Earth Materials and

Processes
MINERALS
What are Minerals?

 Naturally occurring. Minerals form by natural geologic processes. Synthetic

materials—that is, those produced in a laboratory or by human intervention—are
not considered minerals.
 Generally inorganic. Inorganic crystalline solids, such as ordinary table salt
(halite),that are found naturally in the ground are considered minerals. (Organic
compounds,on the other hand, are generally not. Sugar, a crystalline solid that
comes from sugarcane or sugar beets, is a common example of such an organic
compound.)
 Solid substance. Only solid crystalline substances are considered minerals. Ice
(frozen water) fits this criterion and is considered a mineral, whereas liquid water
and water vapor do not.
What are Minerals?

 Orderly crystalline structure. Minerals are crystalline substances, which means

their atoms (ions) are arranged in an orderly, repetitive manner. This orderly packing
of atoms is reflected in regularly shaped objects called crystals. Some naturally
occurring solids, such as volcanic glass (obsidian), lack a repetitive atomic structure
and are not considered minerals.
 Definite chemical composition that allows for some variation. Minerals are
chemical compounds having compositions that can be expressed by a chemical
formula.
 For example, the common mineral quartz has the formula SiO2, which indicates that quartz
consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms, in a ratio of one-to-two. This proportion of
silicon to oxygen is true for any sample of pure quartz, regardless of its origin, size, or when it
formed. However, the compositions of some minerals vary within specific, well-defined limits.
This occurs because certain elements can substitute for others of similar size without changing
the mineral’s internal structure.
Identification of Minerals

 There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals
based on physical and chemical properties. Some minerals can be identified with
the use of high-powered instruments while some can be assessed through their
physical properties.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no
access to complex analytical techniques. Although a particular mineral has
different forms, the fundamental physical properties are still the same. Useful
physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific
gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice –
the arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high
symmetry. The reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice
results in the color perceived by the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as
light is reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral
surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water
with an equal volume.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. It

is generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness.
The Physical Properties of Minerals

 Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral
breaks into forms other than flat surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as
cutting, crushing, bending, or hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or
aggregated.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure.

They can be represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of
atoms that constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical
formula SiO​2​. Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal
structure. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to
describe a mineral.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal
structure. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to
describe a mineral.
 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified
temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is
soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound
potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals
composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high
melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C.
The Chemical Properties of Minerals

 In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be

analyzed through chemical and instrumental analysis. Crystallographic
techniques such as X-ray diffraction are performed to determine the crystal
structure of the mineral.
Common Rock – Forming Minerals

 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene,
amphibole, and olivine. All of the following silicate minerals, except for quartz,
are mineral groups.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of  SiO​2​. It is a glassy-looking
hard substance with white streaks. Despite its hardness, with a Mohs
hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and transparent.
Colored varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into
its lattice. The grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

Rose Quartz (top) and Smokey Quartz

(bottom)
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl​(1−2)​​Si​(3−2)​O​8​,
where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of 6.
It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have
lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks,
feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces.
Potassium Feldspar (Orthoclase)
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals.
The most common examples are clear muscovite and black biotite.
Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is easily
identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth flakes.
Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as
granite and slate. 

Muscovite (top) and biotite (bottom) are the

two most abundant members of the mica
family.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)​2​O​6​
 where X Ca or Mg and Y is either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is the most
common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white,
light green, or light brown. It is generally black in color and has
stubby prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its two cleavages at
around 90°. 
Augite.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5
to 6. Hornblende is the most common amphibole. It has a glassy
luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long and
very thin.

