your fingernail has a hardness of 2.5
2. Gypsum  ....a penny has a hardness of about 3.5
3. Calcite  ....glass and a steel nail have nearly
4. Fluorite equal hardness of 5.5
5. Apatite  ....a streak plate has a hardness of 6.5
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
HARDEST 9. Corundum

Measuring a Mineral’s Hardness

- Hold the specimen firmly and attempt to scratch it with the point of an object of known hardness. In this
example, we use a nail (H=5.5).
- Select a fresh, clean surface on the specimen to be tested.
- Press the point of the nail firmly against the surface of the unidentified specimen.
- If the "tool" (in this case the nail) is harder, you should feel it scratching into the surface of the specimen.
- Look for an etched line. It is a good idea to rub the observed line with your finger to ensure that it is
actually etched into the surface of the specimen.
- Because the specimen was scratched by the nail, we know its hardness is less than that of the nail-less
than (H<5.5).
- If there is any question about the result of the test, repeat it, being sure to use a sharp point and a fresh
surface.

In this exercise students will make observations to infer a minerals hardness, but before they measure the
hardness, the students can predict what hardness they think it might be.

Observations: the assimilation of knowledge through senses or collection of data using an instrument

Predictions: a statement that a particular outcome will occur on the basis of evidence or reasoning

Inferences: the process of making a conclusion based on observations

Approximating Hardness

- Take the unknown mineral and attempt to scratch with your fingernail (H=2.5), copper penny (H=3.5), a
glass plate (H=5.5), and a streak plate (H=6.5).
- If the mineral scratches any of the materials, then it is harder than that material.
- If it scratches your fingernail and not the penny, than the hardness is between 2.5 and 3.5, probably 3.0.
- By this process, we can determine the approximate hardness of the unknown mineral.
 - We do not need to know the exact hardness of the mineral because we will use other physical properties
to refine the identification.

LUSTER

- Luster refers to how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.

- There are two main types of luster: metallic and non-metallic:
- Minerals with a metallic luster are described as shiny, silvery, or having a metal-like reflectance.
- Non-metallic minerals may be described as resinous, translucent, pearly, waxy, greasy, silky,
vitreous/glassy, dull, or earthy
- Luster may be subjective, and thus is not always a reliable identifier

Halite: Non-Metallic Sulfur: Non-Metallic

Pyrite: Metallic, Shiny Luster Waxy Luster
Translucent Luster

COLOR
- Mineral color is determined by how the crystals absorb and reflect light. Although color is easy to
recognize, it is often misleading.
- Minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, halite, and calcite occur in a wide variety of colors, and other
minerals, such as olivine, malachite, and amphibole have fairly distinctive colors.
- Variations in a mineral’s color may be the result of impurities in the atomic structure of the crystal or
the presence of a particular chemical when the crystal formed.
- Because some minerals can occur in several colors, color is generally not a good characteristic for
describing and identifying minerals.

Different Colors of Fluorite

STREAK
- Streak refers to the color of a mineral’s powdered form
left behind after it is scraped or rubbed across a porcelain
streak plate.
- A mineral may appear one color and then produce a streak
with a different color.
- A mineral’s streak color is a more reliable identification Even though the mineral pyrite is gold in
characteristic than the minerals perceived surface color. color, it leaves a grey “pencil lead” streak on
the porcelain streak plate.

CLEAVAGE
- Cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness in the chemical bonds,
or along planes where bond strength is the least.
- Some minerals break along one dominant plane of cleavage producing parallel sheets, where as others
may break along two or more planes of cleavage, producing blocks or prism shapes.
- Not all minerals have distinct planes of weakness that produce cleavage, but those minerals that do,
will consistently produce predictable cleavage planes.

