Lecture 1 - Introduction to Geology

Lecture 2 The Planet Earth

GEOLOGY
- study of the earth, its origin, history, materials, processes and
resources

Formation of the Earth: offshoot of the formation of the

Universe
Formation of the Universe: Big Bang Theory
Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis

Geology as a discipline: a. relevance of time, b. issue of scale, c.

complexity of replicating natural systems in the laboratory
Main Branches:
1. Physical - study of Earth materials and processes
> Volcanology, Seismology, Environmental Geology,
Engineering Geology, Mining Geology, Petroleum Geology,
Mineralogy, Petrology, Geomorphology, Geophysics,
Geochemistry, Planetary Geology
2. Historical - study of Earth origin and evolution
> Paleontology, Stratigraphy, Geochronology
Basic Concepts:
1. Catastrophism
-sudden, worldwide catastrophes are the agents of
change that alter the physical features of the Earth over
time widely accepted by theologians in the early 1800s
due to similarity with Biblical events such as Noahs
Flood
2. Uniformitarianism
-proposed by James Hutton (The Father of Modern
Geology)

THE BIG BANG THEORY

-contends that the Universe originated from a cosmic
explosion (origin unknown) that hurled matter in all
directions 15 and 20 billion years ago.
-first proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lematre
in the 1920s Edwin Hubble justified Lematres theory
through observations that the Universe is continuously
expanding; galaxies are moving away from each other.
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
-the solar system originated from a single rotating
cloud of gas and dust, starting 4.6 billion years ago,
which contracted due to gravity.
-the idea was first proposed by Immanuel Kant and
Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th century.
THE NEBULAR MODEL
-The Big Bang produced enormous amount of matter:
rotating cloud of gas and dust. The rotating gas-dust
cloud began to contract due to gravity. Most of the
mass became concentrated at the center, forming the
SUN.
-The remaining matter condensed to form the planets.

-The present is the key to the past.

-advocates the idea that the Earth is continuously
modified by geologic processes that have always
operated throughout time (at different rates), and that
by studying them we can understand how the Earth has
evolved through time

THE SUN
-mostly made up of hydrogen, the principal product of
the Big Bang suns center became compressed enough
to initiate nuclear reactions, consequently emitting
light and energy (the sun is a middle-aged star).
THE PLANETS
-composition depended on distance from the sun:
planets nearest the sun contained high-temp minerals
(e.g. iron) while those that are far away contained
lower-temp materials (e.g. methane and ammonia, and
some that contained water locked in their structures)
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars - inner or terrestrial
planets (nearest the sun).
-rocky composition: largely silicate rocks and metals
(Si, Fe, O)
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
-giant or Jovian planets (outer planets; far from the
sun)
-lack solid surfaces: in gaseous or liquid form
-composition: light elements (H, He, Ar, C, O, Ni)
Pluto
-neither a terrestrial or Jovian planet
-similar to the icy satellites of the Jovian planets

SOME INTERESTING FACTS

1. Planets revolution = counter clockwise direction.
2. Planets rotation direction the same as direction of
revolution except for Venus, which rotates in a
retrograde direction.
3. Uranus and Pluto rotate about axes that are tipped
nearly on their sides.
4. Orbital Speed of the Earth = 30 km/s
THE EARTH
- started as dust ball from the nebular gas and dust
brought together by gravity (accretion), which was
heated (heating) and eventually segregated into layers
(differentiation) as it cooled.
-when cooling set in, the denser elements (e.g., iron)
sank while the lighter ones floated out into the surface,
creating a differentiated Earth.
CONSEQUENCES O FTHE HEATING AND
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE EARTH
1. Formation of atmosphere (mostly gases from
volcanic activity)
2. Formation of oceans (water released from crystal
structure)
* Life started when atmosphere was modified due to
the appearance of the blue-green algae.
THE EARTHS VITAL STATISTICS
Equatorial Radius = 6378 km
Polar Radius = 6357 km
Equatorial Circumference = 40076 km
Polar Circumference = 40008 km
Volume = 260,000,000,000 cu. miles
Density = 5.52 g/cm3
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (by mass)
-34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon, 12.7% Magnesium
SHAPE
-Oblate spheroid (flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator)
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH
1. Continents
2. Ocean basins
PROMINENT FEATURES OF THE CONTINENT
1. Mountains elevated features of continents
2. Mountain ranges chains of mountains
3. Mountain belts mountain ranges that run across a
vast area
OCEAN BASINS - Oceanic ridges, Trenches,
Seamounts/guyots, Abyssal hills/plains