Hornblende.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition
of (Mg, Fe)2SiO​4​, but calcium, manganese, and nickel can be
substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-
green color and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot.
It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is almost as hard
as quartz. Its crystals have a granular shape.
COMMON ROCK – FORMING MINERALS

Calcite
Calcite, a very abundant mineral, is the primary constituent in the
sedimentary rock limestone and the metamorphic rock marble. A
relatively soft mineral (3 on the Mohs scale), calcite has three
directions of cleavage that meet at 75-degree angles.
ROCKS: It’s Three Main Categories and
Mineral Composition
What is rock?
 A rock is any solid mass of mineral, or
mineral-like matter (such as volcanic
glass), that occurs naturally as part of
our planet.
 Most rocks, like the sample of granite
shown in the Figure, occur as
aggregates of several different
minerals.
 The term aggregate implies that the
minerals are joined in such a way that
their individual properties are retained.
 However, some rocks are composed
almost entirely of one mineral. A
common example is the sedimentary
rock limestone, which occurs as an
impure mass of the mineral calcite. Note that the different minerals that make up granite can be easily identified.
Three Types of Rocks

 Rocks are classified according to how they are formed.

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.
2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat
and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a
process called lithification.
The Rock Cycle
► One very useful device for
understanding rock groups and the
geologic processes that transform one
rock type into another is the rock cycle
Identifying Rocks: Textures and
Composition
 The task of distinguishing among the three rock groups and naming individual
samples relies heavily on the ability to recognize their textures and compositions.
A rock’s mineral composition and texture, in turn, are a reflection of the geologic
processes that created it.
 Texture - A rock’s texture refers to the size, shape, and/or the arrangement of its mineral
grains. The shape and arrangement of mineral grains has a significant effect on a rock’s
appearance and therefore provides clues to whether a rock is igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic.
 Composition - The composition of a rock refers to the abundance and type of minerals it
contains. Large mineral grains can often be identified by sight or by their physical
properties,while a hand lens or microscope may be needed to identify small mineral grains. In
addition, a few minerals can be identified by a particular diagnostic property.
Classifying Igneous Rocks

 Igneous rocks are the solidified products of once-molten material that was
created by melting in the upper mantle or crust. Geologists call molten rock
magma when it is found at depth and lava when it erupts at Earth’s surface. The
distinguishing feature of most igneous rocks is the interlocking arrangement of
their mineral crystals that develops as the molten material cools and solidifies. It
further classified into intrusive and extrusive.
 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth.
They are coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the
earth. They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through
volcanic eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface.
Igneous Rock Textures

 Igneous rocks form when molten rock cools and crystallizes. The interlocking
assemblage of silicate minerals that develop as the molten material cools gives
most igneous rocks their distinctive crystalline appearance. The rate at which
magma cools determines the size of the interlocking crystals found in igneous
rocks. The slower the cooling rate, the larger the mineral crystals.
Igneous Rock Textures

Coarse-Grained
(Phaneritic) Texture
 When a large mass of magma solidifies at depth, it
cools slowly and forms igneous rock that exhibit a
coarse-grained texture. These rocks have intergrown
crystal that are roughly equal in size and large enough
that the individual minerals within can be identified
with the unaided eye. A hand lens or binocular
microscope can greatly assist in mineral identification.
Igneous Rock Textures

Fine-Grained (Aphanitic)
Texture
 Igneous rocks that form when molten material cools
rapidly at the surface or as small masses within the
upper crust exhibit a fine-grained texture. Fine-grained
igneous rocks are composed of individual crystals that
are too small to be identified without strong
magnification.
Igneous Rock Textures

Porphyritic Texture
 A porphyritic texture results when molten rock cools
in two different environments. The resulting rock
consists of larger crystals embedded in a matrix of
smaller crystals. The larger crystals are termed
phenocrysts, and the smaller, surrounding crystals are
called groundmass, or matrix.
Igneous Rock Textures

Glassy Texture
 During explosive volcanic eruptions, molten rock is
ejected into the atmosphere, where it is quenched
(cooled to a solid state) very quickly. When the
material solidifies before the atoms arrange themselves
into an orderly crystalline structure, the rocks exhibit a
glassy texture that may resemble manufactured glass
or fibers of spun glass.
Igneous Rock Textures

Vesicular Texture
 Common features of some fine-grained and glassy
extrusive igneous rocks are the voids left by gas
bubbles that escape as lava solidifies.
 These somewhat spherical openings are called vesicles,
and the rocks that contain them have a vesicular
texture
Igneous Rock Textures

