Familiarize with the following Terms:

Geosphere Mohorovicic discontinuity

Atmosphere Gutenberg discontinuity
Hydrosphere Lehmann discontinuity
Biosphere Compositional Layers
Crust Mechanical Layers
Continental crust Plate tectonics
Oceanic crust Convergent Plate Boundaries
Mantle Divergent Plate Boundaries
Lower Mantle Transform Plate Boundaries
Core Rift Zone
Outer Core Subduction Zone
Inner Core Ridge
Lithosphere Mid-ocean ridge
Asthenosphere Trench
Mesosphere Hotspot
Familiarize with the following Terms:
Continental volcanic arc Seismogram
Volcanic Island arc Seismograph
Diastrophism Seismology
Folding Convection current
Faulting Compression
Fracture Tension
Fissure Depression
Earthquake Subduction
Primary (P) wave Geology
Secondary (S) wave Rocks
Shadow Zone Igneous Rocks
Rayleigh (R) wave Sedimentary Rocks
Love (L) waves Metamorphic Rocks
Epicenter Magma
Hypocenter or Focus Volcano
Discussion Questions

Compare and differentiate the Mechanical Layers from the

1.
Compositional Layers of the Earth.

2.How did Andrija Mohorovicic discover that the Earth's

crust is made of less dense rock than the mantle.  

3. In your own words, write the definition of a discontinuity.

4. What causes the mantle to "flow"?

5.Describe in your own words how the Earth's layers were

formed.
Think of ten (10) descriptions of this
Planet.
Member of the inner planets
Largest
among
the
Rocky
Planet
Four (4) Spheres

ATMOSPHERE

GEOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE

BIOSPHERE
GEOSPHERE
 Earth is composed of ROCKS – both solid
and molten – as well as various metallic
elements.

 This solid part of the Earth, as well as the

soil and loose rock on the exterior, makes
up the geosphere.
GEOSPHERE
 71% of Earth’s Surface is water
 97% Saline
 2% Limnetic
 1% Solid or Frozen

 Water is only 0.5% of Earth’s Total mass

GEOSPHERE
X
COMPOSITIONAL MECHANICAL
LAYERS LAYERS
 GEOSPHERE
THE EARTH’S GEOSPHERE IS DIVIDED INTO:
COMPOSITIONAL MECHANICAL SECTION
SECTION (Physical Property)
(Chemical Property)
1. Crust 1. Lithosphere
2. Mantle 2. Asthenosphere
3. Core 3. Lower Mantle
>(Mesosphere)
4. Outer Core
5. Inner Core
 Oceanic Crust Continental Crust
Age < 200 million years Up to 3.8 billion years
old
Thickness 5 to 8 km 10 to 70 km
Density 3.0 g/cm3 2.7 g/cm3
Composition Sima (silica-magnesia Sial (silica-alumina
rich material) or rich material); granite,
basalt schist, gneiss
 Characteristics
BASALT GRANITE

• fine-grained,
• dark-colored igneous rock ,
• composed mainly of plagioclase and
pyroxene minerals.
• It most commonly forms as an extrusive
rock.
• Most abundant/common rocks
• coarse-grained,
• light-colored igneous rock,
• composed mainly of feldspars and quartz
with minor amounts of mica and amphibole
minerals.
• most often quarried as a "dimension stone"
 Uses
BASALT
• It is most commonly crushed for use as an
aggregate in construction projects.
• Crushed basalt is used for road base,
concrete aggregate, asphalt pavement
aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in
drain fields, floor tiles, building veneer,
monuments, other stone objects and may
other purposes
GRANITE
• Granite is hard enough to resist abrasion,
strong enough to bear significant weight,
inert enough to resist weathering, and it
accepts a brilliant polish.
• House Interior finishing
• Ornaments such as gems
COMPOSITIONAL MECHANICAL
LAYERS LAYERS
The Conrad discontinuity corresponds to the sub-horizontal boundary in continental
crust at which the seismic wave velocity increases in a discontinuous way.
This boundary is observed in various continental regions at a depth of 15 to 20 km.
This boundary is observed in various continental regions at a depth of 15 to 20 km,
however it is not found in oceanic regions.
 Andrija Mohorovicic – a Yugoslavian seismologist
presented the first convincing evidence for layering
within the earth.
 Andrija Mohorovicic – a Yugoslavian seismologist
presented the first convincing evidence for layering
within the earth.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAQSucmHrAk
2. Mantle – middle part of the earth’s interior; about 2800
km thick; upper 965 km is composed of silicates of metallic
compounds (ferromagnesian silicate olivine) and the
lower 1930 km is rich in aluminum and magnesium.

 constitutes 65% - 80% of the volume of entire

planet
 denser than oceanic crust or continental crust
 solid except isolated pockets of molten rock or
magma
2. Mantle – middle part of the earth’s interior; about 2800
km thick; upper 965 km is composed of silicates of metallic
compounds (ferromagnesian silicate olivine) and the
lower 1930 km is rich in aluminum and magnesium.