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

>Crust
1. Oceanic basaltic composition (SiMa); 3 to 15 km
thick; density: ~3.0 g/cm3
2. Continental granitic composition (SiAl); 20 to 60
km thick; density:~2.7g/cm3
>Mantle extends to a depth of ~2900 km (Fe, Mg)
1. Upper mantle extends from the base of the crust
2. Mesosphere lower mantle; from 660 km depth to
the core-mantle boundary
> Core iron rich sphere with small amounts of Ni and other
elements
1. Outer core 2270 km thick; liquid
2. Inner core solid sphere with a radius of 1216 km
*Discontinuities/Boundaries
1. Mohorovicic crust mantle
2. Gutenberg core mantle
3. Lehmann outer core inner core
MECHANICAL LAYERS
1. Lithosphere
a. Upper crust brittle; 4-15 km depth
b. Lower crust/uppermost mantle ductile; 15 to
100 or
200 km depth
2. Asthenosphere weak sphere; beneath the
lithosphere and within the upper mantle
3. Mesosphere solid, rocky layer
ISOSTASY
-from a Greek word meaning same standing
-basically concerned with the buoyancy of the blocks
of the Earths crust as they rest on the mantle changes
in the load over certain regions causes the lithosphere
to make adjustments until isostatic equilibrium (i.e.,
neither rising or sinking) is reached AIRYS THEORY
(1)
-Mountains have roots which extend down into the
mantle. Thus, elevation is proportional to the depth of
the underlying root.
PRATTS THEORY (2)
-Elevation is inversely proportional to density. Thus,
the higher the mountain, the lower is its density; that
is, light rocks float higher.
HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? (estimates from different bases)
1. Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord
Kelvin, 1897): ~24 40 m.y.
2. Rate of delivery of salt to oceans (John Joly, 1901):
~90 100 m.y.
3. Thickness of total sedimentary record divided by
average sedimentation rates (1910):~1.6 b.y.
4. Amount of evolution of marine molluscs (Charles
Lyell, 1800s): ~80 m.y. for the Cenozoic
5. Radioactivity (Henri Becquerel, 1896): ~500 m.y.
6. Radiometric dating: 4.5 4.6 b.y. (the accepted age)

Lecture 3 - Minerals

BASES FOR CLASSIFICATION

DEFINITION- Naturally occurring, Inorganic, Homogeneous,

Solid, Definite chemical composition, Ordered internal structure

1. Composition
Single element (e.g. Cu, Au, S)
2 elements (e.g. halite, pyrite)
Greater number of different kinds of atoms (e.g.
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2)

MINERALOID - naturally occurring, inorganic material that is

amorphous Ex. glass, opal
POLYMORPHISM - ability of a specific chemical substance to
crystallize in more than one configuration, which is dependent
upon changes in temperature, pressure, or both.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