Fragmental (Pyroclastic)
Texture
 Volcanoes sometimes blast fine ash, molten blobs,
and/or angular blocks torn from the walls of the vent
into the air during eruptions. Igneous rocks composed
of these rock fragments have a fragmental
(pyroclastic) texture
Composition of Igneous Rocks

 Despite their significant compositional diversity, igneous rocks (and the magmas
from which they form) can be divided into four groups, based on the pro :portions
of light and dark silicate minerals: Felsic(or granitic), Intermediate(or
andesitic), Mafic (or basaltic) and Ultramafic.
Composition Rock Textures

Felsic (or granitic)

 Felsic (or granitic) igneous rocks are composed
mainly of the light-colored minerals quartz and
potassium feldspar, with lesser amounts of plagioclase
feldspar.
• Recall that feldspar crystals can be identified by their
rectangular shapes, flat surfaces, and tendency to be pink,
white, or dark gray in color.
• Quartz grains, on the other hand, are glassy and somewhat
rounded and tend to be light gray.
• Dark-colored minerals account for no more than15 percent
of the minerals in rocks in this group.
Composition Rock Textures

Intermediate (or andesitic)

 Intermediate (or andesitic) rocks are mixtures of
both light-colored minerals (mainly plagioclase
feldspar) and dark-colored minerals (mainly
amphibole). Dark minerals comprise between 15
percent and 45 percent of these rocks.
Composition Rock Textures

Mafic (or basaltic)

 Mafic (or basaltic) rocks contain abundant dark-
colored minerals (mainly pyroxene and olivine) that
account for between 45 percent and 85 percent of their
composition. Plagioclase feldspar makes up the bulk of
the remainder.
Composition Rock Textures

Ultramafic
 Ultramafic rocks are composed almost entirely of the
dark silicate minerals pyroxene and olivine and are
seldom observed at Earth’s surface. However, the
ultramafic rock peridotite is a major constituent of
Earth’s upper mantle.
Activity 1. Identifying Igneous Rock Textures
1. Identify the igneous rock texture of the following samples (A – H)
Activity 1. Identifying Igneous Rock Textures
 Answers:  Answers:

A. Coarse – Grained (Phanertic) Texture E. Porhyritic Texture

B. Coarse – Grained (Phaneritic) Texture F. Fine –Grained (Aphanitic) Texture

C. Fine – Grained (Aphanitic) Texture G. Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture

D. Vesicular Texture H. Glassy Texture

Identifying Igneous Rocks

 Use a Igneous Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock samples and
record them using a Igneous Rock Chart.
Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks form at or near Earth’s surface from the products of

weathering. This material, called sediment, is transported by erosional agents
(water, wind, or ice) as solid particles or ions in solution to their site of deposition.
 The processes of lithification(meaning “to turn to stone”) transforms the sediment into
solid rock. Sedimentary rocks cover much of Earth’s surface and may contain organic
matter (oil, gas, and coal) and fossils. The layering that develops when sediment is
deposited is the most recognizable feature of sedimentary rocks. These layers, called
strata, or beds, usually accumulate in nearly horizontal sheets that can be as thin as a
piece of paper or tens of meters thick. (see compaction and cementation of sediments)
Sedimentary Rocks

 Materials that accumulate as sediment have two principal sources. First, sediments may
originate as solid particles from weathered rocks. These particles are called detritus, and
the rocks that they form are called detrital sedimentary rocks. The second major source
of sediment is soluble material produced by chemical weathering.
 Detrital sedimentary rocks consist of mineral grains or rock fragments derived from mechanical and
chemical weathering that are transported and deposited as solid particles. Clay minerals are the most
abundant solid products of chemical weathering. Quartz is abundant in detrital rocks because it is
extremely durable. Geologists use particle size to distinguish among detrital sedimentary rocks.
 Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are products of mineral matter that were dissolved in
water and later precipitated. Precipitation may occur as a result of processes such as evaporation or
temperature change or as a result of life processes, such as those that result in the formation of shells.
Sediment formed by life processes has a biochemical origin. Limestone, which is composed of calcite
(CaCO ) is the most common mineral in chemical sedimentary rocks and may originate either from
3

chemical or biological processes.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Composition of Sedimentary Rocks