Separated By:

 Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) – the

boundary between the earth’s crust and mantle
(about 1 to 2 km thick)
 Gutenberg Discontinuity – boundary between
the mantle and the outer core
Beno Gutenberg
In the year 1913, He proved the
existence of the Earth's core. 
He recognized that the P-wave
shadow zone was due to the
refraction and reflection of primary
waves by the Earth's molten core. 
He also found that the S-wave
shadow zone resulted from the
complete absorbtion of the
secondary waves by the liquid core.

He is behind the acceptance of

seismology as an international
science of earthquake detection and
study
Inge Lehmann
In 1929 earthquake near New
Zealand, Lehmann and others
noticed something odd: some of
these waves could be faintly
detected by seismometers in Europe.
If the core were entirely molten, this
shouldn't have been possible.

While studying this data, Lehmann

came to a realization that would
revolutionize our understanding of
the Earth. At the core's center, she
figured out, is a ball of solid material
Core - the innermost part of the earth below the mantle , about
3500 km thick; divided into an outer liquid core and an
inner solid core.

outer core – believed to be liquid because the slower S

(secondary waves) could not pass through this layer
and in fact “bounced off” and were deflected ;
contains mostly iron and nickel

inner core – solid; composed of very hot metals (iron and nickel)

with pressures so great that the metals do not flow

as liquid but are force to vibrate in place like a solid.
Earthquakes that reach this layer move at the
greatest because waves move through solids faster
than through liquids and gases
Discussion Questions

Compare and differentiate the Mechanical Layers from the

1.
Compositional Layers of the Earth.

2.How did Andrija Mohorovicic discover that the Earth's

crust is made of less dense rock than the mantle.  

3. In your own words, write the definition of a discontinuity.

4. What causes the mantle to "flow"?

5.Describe in your own words how the Earth's layers were

formed.
COMPOSITIONAL MECHANICAL
LAYERS LAYERS
B. According to Mechanical Properties

1. Lithosphere (“rock sphere”) – the outer rigid shell of the

earth’s structure; consists of the crust and the
upper mantle
2. Asthenosphere ( “weak sphere”) - a plastic, mobile
layer of the earth’s structure that extends around the
earth below the lithosphere,
ranges in thickness from a depth of
130 km to 160 km.

3. Mesosphere - region between the asthenosphere and the core-

mantle boundary; stronger and more rigid than
asthenosphere
4. Core – marks a change both in physical properties and
composition; heat loss from this area and the rotation of earth
probably causes the liquid outer core to circulate and this
circulation generates earth’s magnetic field
B. According to Mechanical Properties

The Lithosphere
also the zone of
earthquakes, volcanoes,
mountain building, and
continental drift
B. According to Mechanical Properties

The Asthenosphere
 The asthenosphere is
semi-fluid, molten rock.
 This allows the tectonic
plates to move on top.
 This motion is essential
to our Earth‘s
appearance.
B. According to Mechanical Properties

What are the effects of these

movements?
Asthenosphere

Lithosphere
? ? ? ?
Plate Tectonics
 As discussed
earlier, our crust
is divided into
smaller tectonic
plates.
 These plates glide
on the surface of
the upper mantle.
 The movement of
these plates can
have far-reaching
effects on us.
Plate Tectonics
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY
Alfred Wegener
 In 1912, a German meteorologist
Alfred Wegener proposed a theory
regarding the earth’s crust. He
believed that a super continent once
existed (Pangaea).
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY
Alfred Wegener
 About 200 million years ago, this
super continent broke into two
smaller super continents , Laurasia
and Gondwanaland and started
“drifting” to their present positions.
EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY

FOSSILS- similar species were found out in several

different continents

ROCK SEQUENCES – show remarkable similarities

in South America, Africa, India, Antarctica and
Australia

GLACIATION – glaciers covered all or parts of each of the

continents during the same period in the geologic
past
 paleo-climatic records
 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
(Modern Version of Continental Drift Theory):

 This theory states that the lithosphere is made up of several

individual plates moving above a somewhat plastic layer.
These plates are pulling away, sliding past one another or
coming together at opposite directions.
PLATE TECTONICS
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
AND THEIR MOVEMENTS

 Divergent boundaries – plates move away from

each other leaving a gap in between plates
 Convergent boundaries – plates move together
causing one to go under the other plate
 Transform – fault boundaries – plates slide past
one another scraping and deforming as they pass
• What happens to
the crust in this
scenario?
• How many plates
are involved?
• What are the
forces involved in
this action?
• What is the result
of the movement?
 Rift Valleys
 FISSURES
ROCK DEFORMATION:
 Aside from weathering and erosion, rocks can also be subjected to stresses.
When the stress is greater than their strength, rocks deform by way of
faulting or folding.
 Fault – are any surface fractures where movement took
place

3 types:
 normal fault – vertical movement; the rock above the
fault plane moves down relative to the rock below
 reverse fault – rock above the fault plane moves up
relative to the rock below
 strike-slip faults – faults having horizontal movements
 oblique-slip faults –horizontal movements but the other
plate moves vertically as the result of geologic pressure
What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

 Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
 Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
 Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
 Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault
Folds – wrinkling of the layers of rock that results when
deeply buried rocks tend to go plastic deformation due
to high temperature
Types of Folds

anticline – arch shaped fold syncline – trough shaped fold

Plate Tectonics
 When the plates collide
with each other, earth is
pressed upward and folds.

 This leads to the creation of

mountain ranges.
Thank You
and GOD BLESS…

Observe cleanliness &

Be safe all the time…
What Just Happened?

Where are you during the time of the earth quake?

Describe what do you felt during the event.

What if the event is twice as powerful? What will you do?

 TERMS TO REMEMBER
 Earthquake- vibrations of earth produced by the
rapid release of energy from rocks that rupture
because they have been subjected to stresses beyond
their limit
 Seismology – study of earthquake waves
 Fore shocks – are small earthquakes that precede a
major earthquake
 After shocks- smaller earthquakes that follow a
major earthquake
 Tsunamis – large sea waves created by earthquake
 Seismic waves – forms of elastic energy which goes
in all directions from the focus
 TERMS TO REMEMBER
 Seismographs – instruments which record
earthquake waves

 Seismograms – records from seismographs

EARTHQUAKES
The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake
Locating the epicentre:
X, Y and Z are seismograph stations

280 km

Y
220 km X

epicentre Z

150 km
Epicenter located using three seismographs
What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?
 Ground Shaking
 amplitude, duration, and damage increases in poorly
consolidated rocks
Two Main Types of Seismic Waves
 Surface waves – travel along the outer layer of the earth
 Rayleigh waves – vertical surface waves
 Love waves – horizontal surface waves
 Body waves – travels through the earth’s interior
 primary wave (P-wave) – fastest and are
compressional
 secondary wave (S-wave) – slower and can travel
only through solids
 Shear waves – perpendicular waves

Body Waves: P and S waves
 Body waves
 P or primary waves
 fastest waves
 travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
 compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
 S or secondary waves
 slower than P waves
 travel through solids
only
 shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
 Surface Waves: R and L waves

 Surface Waves
 Travel just below or along the ground’s surface
 Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
 Especially damaging to buildings
Causes of Earthquake
 elastic rebound theory
 cooling of the earth
 isostasy
 radioactivity
 convection currents
 plate tectonics
Causes of Earthquake
Isostasy
the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust  (or 
lithosphere) and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that
depends on its thickness and density.

https://www.britannica.com/video/81405/theory-isostasy
Causes of Earthquake
According to origin:
1. Non-tectonic
2. Tectonic

According to location:
 Interplate – occurs along three types of boundaries:
ocean spreading ridges, subduction zones and
transform faults
 Intraplate – tend to occur in soft, weaker areas of
plate interiors
Causes of Earthquake
According to origin:
1. Non-tectonic
 volcanic – caused by volcanic activity or by the flow of
magma in the crust

artificially produced- through human activities like filling of

new reservoirs, underground detonation of atomic explosives,
pumping of fluids deep into earth’s wells

landslides – caused by landslides and are of less intensity

2. Tectonic – caused by faulting

3 Classifications of Earthquake
•Shallow-focus: occurs from surface to 70 kilometers deep

•Intermediate-focus: occurs in the upper part of the

mantle, from 70 to 350 kilometers deep.