2. Crystal Structure
Relative Abundance of the Most Common Elements in
the Crust
ELEMENT

>Color - caused by the absorption, or lack of

absorption, of various wavelengths of light.
>Streak - the color of a mineral in powdered form; not
always identical to the color.
>Hardness resistance of mineral to abrasion or
scratching.
*Mohs Scale of Hardness 1. Talc; 2. Gypsum; 3.
Calcite; 4. Fluorite; 5. Apatite; 6. Orthoclase;
7. Quartz; 8. Topaz; 9. Corundum; 10. Diamond
>Crystal Form - the shapes and aggregates that a
certain mineral is likely to form. (look for pictures
showing fibrous, platy, acicular, rhomboid, botryoidal,
cubic, tabular, etc.)
>Cleavage - the tendency of a mineral to break in
particular directions due to zones of weakness in the
crystal structure.
*Fractures or irregular breakages occur when bond
strengths in a crystal structure is equal in all directions.
>Luster - the ability of minerals to reflect light (e.g.
vitreous, pearly, dull, metallic, etc)
>Specific gravity - Ratio of volume of a substance and
the weight of the same volume of water
OTHER PROPERTIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Magnetism ex. Magnetite (Fe3O4)

Fluorescence ex. CaF2
Reaction to chemicals ex. CaCO3
Taste ex. NaCl
Odor ex. S

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
1.
2.

Silicates
Non-silicates

THE SILICATE GROUP

-largest group of minerals
-compounds containing silicon and oxygen
-building block: silicon tetrahedron (SiO4)-4
-structure possessing isolated silicate tetrahedra is
called a nesosilicate, derived from the Greek word
(nesogaean) that means "island". (e.g. olivine)
-structure possessing double island silicate tetrahedral
is called a sorosilicate, derived from a Greek word that
means "group".
-structure possessing parallel single chains of silicate
tetrahedra is called an inosilicate (single chain or
double chain), derived from a Greek word that means
"chain". (e.g. pyroxene and amphibole)
-structure possessing isolated rings of silicate
tetrahedra, is called a cyclosilicate, derived from a
Greek word that means "ring".
-structure possessing parallel sheets of silicate
tetrahedra is a phyllosilicate, derived from a Greek
word that means "sheet". (e.g. micas)
-structure possessing a three-dimensional framework
of silicate tetrahedra is called a tectosilicate. (e.g.
feldspar and quartz)

THE NON-SILICATES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Native metals gold, platinum, iron

Oxides oxygen is combined with one or more metals
(e.g. hematite, magnetite)
Sulfides opaque with distinct colors (e.g. pyrite,
galena)
Sulfates SO4 (e.g. barite, anhydrite)
Carbonates carbonate ion plus metal
Phosphates PO4 (e.g. apatite) plus metal
Hydroxides OH plus metal

Lecture 4 Igneous Rocks

What is a rock?
-a naturally-occurring aggregate of one or more
minerals; may or may not contain mineraloids, natural
glass and organic matter.
-Types of rocks vary based on composition, color,
texture, structures, etc.

THE MOST COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

1.

Silicates: Quartz, feldspar (orthoclase and

plagioclase), mica (biotite and muscovite),
amphibole, pyroxene, olivine

2.

Non-silicates: Clay and Calcite

Economic importance
-Non-renewable resource processes that create the
resources are so slow (takes millions of years to
accumulate).
-Ores useful metallic (and some non-metallic)
minerals that can be extracted and which contain
useful substances.
1. Mineral resources sources of metals and other materials
2. Gemstones

What are igneous rocks?

-Ignis = fire
-Formed from solidification of magma (intrusive) or
lava which flows out from depths (extrusive)
What is magma?
-Molten material which may contain suspended
crystals and dissolved volatiles (gases e.g. water vapor,
CO2, SO2)
-Molten rock composed of varying amounts of
-Liquid; Silicate (sometimes carbonate or
sulfide); Ions of K, Na, Fe, Ca, Mg, Al
-Solid; Minerals; Rock fragments
-Dissolved gas;
H2O, CO2, SO2
-Temperature: 600-1200oC
-Generated by increase in temperature, decrease in
pressure and addition of volatiles
SOURCES OF HEAT FOR MELTING IN THE CRUST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

original heat of the earth at the time of formation

some elements, e.g. U, produce heat through
radioactive decay
heat transfer by conduction from a nearby body of
magma
hot mantle plumes may up well into the crust
frictional heat caused by rocks grinding past each
other

ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF MAGMA

Magma forms at:
1.
2.
3.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR) divergent

boundaries
Subduction Zones convergent boundaries
Hot spots mantle plumes

PROCESSES:
1.