Cleavage, cont.
- One direction of cleavage (one plane)
o Mineral Example: Micas (muscovite)
- Two directions of cleavage (two planes)
o Mineral Example: Feldspar
- Three directions of cleavage (three planes)
o Cubic : Mineral Example: Galena
o Rhombohedral: Mineral Example: Calcite
- Four directions of cleavage (four planes)
o Mineral Example: Flourite
Fracture
- Fracture refers to the non-planar breakage of minerals.
- Minerals that break along fractures (as oppose to cleavage
planes) do not exhibit predictable weakness along specified
bonds.
- Fractures may be described as splintery, uneven, or conchoidal.
Conchoidal Fractures on a Quartz
Mineral
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- Specific gravity refers to the weight or heaviness of a mineral, and it is expressed as the ratio of the
mineral’s weight to an equal volume of water.
- Water has a specific gravity of 1. Therefore, a mineral with a specific gravity of 1.5, is one and a half
times heavier than water.
- Minerals with a specific gravity < 2 are considered light, 2-4 are average, and >4.5 are heavy
- Specific gravity can be measured using complex lab tools such as the hydrostatic balance or more
simple procedures involving beakers and water displacement measurements.
 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
MODULE 4
STUDY OF THE ROCK FORMING MINERALS
Introduction:
Rocks and minerals are important for learning about earth materials, structure, and systems. Rocks are
composed of minerals. There are almost 5000 known mineral species. Rock forming minerals are any mineral
that forms igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. It solely forms as an intimate part of rock-making
processes.
QUARTZ FAMILY - What is Quartz?
- Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earth's continental crust. It consists of one part silicon
and two parts oxygen. It is entirely devoid of color and almost water-clean in its limpidity.
- Quartz has a hardness of 7 on Mohs scale. It has a specific gravity between 2.6 and 2.7. It forms at all
temperatures. It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
- Quartz crystals are used to make oscillators for clocks and electronic gadgets.
Two Classifications of Quartz:
1. Macrocrystalline quartz is quartz you can see with the naked eye. It is made of tiny crystal grains that
can be seen with a microscope. Examples are Amethyst, Citrine, Ametrine, Smokey quartz, Tiger’s eye,
prasiolite and Rutilated quartz.
2. Cryptocrystalline Quartz is a rock texture made up of such minute crystals that its crystalline nature is
only vaguely revealed even microscopically in thin section by transmitted polarized light. Examples are:
Carnelian, Chalcedony, Onyx, Bloodstone, Agate, Chrysoprase, Jasper, and Flint.

FELDSPAR FAMILY – What is Feldspar?

o Feldspar are the most common mineral in Earth's crust. It is by far the most abundant group of minerals
in the Earth's crust. It has a hardness of 6 on Mohs scale, and its specific gravity is about 2.5 to 2.8.
o Feldspar are often white cream pink, and may form crystals that look small blocks. They usually have a
smooth, glassy or pearly luster.
o Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics and to some extent as a filter and
extender in paint, plastics and rubber.
Two Classifications of Feldspar:
1. Alkali feldspars are fundamental rock-forming K-and Na-bearing alum inosilicate that occur in many
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, and constitute a significant portion of the 'granitic'
continental crust. Examples are: Orthoclase, Microline, Sandine, and Anorthoclase.
2. Plagioclase is a series of tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group. Rather
than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a continuous
solid solution series, more properly known as the plagioclase feldspar series. Examples are: Albite,
Oligoclase, Andesine, Labradorite, Bytownite, and Anorthite.
AUGITE
Augite: A specimen of the "jeffersonite" variety of augite. Approximately 11 x 6.3 x 4.3 centimeters in size.
From the Franklin Mining District of Sussex County, New Jersey. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone
 o Description: Augite is a rock-forming mineral of the pyroxene group commonly found within igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Because its chemical structure is highly variable, augite might be considered by
some to be its own group of minerals rather than an individual mineral. It is also known for its remarkable
luster (shine off of a reflective surface).
o Discovery: Named by Abraham G. Werner in 1792 from the Greek αυγή ("auge") for "shine" or "luster,"
in allusion to the appearance of its cleavage surfaces.
o Etymology: The mineral's name comes from the Greek word augites, meaning "brightness". However,
augites only look shiny some of the time. Most augites have a dull (dark green, brown or black) color.
o Chemical Composition: Augite has a chemical composition of (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with many
paths of solid solution. Commonly associated minerals include orthoclase, plagioclase, olivine, and
hornblende.
o Physical Properties:
o Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with a translucent to opaque diaphaneity. It
usually exhibits two distinct cleavage directions that intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees. A
hand lens is often needed to properly observe the cleavage, especially in fine-grained rocks. Light
reflecting from cleavage surfaces and crystal faces of augite produces a vitreous luster, while light
striking other surfaces produces a dull luster.
o Augite has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6. Its specific gravity of 3.2 to 3.6 is higher than most other
minerals in the rocks in which it occurs.

Igneous rock composition chart: This chart illustrates the

generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. Augite,
as the most abundant pyroxene mineral, can play an
important role in the composition of gabbro, basalt,
diorite, and andesite.