•Deep-focus: occurs in the lower part of the upper mantle,

from 350 to 700 kilometers deep.

Note:
About 85% of all
earthquakes are shallow-
focus earthquakes and
only 3% are deep focus
earthquakes.
How can earthquakes can be detected?
Earthquakes can be detected, measured and recorded
by;

•SEISMOGRAPH an instrument that records

movements of the earth.

•SEISMOGRAM the analysis of the records of

earthquake vibrations, helps determine the focus, the
center of the shocks.

Epicenter: point directly above th focus.

Seismograph Seismogram
Earthquakes are recorde based on their destructive effect o n
man and damages to man-made structures such as buildings,
bridges and in terms of the energy released.

•INTENSITY is the measure of the surface damage caused

by an earthquake. Can be expressed by “modified mercalli
intensity scale”

Intensity 1: “not felt”

Intensity XII: “strongest or total destruction”

The Richter scale
Steps:
1. Measure the interval (in seconds) between
the arrival of the first P and S waves.
2. Measure the amplitude of the largest S
waves.
3. Use nomogram to estimate distance from
earthquake (S-P interval) and magnitude
(join points on S-P interval scale and S
amplitude scale).
4. Use seismograms from at least three
geographic locations to locate epicentre
by triangulation.
EARTHQUAKES
•MAGNITUDE is an earthquake-associated energy
vibrations that are being reported by media using
Richter Scale, it was developed by Charles RichTer, a
seismologist. It gives a number 0-9 based on the
earthquake’s magnitude as measured by seismographs.
Magnitudes 0-2 are the smallest detectable earthquake
and magnitudes 8-9 as the greatest earthquake with
total destruction.

•PAG-ASA: employs are widely-used scale, the Rossi-

Forel Scale of earthquake intensities. It uses Roman
numerals I-IX,I as the weakest or of perceptible shock
and IX as the strongest or extremel strong shock.
Earthquake magnitude:
scales based on seismograms

 ML=local (e.g. Richter scale) - based on amplitude of

waves with 1s period within 600 km of epicentre.
 Mb=body-wave (similar to above)
 Ms=surface wave (wave periods of 20s measured
anywhere on globe
 Mo=seismic moment
 Mw= moment magnitude
EARTHQUAKES
MAGNITUDE
Liquefaction
Formation of a tsunami

Tsunamis are actually huge, extending

from the fault on the sea floor up to the
surface, but they don’t stick up more
than a meter or so in the deep ocean.
However, when they reach shallow water
they must rear up and slow down.
Honolulu officials know exactly
how long it takes a Tsunami to
reach them from anywhere
Tsunami 1960,
Hilo Hawaii
Tsunami Model,
Alaska Quake
Harmful Effects of an Earthquake
•Violent ground motion (primary effect). This motion
accompanying movement along a fracture can
collapse buildings and other rigid structures.

•Secondary effects include landslide, tsunami (a

Japanese word referring to a huge waves produced
by earthquake) and regional or local uplift or
subsidence.
Thank You
and GOD BLESS…

Observe cleanliness &

Be safe all the time…
VOLCANISM:
•Itcovers all kinds of volcanic activities including
processes causing magma to rise as well as their
mmovement on earth. Of the processes that occur in
the Earth’s interior.
VOLCANISM:
•Volcanism gives us information on what happens
inside the earth by providing us visible proofs
What is a volcano?
Volcano
Basically, it is a mountain or hill
formed around a vent in the earth’s
crust through which lava,
pyroclastic materials, and hot
gases are spewed out.
 What is a volcano?
vent  A volcano is a vent or
'chimney' that connects
molten rock (magma) from
within the Earth’s crust to
cone the Earth's surface.
 The volcano includes the
surrounding cone of
conduit erupted material.

magma chamber
Structure of a Volcano

ash cloud
lava central vent
old layers side vent
of lava

magma Earth’s crust

Structure of a Volcano
 Magma – the molten, or liquid-like, rock within the Earth

– originate at depths between 50 and 250

kilometers (30 to 150 miles) beneath the crust

– can reach the surface in one of three plate

tectonic settings: divergent plate boundaries, subduction zones
and “hot spots”
Structure of a Volcano
 Lava – magma that reaches Earth’s surface
 Vent – the opening from which lava flows
 Crater – the funnel shaped pit at the top of the volcano, formed when the
material explodes out of the vent

 Volcanic cone – the pile of lava, dust, ashes, and rock around the vent
TYPES OF VOLCANO: based on ACTIVITY
•ACTIVE - erupting or has recently erupted.