2.

Magma is classified according to:

1.
2.
3.

Silica content - amount of SiO2

Viscosity - resistance to flow
Temperature - temperature of melt formation

COMMON TYPES OF MAGMA

1.

2.

Basaltic magma
a. High density
b. Low viscosity
c. Relatively low silica
content
d. Crystallize at
high temperatures (~1000 - 1200C)

4.

Granitic magma
a. Low density
b. High viscosity
c. Relatively high
silica content
d. Crystallize at
~600C)

basaltic (mafic)
andesitic (intermediate)
rhyolitic (felsic)
Basaltic magma accounts for about 80% of all magma
erupted by volcanoes. Rhyolitic and andesitic magma
accounts for 10% each.
CLASSIFCATION (chemical composition)
1.
2.
3.
4.

3.

Felsic, Silicic or acidic = 63% SiO2

Intermediate = 52-63% SiO2
Mafic or basic = 45-52% SiO2
Ultramafic or ultrabasic = 45% SiO2

BOWENS REACTION SERIES (look for examples)

1. Discontinuous Series olivine pyroxene
amphibole biotite
2. Continuous Series Ca-rich to Na-rich plagioclase
feldspar
3. At the lower temperatures orthoclase feldspar
muscovite quartz
*As you lower the temperature, the silicate structure
becomes more complex
PROPERTIES OF MAGMA
1.

*There is a wide variety of igneous rock types but only a

few basic types of magma, because the asthenosphere and
upper mantle have a fairly uniform composition.

VARIATION IN MAGMA COMPOSITION

Magmatic Differentiation process of changing the
composition of magma

Assimilation of country rock When a molten

body moves up through "country rock, it
assimilates rock (melts and incorporates elements
from the surrounding rock). This changes the
magma composition.
Magma mixing - If two or more magmas with
different chemical compositions come in contact
with one another beneath the Earths surface, then
it is possible that they could mix with each other
to produce compositions intermediate between the
end members.
Partial Melting rocks melt incrementally
because the minerals that compose them have
different melting points. The composition of the
resulting magma is different for every melting
temperature.
Fractional Crystallization - As magma crystallizes,
the magma becomes depleted in the elements that
are entering the crystallizing minerals and so the
melt changes composition over time. As a cooling
melt changes composition, the minerals that are in
equilibrium with it (i.e.that are stable in the melt
at the temperature and pressure conditions of
crystallization) typically either change
composition and/or change to structurally-more
complex minerals as in Bowen's Reaction Series.

2.

Viscosity
property to resist flow
Effects of different factors
temperature, viscosity
SiO2, viscosity
dissolved H2O, viscosity
Density
heavier oceanic crust mafic rocks
lighter continental crust felsic
rocks

TWO KINDS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1.
2.

Extrusive (volcanic) molten rock solidified at the

surface. Ex. Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite
Intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks formed at depth.
Ex. Gabbro, Diorite, Granite

-presence or absence of quartz, composition of

feldspars, amount of ferromagnesian minerals

FORMS OF INTRUSIVE ROCKS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stock small discordant pluton

Batholith more than 100 sq. km. in outcrop area.
Dike tabular body cutting across bedding
Sill concordant tabular body
Laccolith blister-shaped sill

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS (Based on texture

or crystal size)
1.

2.
3.

Aphanitic
-very fine-grained (<2mm in diameter) as a result
of rapid cooling at the surface.
-minerals too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Phaneritic coarse-grained (>5 mm) mineral sizes
due to magma cooling at depth.
Porphyritic very large crystals (phenocrysts)
embedded in smaller crystals (groundmass).

Other textures:
1.

2.
3.
4.

Vesicular contains tiny holes called vesicles

which formed due to gas bubbles in the lava or
magma.
Glassy molten rock quenched quickly as it was
ejected into the atmosphere.
Pegmatitic interlocking crystals greater than 1
cm.
Pyroclastic formed when volcanic materials are
extruded violently.