Augite: A specimen of the "fassaite" variety of augite. Approximately 5 x 3.1 x 1.4

centimeters in size. From the Skardu District of Pakistan. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone
o Uses: Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it especially useful.
It is therefore one of the few minerals that has no commercial use. The calcium content of augite has
been found to be of limited use in studies of the temperature history of igneous rocks.
o Augite is a mineral of interest to geologists, and collectors. The presence and development of
augite may help tell scientists and geologists about Earth’s history in certain regions.
o Extraterrestrial Augite: Augite is a mineral that has been found beyond Earth. It is a common mineral of
lunar basalts. It has also been identified in many stone meteorites. Some of these meteorites are thought
to be pieces of Mars or the Moon that were launched into space by large impact events.
BIOTITE
Biotite: Biotite from Bancroft, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
o Description: Biotite is black magnesium/iron-based mica of low commercial value. It appears in the form
of thin sheets which generally range from 0.003 mm to 0.1 mm in thickness.
o Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica minerals that are commonly found in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. These include annite, phlogopite, siderophyllite,
fluorophlogopite, fluorannite, eastonite, and many others. These micas vary in chemical
composition but are all sheet silicate minerals with very similar physical properties.
o The name "biotite" is used in the field and in entry-level geology courses because these minerals
generally cannot be distinguished without optical, chemical, or x-ray analysis.
o Biotite is a rock-forming mineral found in a wide range of crystalline igneous rocks such as
granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, and pegmatite. It also forms under metamorphic conditions
when argillaceous rocks are exposed to heat and pressure to form schist and gneiss. Although
biotite is not very resistant to weathering and transforms into clay minerals, it is sometimes found
in sediments and sandstones.
o Discovery: Biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius, at Monzoni, and many other European
locations. In the United States, it is found in the pegmatites of New England, Virginia and North Carolina,
as well as in the granite of Pikes Peak, Colorado. Biotite was named in honor of the French physicist Jean
Baptiste Biot (1774 - 1862), a French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer who researched the mica
minerals for their optical properties.
o Etymology: Biotite was named by J.F.L. Hausmann in 1847 in honor of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste
Biot, who performed early research into the many optical properties of mica. Members of the biotite
group are sheet silicates.
o Chemical Composition: A generalized chemical composition for the biotite group:
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
 o Physical Properties: Biotite is very easy to identify,
and with a little experience a person will be able to
recognize it on sight. It is a black mica with perfect
cleavage and a vitreous luster on the cleavage faces.
When biotite is separated into thin sheets, the sheets
are flexible but will break upon severe bending.
When held up to the light, the sheets are transparent
to translucent with a brown, gray, or greenish color.
Experienced observers can sometimes recognize
phlogopite by its brown color.

o Biotite angled view: Biotite from Bancroft, Ontario, Canada.

Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

o Biotite side view: An edge view of the biotite specimen from the
photo above. Specimen is approximately 3/8 inch (.95
centimeter) thick.

o Uses: Biotite is used extensively to constrain the ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or
argon-argon dating. Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high
temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks. Biotite is also useful in
assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium
between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature.
o In practical terms, biotite has few uses. One application is as a heat insulator in industrial
settings. It is valued for collection purposes.
HORNBLENDE
Hornblende: Hornblende with a typical black granular to fibrous appearance from Faraday Township, Ontario,
Canada. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.
o Description: Hornblende is a field and classroom name used for a group of dark-colored amphibole
minerals found in many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks. These minerals vary in chemical
composition but are all double-chain inosilicates with very similar physical properties.
o Etymology: The word hornblende is derived from German Horn ('horn') and blende ('deceive'), in allusion
to its similar appearance to metal-bearing ore minerals.
o The name hornblende is derived from German words horn and blenden which refers to its
similarity in appearance to the metal-bearing mineral ores.
o Chemical Composition: It is an isomorphous mixture of three molecules and the hornblende chemical
composition is as stated:
 Calcium-Iron-Magnesium
 SilicateAluminum-Iron-Magnesium
 SilicateIron-Magnesium Silicate.
 o These minerals are difficult to distinguish by physical means. The iron, magnesium, and
aluminum ions can freely provide the alternative for each other and form what has been
distinctive as separate minerals. The minerals are assigned the names Magnesio-hornblende,
Ferrohornblende, Aluminio-ferro-hornblende and Aluminum-magnesio-hornblende.
o Sodium, potassium are often present. Manganese and titanium can also be present. In
crystalline structures, fluoride is more common than hydroxide.