•DORMANT - activity stops for a considerable time.

•EXTINCT - if there is proof that it will not erupt again.

Volcanic Activity
1. Active volcanoes
 activity in the last few
centuries
Ex:
Vesuvius, (1944) A.D.
> (50 times in 2000 yrs.)
Mt. Pinatubo (1991)
Mayon Volcano (2014)
Taal Volcano(2020)
Volcanic Activity
2. Dormant volcanoes
 “quiet”for the last hundred to
thousands of years, but still
have potential to erupt.
Ex:
Mt. Pokis (Babuyan Is.)
Mt. Matutum (Cotabato)
Mt. Ugo (Nueva Viscaya)
Anilao Hill (Batangas)
Volcanic Activity
3. Extinct volcanoes
 No eruption in historical times
 No signs of erupting again
Ex:
Gulugod ng Baboy
(Batangas)
Mt. Arayat (Pampangga)
Mt. Guinsiliban (Camiguin Is.)
Volcano Distribution
Hot Spot Volcanism
The plate has
moved to the
northwest for
more than 65
million years
The big island of
Hawaii is now
over the hot spot
Hot Spot Volcanism
Philippines
Volcanic Landforms
An erupting volcano will produce a number of distinct landforms including:

A. Volcanic cones (physical structures)

 shield cones
 cinder cones
 composite or stratovolcanoes

B. Flood basalts (multiple vents)

C. Calderas
 Volcanic Landforms

•Shield volcano; lowest volcano with wide, gently

sloping cones made of solidified lava flows.

•Cinder cone volcano; has a steep cone and is made

up of piles of loose cinders

•Composite or strato volcano; tallest volcano

with a stratified structure made up of alternating layers of
cinders, ash, and lava flows.
Shield Volcanoes
• These are the LARGEST volcanoes
• DO NOT occur at plate boundaries...
• They form over HOT SPOTS
• Usually occur in ocean basins (weak spot in lithosphere... magma breaks
through)
• The magma inside a shield volcano is rich in iron and magnesium and is
very fluid.
• Since the magma is very fluid, the lava coming out of the volcano tends to
flow great distances.
• When shield volcanoes erupt, the flowing lava gives the volcano the shape
of a gently sloping mountain.
• Eruptions of shield volcanoes are mild and can occur several times.
• Mauna Loa in Hawaii is an example of a shield volcano.
Shield Volcanoes
 Example of shield volcano

Three-deminsional Space Shuttle Image of the Alcedo Shield

Volcano, Galapagos -- The near circular caldear of the Alce

do shield volcano on the big island of Isabela is a feature common to

many of the Galapagos shield volcanoes. The image, taken by the
Space Shuttle Endeavor, covers an area of about 75 km by 60 km.
The oblique view was constructed by overlaying a Spaceborne Radar
Image on a digital elevation map. 
Composite Volcanoes
• The magma is rich in silica and much thicker than magma from a
shield volcano.
• Gases get trapped inside this thicker magma.
• The explosive eruptions come from the trapped gases and produce
cinders and ash.
• The different types of eruptions give composite volcanoes their
alternating layers of lava and cinders.
• Composite volcanoes have much steeper slopes than shield
volcanoes.
• Usually found near “subduction” zones (converging plates)
• Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount St. Helens in the USA are examples
of composite volcanoes.
Composite Volcanoes
Mt St Helen’s, Washington
 Example of composite volcano
Mayon Volcano, a beautifully symmetrical but dangerous composite
volcano on Luzon Island, Philippines.
A volcano is a mound, hill or mountain constructed by solid fragments,
lava flows, and or dome-like extrusions deposited around a vent from
which the material is extruded. The vent is a conduit that extends from
the earth's upper mantle or lithosphere to the surface. Most of the
material is deposited close to the vent, but some is carried high into the
atmosphere to be spread by winds hundreds or thousands of kilometers
from the source.
Cinder Cone Volcanoes
• The magma inside a cinder cone volcano has large amounts of
gas trapped in it.
• Eruptions from cinder cone volcanoes are violent and
explosive because of all the gas trapped in the magma.
• The large amounts of hot ash and lava thrown out of the vent
fall to the ground forming the cone shape that these volcanoes
have.
• Cinder cone volcanoes are usually only active for a short time
and then become dormant (inactive).
• Paricutin in Mexico is an example of a cinder cone volcano.
Cinder Cone Volcanoes
Cinder cone
A cinder cone is a steep, conical hill of volcanic
fragments that accumulate around and
downwind from a vent.
The rock fragments, often called cinders or scoria, are glassy and
contain numerous gas bubbles quot; frozenquot; into place as
magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly. Cinder
cones range in size from tens to hundreds of meters tall.
 Volcanic Landforms