RESOURCES FROM IGNEOUS ROCKS

1.

Metallic Resources
Produced by igneous processes
Hydrothermal solutions contain metal ions that
eventually precipitate out
Found in:
-Veins
-Disseminated deposits
-Gold, silver, platinum etc.

EPITHERMAL GOLD DISTRICTS (along Philippine Fault

Zone)
-Baguio-Lepanto, Camarines Norte, Masbate, Surigao,
Central, Masara
CROMITITE, NICKEL AND PGM DEPOSITS (usually in
ophiolite* complexes)
-Casiguran, Zambales, Camarines Norte, Lagonoy,
Mangyan, Antique, Samar, Leyte, Dinagat,Surigao,
Central Mindanao, Pujada, Zamboanga, Palawan
*Ophiolite sequence of rock representing oceanic
crust-mantle

VOLCANIC EJECTA OR PYROCLASTS OR TEPHRA:

1.
2.
3.

Ash <2 mm in diameter

Lapilli 2-64 mm in diameter
Block or bomb >64 mm; block is extruded in a solid
state while bomb is partially or wholly molten

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS (Based on shape of

crystal faces)
1.
2.
3.

Euhedral well-defined crystal faces

Subhedral intermediate faces
Anhedral no well-formed crystal faces

*Suggests rate of cooling undergone by the magma (longer

cooling period, more well-formed crystal faces)

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS (Based on mineral

composition)

Lecture 5 Volcanism
WHAT IS A VOLCANO?

-Etymology - from the Roman god of fire, Vulcan

-Vulcan was said to have had a forge (on Vulcano, an
active volcano on the Lipari Islands in Italy.
-place on the Earth's surface (or any other planet's or
moon's surface) where molten rock, gases and
pyroclastic debris erupt through the earth's crust
-can be a mountain, vent or caldera
-Mountainous accumulation of materials resulting
from successive eruptions of lava from a central vent.

-no sustained eruption column

-episodic explosions with booming blasts
-Magma: moderately fluid
-Explosive activity: weak to violent ejection of pasty
fluid blebs
-Effusive activity: thicker, less extensive flows; flows
may be absent
-Ejecta: spherical to fusiform bombs; cinder; small to
large amounts of glassy ash
-Structure(s): cinder cones

WHY DO VOLCANOES ERUPT?

3.
Due to decompression
Magma is lighter than the solid rock around it
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
1.
2.
3.

Shield slopes are gentle (15 degrees or less);

shape resembles a Roman shield lying on the
ground; made up of successive lava flows
Cinder cone relatively small (<300 m high);
steep slopes (30 40 degrees); made up
of pyroclastic material
Composite or strato-volcano layered structure
(tephra and lava flows)

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

Pacific Ring of Fire subduction zones

Hot spots
Spreading centers spreading centers

HOW BIG ARE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS?

VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX OR VEI
- is based on a number of things (e.g. plume height,
volume, etc.) that can be observed during an eruption.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION TYPES:
1.

Hawaiian

-calmest eruption types

-characterized by the effusive emission of highly fluid
basalt lavas with low gas contents
-steady lava fountaining and the production of thin
lava flows
-Magma: fluid
-Explosive activity: very weak ejection of fluid blobs
-Effusive activity: then, often extensive flows
-Ejecta: cow-dung bombs and spatter, very little ash
-Structure(s): spatter cones and ramparts; very broad,
flat lava cones

2.

Strombolian

-short-lived, explosive outbursts of pasty lava ejected a

few tens or hundreds of meters into the air

Vulcanian

-occurs as a series of discrete, canon-like explosions

that are short
-lived, lasting for only minutes to a few hours, often
with high-velocity ejections of bombs and blocks.
Once the volcano "clears its throat," however, the
subsequent eruptions can be relatively quiet and
sustained.
-more explosive than Strombolian eruptions with
eruptive columns commonly between 5 and 10 km
high
-Magma: viscous
-Explosive activity: moderate to violent ejection of
solid hot fragments of new lava
-Effusive activity: flows commonly absent, thick and
stubby if present
-Ejecta: essential, glassy to lithic, blocks and ash,
pumice
-Structure(s): ash cones, block cones, block-and-ash
cones
4.