A generalized chemical composition for the hornblende group is: (Ca,Na)23(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2

o Physical Properties: Biotite is very easy to identify, and

with a little experience a person will be able to recognize
it on sight. It is a black mica with perfect cleavage and a
vitreous luster on the cleavage faces. When biotite is
separated into thin sheets, the sheets are flexible but
will break upon severe bending. When held up to the
light, the sheets are transparent to translucent with a
brown, gray, or greenish color. Experienced observers
can sometimes recognize phlogopite by its brown color.

Biotite hornblende granite: Hornblende is an important

constituent in many igneous rocks. This piece of biotite
hornblende granite is an example. Image by NASA.
Hornblende Andesite: Hornblende is an important constituent in many igneous rocks. In extrusive rocks,
hornblende sometimes crystallizes below the ground, in the magma, before eruption. That can produce large
phenocrysts of hornblende in a fine-grained rock. This piece of hornblende andesite is an example. Image by
NASA.
o Uses: The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral specimen.
However, hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known as amphibolite which has a large
number of uses. It is crushed and used for highway construction and as railroad ballast. It is cut for use
as dimension stone. The highest quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite"
for use as building facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.
o Hornblende has been used to estimate the depth of crystallization of plutonic rocks. Those with
low aluminum content are associated with shallow depths of crystallization, while those with
higher aluminum content are associated with greater depths of crystallization. This information
is useful in understanding the crystallization of magma and also useful for mineral exploration.
MOSCOTIVE
Muscovite is a hydrated phyllosilicate mineral of aluminum and potassium. It has a highly perfect basal cleavage
yielding remarkably thin laminae which are often highly elastic. Sheets of muscovite 5 meters × 3 meters have
been found in Nellore, India
What is muscovite used for:
o Muscovite is pearlescent, which means it can add additional
shine to certain paints, ceramic glazes and even cosmetics.
Scrap, flaked and ground muscovite is also commonly used as
fillers and extenders in products like paints, surface treatments
and manufactured products
CALCITE
Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common
mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral
hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison. Calcite has more uses than almost any other mineral. It is
used as a construction material (in the form of limestone and marble), pigment, agricultural soil treatment,
pharmaceutical, acid neutralizer in the chemical industry and more.
What are 3 interesting facts about calcite?
1. Calcite amplifies energy and balances and cleanses the chakras.
2. Calcite is very soft and grades just 3 on Mohs scale of mineral
hardness. Pink yellow orange and blue are widely used for
decorative purposes.
3. Calcite crystals can vary dramatically in size and shape. They can
be found in almost any colour. In its purest form calcite is either
colourless, very pale or white
GARNETS
Garnets are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives.
All species of garnets possess similar physical properties and crystal forms, but differ in chemical composition.
The different species are pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular, uvarovite and andradite.
o Uses of Garnets: Garnets have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones for jewelry and ornaments
and as abrasives. Because garnet is so hard and resistant to weathering, it can be used as skid-resistant
road aggregate, skid resistant paints, and for filler in concrete being used in harsh environments
o What is so special about Garnets: Garnet symbolizes perseverance and strength and is known as a
“commitment stone,” which reinforces tenacity and
commitment. The ancient Egyptians hailed garnets as a symbol
of life. The stone was used for various medicinal purposes in the
middle Ages. Garnet symbolism is rich and varied. Cultures all
over the world have prized this gemstone for its beautiful colors
and durability. The traditional January birthstone has also
inspired many legends and popular associations with love,
friendship, light, and vitality.
 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
MODULE 5
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

What Is a Rock?
o To geologists, a rock is a natural substance composed of solid crystals of different minerals that have
been fused together into a solid lump.
o The solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other similar planets, exposed on
the surface or underlying the soil or oceans.