 Large outpourings of basaltic lava

 Multiple, quiet eruptions
 Lava plateau
Volcanic Landforms

 Large depressions (> 1km) from violent eruptions

Ugashik Caldera, AK
Two methods of formation:

Method 1:
Volcano rapidly
empties its magma
chamber, and
support is lost
Overlying material
collapses into
magma chamber
Caldera forms
Two methods of formation:

Method 2:
Volcano blows its top, leaving
behind a void inside the cone.
Note: it is well known fact that Philippines is
included in the so called Ring of Fire which
surrounds the Pacific Ocean. Aside from this, one
tectonic plate along the deep Philippine Trench
experiences subduction or is being forced below
another. Because of this, volcanic activities and
earthquakes due to movements of tectonic plates
will always affect the country.
Volcanic Eruption: is one of the most spectacular natural events
but poses a great danger.

Harmful Effect of Volcanic Eruption

•There would be mudflows obstructing rivers that could deprive

channels of normal runoff.

•Volcanicgases such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric

acid, methane and carbon monoxide are known to be poisonous when
present in large amounts and therfore, can be harmful to life.

•Lava flows can ruin life and destroy structures and can make water
undrinkable due to contaminations.
•During an Earthquake:

• Immediately seek a safe location such as in a

doorway (if you live in an old, adobe house that is not
reinforced), beneath a table or desk or along an
interior wall away from windows or hazardous
objects.

•Cover the back of your head and your eyes to

minimize injury from flying debris.
•Do not take elevators during an earthquake.

•If cooking, turn off heating elements immediately.

•Ifoutdoors, stay in open areas away from buildings,

power lines, trees and other potential hazards.

•Ifdriving, stop quickly but safely and stay in the vehicle.

Do not stop near power lines, bridges, overpasses or other
potentially dangerous locations.

•Stay calm and brace yourself to keep your balance, sitting

if possible.
After an Earthquake:
•Be prepared for aftershocks, which may be
stronger than the initial jolt.

•Tend injuries immediately and summon emergency

assistance if necessary.

•Check for structural damage but do not enter a

building that shows damage or has visible cracks in
the walls or foundation.
•Wear shoes at all times to avoid stepping on broken glass.

•Turnoff gas, electricity, and water if damage is

suspected or if advised to do so by authorities.

•Becautious opening cabinets, cupboards and closets in

case items may be poised to fall.

•Keep phone lines clear for emergency use.

•Be patient: It may take hours or days to restore all

services depending on the severity of the quake.
Additional Disasters to Prepare For:

•Tsunamis near coastal areas

•Landslides or mudslides in mountainous regions

•Fires if gas lines are ruptured or power lines spark

blazes

•Flooding if dams break or rivers are diverted

•These hazards will vary based on where the

earthquake hits and how strong it is, but thorough
safety precautions will address these additional
disasters if necessary.
Before Eruption:
•Follow the directions of authorities.

•Take your family emergency kit and evacuate.

•Evacuate to an area upwind rather than downwind if

possible.

•When evacuating, if you are in a valley, or close to a

stream, or crossing a bridge, check upstream for
mudflows. A mud flow is extremely heavy and can destroy
a bridge quickly. Take a different route or get to high
ground quickly - mudflows can be extremely fast too.
•Ifyou are unable to evacuate, Seek shelter indoors if
possible.

•Closeall windows and doors to keep ash out. Seal up

drafts. Do what you can to keep ash out.

•Seek higher ground - flash floods, mud, and poisonous

gasses will accumulate in low-lying areas.

