Basic review of the Earth

The Earth: its origin, Age, Components, structure

Origin of the earth
• Nebular Hypothesis :
The first version of the nebular hypothesis was proposed in 1755 by the
German philosopher Immanuel Kant and modified in 1796 by Pierre Laplace.
It explains the formation of stars and planets. According to this theory, a
rotating nebula, somewhere during the rotation, cooled and contracted,
flattening into a disc shape with an increasing concentration of mass at the
center.
The matter in the disc condensed into planets, their moons, asteroids and
comets(Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system
composed of dust, rock and ices), while the great mass at the center became
the sun with the passage of time.
Planetesimal hypothesis
• The Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis was proposed in 1905
by geologist Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin and astronomer Forest Ray
Moulton to describe the formation of the Solar System. It was proposed as
a replacement for the Laplacian version of the nebular hypothesis that had
prevailed since the 19th century.
• The sun existed before the formation of planets
• A star came close to the sun
• Because of the gravitation pull of the star, small gaseous bodies were
separated from the sun
• These small bodies called planetesimals condensed over a period of time to
form planets.
• The planets collided over time and more planets with their moons were
formed.
Gaseous tidal hypothesis
• Jeans and Jeffrey proposed the theory in 1925
• Large star came near the sun. due to gravitational pull a gaseous tide
was raised on the surface of the sun.
• As the star came nearer, the tide increased in size.
• Gaseous tide detached when star moved away.
• The shape of the tide was like spindle.
• It broke into pieces-forming nine planets of the solar system.
Binary star hypothesis
• Proposed by Lyttleton in 1938.
• According to this theory, before the formation of planets, the sun was
a twin star system i.e., the sun had a composition star. Another star
approached close to these double stars and dragged the companion
star away.
• A gaseous filament was torn from the companion star and it
remained close to the sun. the planets were originated from the
gaseous filaments in the same ways as described in gaseous tidal
hypothesis.
Age of the Earth
• 4.543 billion years
1. From evolutionary change of animals: ( from the study of fossils,
1,000 million years)
2. From the rate of sedimentation( rate of sedimentation and
thickness of strata deposited during the geological history, 510
million years)
3. From salinity of sea water (120 million years)
4. From rate of cooling of earth (kelvin estimated the age of the earth
from temperature difference between initial molten planet and its
present state, 20-40 million years)
5. Radiometric dating