 Determining the mineral composition of sedimentary rocks is an important step in

their identification. Most sedimentary rocks contain a high percentage of one of the
following:
 Clay minerals ~ Rocks composed of clay minerals are very fine grained, soft, and can be
scratched with an iron nail.
 Quartz ~ Sedimentary rocks composed mainly of quartz usually consist of sand-size particles
that are hard and can scratch glass.
 Calcite ~ Rocks composed of calcite effervesce when a drop of dilute HCl is applied. They can
also be easily scratched with an iron nail.
 Evaporite minerals ~ These sedimentary rocks contain salts, usually halite or gypsum,that are
deposited when saltwater evaporates. They are crystalline and can be scratched by an iron nail.
Gypsum is soft enough to be scratched by a fingernail.
 Altered plant fragments ~ Rocks composed of organic material are usually black in color, have
a low density, and are easily broken.
Identifying Sedimentary Rocks

 Use a Sedimentary Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock samples and
record them using a Sedimentary Rock Chart.
Sedimentary Environments
Metamorphic Rocks

 Metamorphic rocks are produced from preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or

other metamorphic rocks that have been subjected to conditions within Earth that
are significantly different from those under which the parent rock originally
formed. Metamorphism, the process that causes the transformation, generally
occurs at depths where both temperatures and pressures are much higher than at
Earth’s surface.
 Extensive areas of metamorphic rocks are exposed on every continent in the
relatively flat regions known as shields. They are also located in the cores of
mountains and buried beneath sedimentary rocks on the continents.
Metamorphic Textures

 During metamorphism, new minerals often form and/or

existing minerals grow larger as the intensity of
metamorphism increases. Frequently, mineral crystals
that are elongated (such as hornblende) or have a sheet
structure (for example, the micas—biotite and
muscovite) become oriented perpendicular to
compressional forces. The resulting parallel, linear
alignment of mineral crystals is called foliation.
Foliation is associated with many metamorphic rocks
and gives them a layered or banded appearance.
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

 The mineral crystals in foliated metamorphic rocks are either elongated or have
thin, platy shapes and are arranged in a parallel or layered manner. During
metamorphism, increased heat and pressure can cause mineral crystals to become
larger and foliation to become more obvious.
Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Textures

1. Slaty or rock cleavage refers to closely spaced, flat

surfaces along which rocks split into thin slabs when
struck with a hammer (Figure A).
2. Phyllite texture develops when minute mica
crystals in slate begin to increase in size. Phyllite
surfaces have a shiny, somewhat metallic sheen and
often have a wavy surface (Figure B).
3. Schisosity can be identified by a scaly layering of
glittery, platy minerals (mainly micas) that are often
found in association with deformed quartz and
feldspar grains (Figure C).
4. Gneissic texture forms during high-grade
metamorphism when ion migration results in the
segregation of light and dark minerals (Figure D).
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
 Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks consist
of intergrown crystals of various size and
are most often identified by determining
their mineral composition (Figure E, F).
The minerals that comprise them are most
often quartz or calcite. Therefore, the
hardness test and/or the acid test can be
used.
Other Distinguishing Features
Some metamorphic rocks exhibit stretched or deformed pebbles (Figure A). Others contain unusually large
crystals called porphyroblasts that are surrounded by a finegrained matrix of other minerals (Figure B). These
large crystals tend to be minerals that are mainly associated with metamorphic rocks, including garnet,
staurolite, and andalusite. Another distinguishing characteristic of some highly deformed metamorphic rocks
is that their foliation becomes contorted, as shown in Figure C.
Identifying Metamorphic Rocks

 Use a Metamorphic Rock Identification Key to the identify the rock samples
and record them using a Metamorphic Rock Chart.
Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface
 Geologic Process in the Surface of the Earth

Weathering
 Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called
weathering. Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller
pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

 All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different
types of rock weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and
biological weathering.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Types of Weathering
 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces
without changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks
in the highway develop cracks and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat.
This activity is an example of mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other
substances that have different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of
chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks
the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals
to produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering
process. One example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the
feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.
 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of the
trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi
that grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the rocks.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Erosion
 Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or
rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to
erosion.