•Put on long pants, long-sleeved shirt, and hat.

•Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help

filter ash.

•Leave your vehicles turned off until the eruption has

ended and the dust can settle. Ash destroyed many
vehicle engines during the Mount St. Helens eruption.
•After Eruption:

•Stay inside and listen for volcano information on your

radio or TVs.

•Minimize your movements and keep all windows and

doors closed.

•Keep your skin covered with long pants, long-sleeved

shirt and hat to avoid irritation from ash.

•Ifyou have to go outside, where a dust mask and eye

goggles.
Thank You
and GOD BLESS…

Observe cleanliness &

Be safe all the time…
ROCKS AND THE ROCK
CYCLE:
 Petrology – study of rocks.
 Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals.
All earth processes in some ways depend on the
properties of these basic materials. Events such as
volcanic eruptions, mountain building,
weathering and erosion and even earthquakes
involve rocks and minerals.
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS:

 In terms of color, rocks maybe dark, light,

reddish, gray, brown, yellow or even black.
 Rocks differ in texture: some are fine,
others are rough and the rest average.
 Some kinds are glossy in appearance and
smooth to touch.
 Most rocks are hard; others are brittle
 All rocks are denser than air or water. Rock
samples taken from the ocean floor are
denser than rock samples from continents.
In general, the deeper the rock, the
greater its density
TYPES OF ROCKS
 Igneous rock: Igneous rocks are called fire rocks and can be formed
either underground or above ground. When they are formed underground,
they are formed when melted rock called magma becomes trapped in
pockets deep within the earth. As these pockets of magma slowly cool, the
magma turns to igneous rock. Igneous rocks are also formed when
volcanoes erupt. This causes the magma to rise above the earth's surface.
When magma appears above the earth, it is called lava. When the lava
cools above ground, it forms igneous rocks.

 Metamorphic rock: Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed or

"morphed" into other kinds of rock. They were once igneous or sedimentary
rocks. They change because they are under tremendous pressure which
causes heat to build up. The heat causes the rocks to change.

 Sedimentary rock: For thousands of years wind and water have broken
off very small pieces of the earth's surface. These small pieces get blown
away or washed downstream where they settle and form layers at the
bottom of rivers and oceans. These layers of sediment harden over time to
form sedimentary rocks.
 Igneous Rocks

Granite: Granite is an igneous rock which is

formed by slowly cooling pockets of magma
trapped beneath the earth's surface. Granite is
used for monuments and for trim and
decoration on buildings and in homes.
Scoria: Scoria is an igneous rock which was
formed when lava cooled quickly above
ground. You can see where the pockets of air
had been. Scoria is actually a kind of glass
and not a mixture of minerals.

Pumice: Pumice is an igneous rock that was

formed when lava cooled quickly above the
Obsidian: Obsidian is an igneous rock that
ground. This rock is so light, that many pumice
forms when lava quickly cools above the
rocks will float in water. Because this rock is so
ground. It is actually glass and not a
lightweight, it is often used as a decorative
mixture of minerals. The edges of this rock
landscape stone. In some cases, it is ground to
are very sharp.
a powder and used as an abrasive in polishes
and soap.
Metamorphic Rocks
Schist: Schist is a metamorphic rock. It can
be formed from basalt, an igneous rock; shale,
a sedimentary rock; or slate, a metamorphic
rock. Through tremendous heat and pressure,
these rocks were changed into this new kind of
rock.

Gneiss: Gneiss is a metamorphic rock

which may have been formed from
granite. You can see how the mineral
grains in the rock were flattened
through heat and pressure and are
arranged in alternating patterns.
 Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone: Sandstone is a Limestone: Limestone is a sedimentary rock made

sedimentary rock made from small
grains of the minerals quartz and
feldspar. They often form in layers as
seen in this picture. These stones are
often used in building.
from the mineral calcite which came from the
beds of evaporated seas and lakes and from the
shells of sea animals. This rock is used in concrete
and is an excellent building stone for humid
regions.