• Radiometric dating is “A radioactive parent isotope decays into a stable

daughter isotope at a constant rate”.
• The age of the rocks and minerals that contain radioactive isotope is
determined by measuring the accumulation of daughter isotopes into
them.
• The method which are commonly used for dating rocks include potassium.
Argon method, Rubidium-Strontium method and uranium- Lead method.
• Age of rock= 3.323T log10(1+ Nd/Np)
Nd= number of atoms present in daughter isotope.
Np= number of atoms of the parent isotope present today
T= half-life of radioactive substance
The age of the earth was found to be 4600 million years by this method.
Components of earth
1. The atmosphere: it is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the earth. It
consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of other gases.
2. The biosphere: it is the layer of the planet earth where life exists.
3. The geosphere: it includes all minerals, rocks, molten rocks,
sediments and soils, landforms that shape the earth´s surface.
4. The hydrosphere: it includes, the ocean, rivers, lakes, stream,
groundwater and water vapour of the earth.
5. The cryosphere: the frozen part of the earth system like snow,
glaciers and sea ice.
Structure of the earth
1. External structure: Earth is a terrestrial planet with rocky body. The shape
of the earth is approximately a sphere flattened along the axis from pole
such that there is a bulge around the equator. The rocks found on the
earth´s surface are made up of less denser materials than those forming
the rocks at interior of the earth.
2. Internal structure of the earth: on the basis of relative position, density,
composition and study of seismic waves there are three types layers of the
earth.
a. Crust
b. Mantle
c. Core
Crust
• The outermost layer of the earth is the crust. It is also the surface of
the earth. It composed of thin layer of rocks.
• The crust has an average thickness of 33km and it is thickest at mount
Everest and thinnest at Mariana Trench.
• The crust is two types; a. continental and b. oceanic crust.
• The oceanic crust is mainly composed of basaltic igneous rocks,
mainly of silica and magnesium and also called SIMA.
• The continental crust is composed of crystalline and granitic rocks
mainly of silica and aluminium and also called SIAL.
• The crust – mantle boundary is also known as “Mohorivicic
Discontinuity” where seismic waves bounce and refract.
The mantle
• It is located beneath the earth´s crust, composed mainly of iron and
magnesium silicates.
• Mantle is also where most of the internal heat of the earth is located
and has a thickness of about 2900km.
• It can be subdivided into four layers;
1. Lithosphere (70- 100 km)
2. Asthenosphere (100-350km)
3. Upper mantle (350- 670 km)
4. Lower mantle (670-2900 km)
• The lithosphere is a layer that includes the crust and the upper part
most portion of the mantle. It has a part of the tectonic plates that
cover surface of the earth.
• Asthenosphere is the top layer of the upper mantle 100- 200km below
surface. It is a low seismic velocity zone where rocks are at or near
melting point. It also has a part of tectonic plates.
• The upper mantle is made up of mostly olivine and pyroxene(
iron/magnesium silicates), calcium and aluminium.
• The lower mantle is probably mostly silicon, magnesium and oxygen
with some iron, calcium and aluminium.
• The boundary between the semi rigid inner mantle and the molten
outer core is called “Guttenberg Discontinuity” where velocity of p-
waves abruptly reduced and S- waves disappear.
The core
• The core is a hot and liquid layer comprising mainly of nickel and
(liquid) iron. Therefore it is referred as nife layer.
• The core is divided into two layers a. outer core and b. inner core.
• Outer core contain lighter elements such as Si, S, C
• The outer core ranges from 2900km to 5150km and is 2300 km thick.
The outer core is assumed to be liquid because S- waves do not pass
through it.
• The inner core is mostly made of solid iron and has little amount of
nickel. It ranges from 5150-6370 km and is nearly 1200 km thick.
• The inner core is assumed to be solid because P- waves pass through it
at a higher velocity.
Geological time scale, origin and evolution of
life
Physical features of the earth surface
• Continental features;
features related to a continent are called continental features. It refers to
very large landmass of the earth. Mountain, plateau and shields are
some continental features.
1.Mountain:
It is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a
limited area, usually in the form of a peak. Mountains are formed
through tectonic force or volcanism. Mountains are generally steeper
than a hill. Mountain erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather
conditions and glaciers.
Plateau
• It is an area of highland, usually consisting of relatively flat terrain that is
raised significantly above the surrounding area, often with one or more
sides with steep slopes.
• It has larger summit area than a mountain
Formation of plateau:
Upwelling of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava and erosion by water and
glaciers.
When magma rises up from mantle towards the earth´s crust but fails to break
through the crust, then a section of the earth´s crust is raised to give to a
plateau.
Plateau can be built up by lava spreading outward from cracks and weak area
in the crust.
Water can erode mountains and other landforms to form plateaus. Plateaus
can be formed by the erosional process on mountain ranges.
Classification of plateau (according surrounding environment)