Plinian

-generate sustained eruptive columns, with some

reaching heights of ~45 km. These eruptive columns
produce widespread dispersals of tephra which cover
large areas with an even thickness of pumice and ash.
-Magma: viscous
-Explosive activity: ejection of large volumes of ash;
caldera collapse
-Effusive activity: ash flows, small to very luminous;
may be absent
-Ejecta: glassy ash and pumice
-Structure(s): widespread pumice lapilli and ash beds;
generally no cone-building
5.

Peleean

-Magma: viscous
-Explosive activity: like Vulcanian, commonly with
glowing avalanches
-Effusive activity: domes and/or short, very thick
flows; flows may be absent
-Ejecta: like Vulcanian
-Structure(s): Ash and pumice cones; domes
6.

Surtseyan or Phreatomagmatic

-generated by the interaction of magma with

either groundwater or surface water.

-much more explosive; as the water is heated, it flashes

to steam and expands explosively, thus fragmenting
the magma into exceptionally fine-grained ash.
MOST ACTIVE VOLCANOES IN THE PHILIPPINES:
1. Mayon, Albay
2. Taal, Batangas
3. Kanlaon, Negros Oriental
VOLCANO MONITORING:
Seismicity, remote sensing, ground deformation,
geophysical measurements, hydrology, gas
*Why are there many volcanoes in the Philippines?
*Volcanic steam plumes rise from new fumaroles on the north
flank of Pinatubo after steam-driven explosions on 2 April
1991; Increase in CO2 and SO2 concentrations
*Why is there an increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes
prior to an eruption? As magma rises into the reservoir beneath
the volcano, the rising magma and gases exert pressure that
causes the rocks to break and trigger earthquakes
*Volcanoes change shape before and during eruptions. A series
of small ground cracks appeared on the crater floor of Mount St.
Helens before it erupted. About two days later, the cracks
moved and "bent" the line. The crater floor was deformed or
changed shape along thrust faults as magma forced its way up
the conduit. Within a few days, the rising magma erupted onto
the surface of the volcano's lava dome.
*Volcano deformation is measured using electronic distance
measurements; The Global Positioning System (GPS) can
pinpoint horizontal and vertical movement of the ground.
PRECURSORS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC
ERUPTION:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with

rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors
Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam
emission from white to gray due to entrained ash
Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the
crater
Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground
fissuring due to magma intrusion

5.

Localized landslides, rock falls and landslides from the

summit area not attributable to heavy rains
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of
vegetation around the volcano's upper slopes
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g.
Bulusan and Kanlaon) and crater lake (e.g. Taal) near
the volcano
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of
springs, crater lakes within the vicinity of the volcano
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano
VOLCANIC HAZARDS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Volcanic gases SO2, CO2, HCl, etc.

Lava flow streams of molten rock
Pyroclastic flow hot, dry rock fragments
Lahar mixture of water and rock fragments
Tephra volcanic rock that are blasted into the air

Mount Pinatubo eruption - Magmatic explosive eruption on

12 June 1991 forms enormous eruption column of gas and
ash above the volcano (Plinian eruption)
EFFECTS:

Gases health problems

Lahars severe flooding, destruction to lives and
property
Lava flows destruction to lives and property
Tephra obscure sunlight, impassable roads,
infrastructure damages

ENVIRONMENTAL/CLIMATE EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC

ERUPTIONS:

Fine ash blocks sunlight

SO2+ H2O produces fine aerosols (fine droplets) that
block sunlight
SO2 produces acid rain

BENEFITS:

Fertile agricultural lands

Source of geothermal energy benign source of
electricity