Shale: Shale is a type of Gypsum: Gypsum is a sedimentary rock that is made

sedimentary rock formed from clay
that is compacted by pressure.
Shale is used to make bricks and
other materials that are fired in a
kiln.
up of sulfate material and formed as the result of
evaporating sea water in massive prehistoric basins.
It is a very soft stone and is used to make plaster of
Paris, casts, molds, and wallboards.
ROCK CYCLE
MINERALS
 Minerals – single elements or compounds
found naturally in the earth’s crust
 solids and have a fixed chemical
composition
 with a definite crystal structure
 inorganic ( not derived from living things)
Visible Characteristics of
Minerals:
 Luster – refers to the way light is reflected from a mineral
surface. Some minerals have metallic luster i.e., gold, silver,
copper. Minerals with non metallic luster are described as
vitreous (glassy), pearly, silky, resinous and earthy (dull)
 Streak – refers to the color of powdered mineral. To find the
streak, rub the mineral sample across a piece of unglazed
porcelain or streak plate. This technique is used for minerals
softer than porcelain or about 5 on the Moh scale.
 Cleavage – tendency of mineral to break along planes of
weak bonding. The number of planes exhibited and the
angles at which they meet describe the cleavage of mineral.
Some minerals have cleavage planes which produce smooth
surface when broken, while other exhibit poor cleavage, and
still others have no cleavage at all.
 Fracture – minerals that do not exhibit cleavage are said to
fracture when broken. Some break like glass (conchoidal
fracture), some break into splinters or fibers
 Color – it is important in the identification of only a few
minerals. Such minerals are always of the same color, i.e.,
azurite is always deep blue; malachite is green, cinnabar is
red, sulfur is yellow, etc…
 Crystal form – when the external features of a mineral
reflects its orderly internal arrangement of atoms, the
mineral is demonstrating crystal form
Measurable Physical Qualities of Minerals:

 Hardness – refers to mineral’s resistance to being

scratched. The harder the mineral, the more
difficult it is to scratch; the softer is the
mineral, the lesser is its resistance to
scratches.
Moh’s Scale of Hardness:
1. talc (softest) 6. orthoclase
2. Gypsum 7. quartz
3. Calcite 8. topaz
4. Fluorite 9. corundum
5. Apatite 10. diamond (hardest)
 Specific Gravity- ratio of the density of mineral to the density of water
 Special Properties of Minerals:

 magnetism

 electrical properties
 fluorescence and phosphorescence
 radioactivity
 temperature of fusion
 optical property
SOIL
 Soil refers to the mixture of weathered rock fragments, mineral grains,
organic debris and moisture. It is the natural medium in which land plants
grow, due to the rock and mineral matter, organic matter and dissolved water
and air present in it.
 Soil Texture – relative proportions of clay, silt and sand in a soil. Texture
strongly influence the soils ability to retain and transmit water and air
 Soil Profile – a vertical section through a soil showing its succession of
horizons and the underlying parent material
 Soil Horizon – a layer of soil that has identifiable characteristics produced
by chemical weathering and other soil – forming processes.
FACTORS THAT HASTEN SOIL FORMATION:
 Climate – particularly warmer temperatures and greater
moisture and less steep slopes
 Soil content – some plants and animals furnish organic
matter; earthworms and burrowing animals act to provide
passage of water and air through the soil
 Slope of the land – especially the presence of water systems
like streams and rivers in bottom lands
 Parent material – mineral composition that weathers easily
can produce more soil in shorter time.
TYPES OF SOIL
 sand – derived from weathering of rocks such as granite,
made up of tiny particles of dust
 silt – very small rock composition with some part sandy;
poor absorbent of water and if does, it dries quickly
 clay – produced when certain minerals are weathered in the
presence of water
 loam – mixture of sand and silt with a very small amount of
clay; best suited to support plant life due to its moisture
characteristics and nutrient storage ability
 humus – good soil, mostly rich in nutrients; from decayed
remains of animals and plants, like decayed leaves
SOIL TRIANGLE
Thank You
and GOD BLESS…

Observe cleanliness &

Be safe all the time…
 Diastrophism – the processes by which the earth’s
crust is deformed. This include the uplift and folding
of mountains, faulting and other processes by which
the earth’s crust is deformed.
 Classification of Earth’s Movements:
 uplift – either a local or a wide spread rising of the
crust
 subsidence – occurs when the earth’s crust sinks
 thrust – a horizontal motion of the crust
Earth’s External Processes:
 Weathering – disintegration and
decomposition of rock at or near the
earth’s surface.
 Mass Wasting – transfer of rock
material down slope under the influence
of gravity
 Erosion – incorporation and
transportation of material by a mobile
agent usually water, wind or ice