Types of Rocks
There are three basic types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
A. Igneous Rocks
o Extremely common in the Earth's crust, igneous rocks are volcanic and form from molten material. They
include not only lava spewed from volcanoes, but also rocks like granite, which are formed by magma
that solidifies far underground.
o Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies. The
melt originates deep within the Earth near active plate boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the
surface.
o Igneous rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or extrusive, depending upon where the molten rock
solidifies.
1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
o Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth. Great
globs of molten rock rise toward the surface.
o Some of the magma may feed volcanoes on the Earth's surface, but most remains trapped below,
where it cools very slowly over many thousands or millions of years until it solidifies. Intrusive
rocks have a coarse grained texture.
o Slow cooling means the individual mineral grains have a very long time to grow, so they grow to
a relatively large size.
2. Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
o Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near)
the Earth's surface.
o The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and solidifies almost
instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere.
o Quick cooling means that mineral crystals don't have much time to grow, so these rocks have a
very fine-grained or even glassy texture.
Granite:
o Typically, granite makes up large parts of all the continents. The seafloor is formed of a dark lava
called basalt, the most common volcanic rock.
o Granite is the most widely known igneous rock. It is an intrusive rock with visible grains of
feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals.
o
B. Sedimentary Rocks
o Sedimentary rocks are formed from eroded fragments of other rocks or even from the remains of plants
or animals. The fragments accumulate in low-lying areas—lakes, oceans, and deserts—and then are
compressed back into rock by the weight of overlying materials.
o Examples include: Sandstone is formed from sand, mudstone from mud, and limestone from seashells,
diatoms, or bonelike minerals precipitating out of calcium-rich water.

Geological Processes of Sedimentary Rocks

o The most important geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion,
weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.
o Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break down large rocks into
smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even mountains into sediments, such as
sand or mud.
o Dissolution is a form of weathering—chemical weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic
slowly wears away stone. These three processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks.
o Precipitation and lithification are processes that build new rocks or minerals. Precipitation is the
formation of rocks and minerals from chemicals that precipitate from water.
o For example, as a lake dries up over many thousands of years, it leaves behind mineral deposits; this is
what happened in California’s Death Valley. Finally, lithification is the process by which clay, sand, and
other sediments on the bottom of the ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks
from the weight of overlying sediments.
Categories of Sedimentary Rocks
o Sedimentary rocks can be organized into two categories. The first is detrital rock, which comes from the
erosion and accumulation of rock fragments, sediment, or other materials—categorized in total as
detritus, or debris. The other is chemical rock, produced from the dissolution and precipitation of
minerals.
1. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks (Detritus can be either organic or inorganic)
o Organic detrital rocks form when parts of plants and animals decay in the ground, leaving behind
biological material that is compressed and becomes rock. Coal is a sedimentary rock formed over millions
of years from compressed plants.
o Inorganic detrital rocks, on the other hand, are formed from broken up pieces of other rocks, not from
living things. These rocks are often called clastic sedimentary rocks. One of the best-known clastic
sedimentary rocks is sandstone. Sandstone is formed from layers of sandy sediment that is compacted
and lithified.
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
o Chemical sedimentary rocks can be found in many places, from the ocean to deserts to caves. For
instance, most limestone forms at the bottom of the ocean from the precipitation of calcium carbonate
and the remains of marine animals with shells.
o Cave formations are also sedimentary rocks, but they are produced very differently. Stalagmites and
stalactites form when water passes through bedrock and picks up calcium and carbonate ions. When the
chemical-rich water makes its way into a cave, the water evaporates and leaves behind calcium
carbonate on the ceiling, forming a stalactite, or on the floor of the cave, creating a stalagmite.
Additional: Fossils are most frequently found in sedimentary rock, which comes in layers, called strata
 C. Metamorphic Rocks
o Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially changed from
their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks
are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination
of these factors. Conditions like these are found deep within the Earth or where tectonic plates meet.

Process of Metamorphism:
o The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser, more
compact rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or by
reactions with fluids that enter the rocks.
o Metamorphism is distinct from weathering or diagenesis, which are changes that take place at or just
beneath Earth's surface.
o Pressure or temperature can even change previously metamorphosed rocks into new types.
Metamorphic rocks are often squished, smeared out, and folded. Despite these uncomfortable
conditions, metamorphic rocks do not get hot enough to melt, or they would become igneous rocks.
Common Metamorphic Rocks:
o Phyllite- foliated metamorphic rock rich in tiny sheets of sericite mica
o Schist- metamorphosis of mudstone and shale or some form of igneous rock.
o Gneiss- common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock
o Quartzite- sandstone that has been converted into a solid quartz roc
o Marble- limestone is subjected to the heat and pressure
a. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
 Some kinds of metamorphic rocks -- granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples -- are
strongly banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains
that gives the rock a striped appearance.) Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or
elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned. These rocks develop a platy or sheet-
like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied.
b. Non- Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
 Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism, occurs when hot igneous rock intrudes
into some pre-existing rock. The pre-existing rock is essentially baked by the heat, changing the
mineral structure of the rock without addition of pressure.
Additional: Marble is metamorphosed limestone, quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone, and gneiss, another common
metamorphic rock, sometimes begins as granite.