MADDA WALABU UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
 Chapter One

The Earth and Its Structure

1.1 introduction
What is Geology?
Geology -is the science of earth, its composition, structure, its
history and its past plant and animal’s life .
The word geology is derived from the Greek word geo=earth and
logos = science.
is the science that deals with the study of earth as a whole. which
deals with the origin, age, and structure of the earth.
What is Engineering Geology?
 Engineering geology:- is a part of earth
science,which uses as a bridge stone between Geology
and civil Engineering.
 Engineering geology is branch of science, which
deals with the study of construction sites, and
construction material. It has great importance in
safe, economic and stable designs of engineering
projects.
Engineering Geology is a discipline that studies the interaction between ground
and any possible use of ground for Engineering purpose either during design,
construction or maintenance phase of Engineering work.

 Generally, Engineering Geology is used as basic science to approach Engineering

work.
As a civil engineers why do we study Geology?

Civil engineering works are all carried out on or in the ground, its properties and
processes are therefore significant.
 Civil Engineer needs basic information about type, characteristics and places of
the building materials.
Knowing the geology of the construction site, lead to a good planning and
construction of the excavation operations with low cost.
Studying the under ground water level and direction of flow is required to
control the excavation processes and stability of slope as well as the design of
foundations.
Understanding of geology and topographical maps will help in right planning for
civil engineering projects .
Branches of Geology
The science is commonly divided into the field of physical and
historical geology

1.Physical geology – deals with the materials that constitute the

earth, the structure and surface features of the earth and the
processes that have given the earth its present structure and
appearance
2. Historical geology -deals with the history of the earth –its
changing face and structure and changing forms of living things
whose remains or traces are found as fossils in the rocks
Geology is further divided into a number of branches according to
subject matter and industrial or commercial applications
Based On Subject Matter
I. Geochemistry-study of the chemistry of the rock and of the
waters and atmosphere
II. Geomorphology-the study of land forms and their origin and
development
2. Geophysics -the application of physics the study of the earth
IV. Mineralogy -the study of minerals
V. Oceanography - the study of oceans and their basins
VI. Paleontology -study of the life of past geologic periods and the
evolution of plants and animals whose remains and traces are
found in the rocks
VII. Petrology - the systematic study of rocks especially their origin
VIII. Stratigraphy - the study of layered rocks chiefly those of
sedimentary origin
IX. Structural geology -deals with the forces causing rock bodies to
be deformed or broken
Branches Based On Application
Economic geology -deals with the commercial and industrial uses
of the sources of the earth
Agricultural geology- the study of soils especially of their
depletion and erosion
Engineering geology -geology applied to the building of dams,
reservoirs, highways bridges tunnels irrigation works, and other
projects
Hydrogeology -the study of surface and under ground water
Mining geology - geology applied to the finding and extraction of
metallic deposits and nonmetallic resources
Petroleum geology- the study of the origin and occurrence of
petroleum
Divisions of The Earth
The earth is divided into three zones corresponding to the three
states of matter constitute the earth.
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Atmosphere
Lithosphere -is the relatively brittle outer rock layer, consisting of
the crust and upper mantle; it is broken into large slabs known as
plates.
Hydrosphere -a sphere of water containing absorbed water, and
carrying particles of rock as sediment surrounds the earth
Atmosphere – the envelope of gases surrounding the earth
 Internal Structure of the Earth
The interior of the earth is variable consisting of concentric shells
which defer in composition, density, elasticity, and state

a) Earth quake waves- the behavior of earth quake waves

shows clearly that the earth is zoned.

as they travel from one zone to an other ,the waves change
in velocity according to the nature of the material through
which they pass. They are also reflected and refracted at the
boundary between the zones;

these rather sharp breaks are called discontinuities

b) Specific Gravity of the Earth
Dividing the mass of the earth by its volume gives the specific
gravity or density as 5.516
Since the surface rocks have specific gravities ranging from 2.6
to 3.0 the buried rocks must have much greater specific gravities

c) Shape of the Earth

the magnitude of the bulge of the earth at the equator which is
due to its rotation, indicates that the earth has a very heavy core
and does not become regularly more dense from the surface to
the center
Internal Structure of the Earth
 I) THE CRUST
The crust is the uppermost envelope of the earth. It is a well
solidified shell consists of different types of rocks. Its surface
encompasses the different topographic features of the earth’s
surface. The Earth’s crust is in two types:

1- Continental Crust: This is a light crust (S. G.=2.7-2.9 gm/c.c.), consists

of rocks rich in Si and Al, so it is termed as SIAL CRUST. It is usually
found beneath the Mountains and
Continents. Its thickness ranges between 30–100 km bsl.,
Commonly has light colour.