Types of Erosion
1. Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to different parts
of the bodies of water such as rivers.
2. Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried
by wind to different places.
3. Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of rocks
and causes scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the
development of other landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
4. Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile. This is
caused by wind or flood in an area.
 Geologic Process on the Earth’s Surface

Deposition
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or
final destination. The depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or
marine.
 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.
 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.
Geologic Processes Inside the Earth
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the crust. The
temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of the
core. The principal contributors to the heat of the core come from the decay of radioactive elements
and from the heat of the molten outer core which solidifies near the inner core.
 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the flow of
thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which is
mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is counteracted by the solar radiation.
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

Magmatism
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high temperature and pressure
melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be found in the lower portion of
the crust and the upper part of the mantle. Depending on the temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and
the mantle, the magma can be formed in different ways.

Plutonism
 On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation of intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic
rocks came from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface. These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface through the
process of uplifting - a force that pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.
 When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface through uplifting. When the magma
reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.
 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Internal Heat of the Earth

Volcanism
 Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in the Earth’s crust that allows
magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This process of bringing up the magma is called volcanism.
Metamorphism of Rock
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can make the rocks come
together or make the plates rise. Mountains and hills could be formed when two plates collide. 
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away from each
other. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It moved the oceanic crust
away from each other that resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the mantle.  
 Metamorphism of Rocks

Types of Stresses in the Earth Crusts

 Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the breaking of the large parts of
the crust into smaller sizes. This force always happens along the plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are
the location where the two plates meet. When the two plates rub each other and move in opposite
directions, it creates friction. This friction leads to the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.  
Plate Tectonics:
Continental Drift and
Its Evidences
How the Continents Formed?
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener proposed that in the
beginning, the Earth has only one
giant landmass called Pangaea, which
means "all land." He hypothesized that
this giant landmass slowly broke into
smaller land pieces that eventually
drifted away from each other which
made the seven continents that we now
know. This is known as
the Continental drift theory.
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 Alfred Wegener presented the
following pieces of evidence to
support his theory:
 The continents fit together like a jigsaw
puzzle. This is most evident in the
matching coastlines of South America
and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils were
found in different continents. The fossils
of the reptile mesosaurus were found
along the coastlines of South America
and Africa which are separated by the
Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, the fossil of
a fernlike plant glossopteris was found
distributed in all the continents.
 How the Continents Formed?

The Continental
Drift Theory
 In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and eastern
Brazil, South America, the rocks are of the same type and age.
 Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found along
matching coastlines like that of the Appalachian Mountains 
 Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from
organic matter like dead plants and animals. In a very cold place
like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most organisms to
survive. The presence of coal indicates that the continent was
once inhabited by many organisms. It also gives a clue that
Antarctica was once located near the equator where abundant
animal and plant organisms could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were
found in Africa, South America, India, and Australia. They were
of the same age and type. The presence of tillites indicates that
those places had glaciers in the past, were once located near the
South Pole, and had drifted away from each other.
 How the Continents Formed?
Supporting study for Continental Drift Theory
 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection cells in the Earth’s mantle. When the
rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by radioactivity, they become less dense, and they rise toward the surface of the Earth.
When they cool down, they become denser and sink. The continuous process of rising and sinking of rocks produces convection
cells or convection currents. These currents cause the tectonic plates, which include the crust, to move and drift.
The Formation of Faults and Folds
 The Formation of Faults and Folds

Tectonic Plates
The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move due to the convection currents in the Earth’s interior.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Plate Movements
 The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries can be convergent, divergent, or transform.
 In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move away from each other, they are in a divergent
boundary. Finally, when plates slide past each other, they are in a transform boundary.

 Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent boundaries, tensional stress at divergent
boundaries, or shear stress at transform boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks experience changes in volume and shape.
Plate Boundaries (Convergence)
A. Oceanic – Continental Convergence
B. Oceanic – Oceanic Convergence
C. Continental – Continental Convergence
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Rock Deformation
 Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other. Tensional stress pulls rocks apart and shear
stress causes rocks to slide opposite each other.
 When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or bending (fold).

Fracture
 Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to break
or fracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses. This means that the pressure
exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal strength.
 Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where there is
considerable movement on the fracture surface while a joint is a break where there is no
considerable movement.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Two Types of Fault
Dip-slips Fault
 Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These movements are described based on the direction of
the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging wall is the block of rock that rests on the fault plane
while a footwall is the one below the fault plane.
 Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress it is characterized by the
hanging wall moving downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse fault, wherein the hanging wall moves upward, is
formed by compressional stress 

Strike-slips Fault
 Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused by shear stress.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds

Folds
 Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they do not break but they
tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become thicker. When rocks become thinner, they
are pulled apart.

Types of Fold
 When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when blocks of rock
bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers forms monoclines.
 The Formation of Faults and Folds
Types of Fold
Seafloor Spreading
 Seafloor Spreading

Seafloor Spreading
 In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor
spread. Convection currents carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere. These currents ensure that
the materials formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle. In this “recycling” process, which was later named as seafloor
spreading, the molten materials flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges, spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.
 Seafloor Spreading

Seafloor Spreading
 When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the seafloor above it to be
pulled apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge, where the molten materials go out. New
oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of the molten materials, and as the process continues, oceanic
ridges or underwater mountain ranges are built. Oceanic ridges are composed of volcanic rocks.
 As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on spreading forming a
central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges. The molten materials push the seafloor
away from the ridges and towards the trenches. Trenches are depressions on the ocean floor. When the molten
materials are brought near the trenches, they start to cool, become denser and sink back down into the Earth
where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the seafloor continues as a “recycling” process. As new
seafloor is created, it continues the process until it disappears back into the deep ocean trenches. Records show
that the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks (about 3 billion
years old) found on land. This shows that the seafloor is constantly recycled.
 As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials. This means that the
nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther from the ridge.
 Seafloor Spreading

World Oceanic Ridges

 Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other; while trenches are formed at subduction zones where plates collide with
each other or at convergent boundaries.
 The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas depict where new oceanic crusts are formed which would also show where the
ocean floors spread, just like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at divergent boundaries. On the other hand, the areas farther from the marks, located at
convergent boundaries, are subduction zones, like the Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.
Stratification of Rocks and How It Is
Used to Determine the Age of the Earth
 The Age of the Earth

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

 Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have
been broken down by water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary
particles such as gravel, sand, and mud. These particles can also bury dead plants
and animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate, and those that are at the
bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand
becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or plants
buried with them become fossils. These series of events form the different layers
of rocks.
 The Age of the Earth
Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks
1. Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
2. Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating
 Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older than the other but
does not tell how old each of the rock is.

 In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions of sedimentary rocks. He
discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid. The largest or heaviest particles settle first,
and the smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any slight changes in the particle size or composition may result
in the formation of layers called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered
rocks are also called strata.
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Superposition
 The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer is
younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's history because it
indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils.
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Original Horizontality

 The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down horizontally.
However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of original horizontality, the
rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as tilting episodes of mountain building
 The Age of the Earth
Principles of Relative Dating

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship

 The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger features that
cut through older features of rocks.
 The Age of the Earth
Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks

Absolute Dating
 Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by measuring its radioactive
decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate,
so the age of the sample could be determined.

Examples:
• Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.
• K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.
 The Age of the Earth
The Geologic Time Scale
► The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records, which describe the relationships
between the events that happened throughout the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is based on the radiometric dating of
igneous rocks associated with the fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.
► A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated by integrating results from
relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time scale is calibrated.

How the Geologic Time Scale is Calibrated

► Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.
► The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative dating leading to a
chronological order of events.
► Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric methods. Absolute dating
provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating provides at least six strata with relative ages – first and
last occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic eruption events.
 The Age of the Earth
Calibrating the Geologic Time Scale