2- Oceanic Crust: This is a heavy crust (S. G.=3.5- 4.1 gm/c.c.), consists
of rocks rich in Si and Mg, so it is termed as SIMA
CRUST. It is usually found beneath the Seas and Oceans. Its
thickness ranges between 8-12 km bsl., It is of darker colour.
The crust ends at Mohorovicich Discontinuity of the short waves.
The crust is well balanced over the very mobile molten envelope below
(the Mantle), although there is a great variation in altitudes between
mountain peaks (up to 8.8 km) and ocean floors (down to 10.5 km).

This is related to the fact that below the mountains & continents the
crust is light and consists of (SIAL-type) whereas below the oceans it is
of the heavy SIMA-type. Therefore, thick and light mass is in balance
with the other thin and heavy mass over the mobile mantle.
 II) THE MANTLE

The mantle is a thick envelope that constitutes

more than 1/3 of the Earth planet. It extends from the
base of the crust (~100km) to 2883 km (the top of the Core).

Generally, it is a semi-molten part of the earth whose the uppermost

parts are rather rigid and is called (Asthenosphere). The amount of the
molten materials increase downward where a marked decrease in the
short waves is recorded.

The Mantle is divided into two parts, according to its physical

characters:
1) Outer Mantle:
A hot envelope of semi-molten materials whose top parts are
semi-solid (Asthenosphere). Its general composition consists of Si
+ Mg rich minerals (i.e.: SIMA). The Outer Mantle is usually
traversed by huge, but slow convection currents that result in
fragmentation of the overlying crustal plates

2) Inner Mantle:
A hot envelope of molten materials. Its general composition
consists molten Si + Mg rich minerals (i.e.: SIMA). The Inner
Mantle is usually of more temperature than the above shell.
Toward its base the short waves display great reduction in their
velocities ( Gutenberg Discontinuity)
 III) THE CORE

The Core is the thickest envelope in the earth. It is the central mass of
the planet where it constitutes more than 2/3 of the Earth. It extends
from the base of the inner mantle (~2883km) to the Earth’s center
(~7500km).

The Core composition reflects the original nature of the earth planet.
The core is commonly rich in Fe & Ni, the same as meteorites,
evidencing that all individuals of the solar system derived from one
and the same cosmic body

The core is divided into two parts:

1) Outer Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials . It is
mainly composed of molten SIMA as well as some S, Ni
and Fe. Due to the great overlying pressure, this part
behaves as solid, however, it is a real melt, so the short
waves suffer a great reduction in the velocities in this
part.
2) Inner Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials. It is
entirely composed of molten Ni and Fe, the same as
meteorites. Due to the very excessive overlying pressure,
this part behaves as solid, so the short waves display
increase in velocities in this part.
Geologic Processes

The geologic processes operating upon and with in the crust

of the earth, and are responsible for shaping the earth
surface are:
Gradation- processes of weathering, decomposition and
disintegration
Degradation- wearing down of rocks by water, Ice, and wind
Aggradations- Deposition processes by the accumulation of
sediment
Volcanism- movements of molten rock and the formation of
solid rock
Diastrophism- movements of the solid part of the earth
resulting in displacement (faulting or folding)
Plate Tectonics

• Plate tectonics are the relative movements of the plates

as they are shifted by the underlying mantle flows.
• Convection currents circulate within the mantle because
it is heated from below - and the convection cells have
horizontal movements over their tops.
• Each plate is relatively stable, but disturbances along
the plate boundaries cause most geological processes.
• The formation of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks, and their subsequent deformation or
erosion, can be identified on the cross-section diagram
through two plate boundaries.
Crustal Plates
Plate boundary processes
(a) In construction jobs: It provides the engineer with a general
guidance about the suitability of site for a proposed project. The
existence of hard bed rocks and their depth and inclination from the
ground surface
(b) In town and regional planning: by providing the planning
engineer a broad perspective of nature and properties of the
materials that make the landscape of the area or region.
(c) In water resources development:
END OF CHARTER ONE