1. Intermontane plateau
The word intermontane means between mountains. The plateaus which
are bordering the mountain ranges or are partly or fully enclosed within
them are the intermontane plateaus.
They have nearly horizontal rock layers which are raised due to vertical
movements of the earth. Examples: the plateau of Tibet
2. Dissected plateaus:
It is a plateau area that has been severely eroded so that the relief is
sharp. Dissected plateaus are distinguishable from orogenic mountain
belts by the lack of folding, metamorphism, extensive faulting that
accompanies mountain building (orogeny).
Volcanic plateaus
• It is produced by the volcanic activity. They are two main types; lava plateaus and pyroclastic
plateaus.
• Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid basaltic lava during numerous successive eruptions
through numerous vents without violent explosions.
• Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are produced by massive pyroclastic flows and they are underlain by
pyroclastic rocks. Example ; Deccan plateau
Piedmont plateaus
• Plateaus which is situated at the foot of a mountain and is locked on the other side
by a plain or sea/ocean is called as a piedmont plateau. The word piedmont means
foot of a mountain.
• They are also called as plateaus of denudation as the area once were high to the
level of mountains; have now been reduced to the foot level of the mountain by
various agents of erosion. Example; the Malwa plateau , Patagonian plateau in
Argentina .
Continental plateau
• Formed by the crustal movement of the tectonic plates. The tectonic movements cause a huge
portion of the surface to rise. Example; plateaus of western Australia.
• They are formed either by an extensive continental upliftment or by the spread of horizontal basic
lava (less viscous) sheets completely covering the original topography.
• This kind of plateaus shows an abrupt elevation in contrast to the nearby lowland or sea (i.e. more
steepness on sides).
• The Continental Plateaus are also known as Plateaus of Accumulation.
• Examples: Plateau of Maharashtra is an example of the continental plateau.
Shield
• A large region exposed basement rocks commonly with a vary gentle
convex surface, surrounded by sediments is called shield. Shields are
mostly formed due to volcanic activities.
• Section B
Oceanic features
1. Abyssal fan;
Underwater geological structures associated with large scale sediment deposition. Formed by
turbidity current.
2. Abyssal plain;
Vast, flat, sediment covered areas of deep ocean floor. Located between foot of continental rise and
mid ocean ridge.
3. Archipelago:
A group of islands usually found in open sea. It is formed by erosion or result of volcanic activity.
4. Peninsula: a strip of land surrounded by water on three sides but connected to mainland on the
fourth side
5. Island: an area of land surrounded by water from all sides.
6. Coral reef: an erosion resistant composed of compacted coral skeletons. coral reef is an
underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies
of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals,
whose polyps cluster in groups
Plate tectonic
• The global distribution of geological phenomenon such as seismicity, volcanism,
continental drift and formation of mountain, destruction, movement and interaction of
earth´s lithospheric plates.
• The theory states that the earth´s outermost layer, the lithosphere is broken into 7 large,
rigid pieces called plates: the African, north American, south American, Eurasian,
Australian, Antarctic and pacific plates. Several minor plates also exist including the
Arabian, Nazca and Philippines plates.
• The plate slide over a partially molten plastic layer called as asthenosphere; which occurs
below the lithosphere in the upper mantle at depth between 100-200 km.
• Concepts in the theory of plate tectonic includes;
a. The ocean floors are continuously moving, spreading from the centre, sinking at the
edges and being regenerated.
b. The main driving force of plate tectonics is gravity. However, convection currents
beneath the plate are also responsible for plate movements.
c. The source of energy responsible for generating the heat and convection currents that
move the plates is most likely the radioactivity, that takes place deep in the earth´s
mantle.
Types of plate boundaries

1. Convergent plate boundaries (Destructive plate boundaries)

.It occurs when two plates move towards each other and collide.
.Crust is destroyed by the subduction of denser plate under the less
denser plate.
. Subduction zone occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are
composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate is subducted underneath
the less dense plates. The plate being forced under is eventually melted
and destroyed.
Geographical features at convergent plate
boundaries
1. Where oceanic crust meets oceanic crust:
Island arcs an, oceanic trenches and active seafloor spreading can also
occur behind the island arc (known as back arc basin).
They are often associated with submarine volcanoes.
2. Where oceanic crust meets continental crust:
The denser oceanic plate is sub ducted, often forming a mountain
range on the continent. Example Andes mountains of south Africa.
3. Where continental crust meets continental crust:
a collision between two continental plates crunches and folds the rock
at the boundary, lifting it up and leading to the formation of mountain.
Example; Nepal Himalayas
2. Divergent plate boundaries(constructive
plate boundaries)
• When two plate move away from each other, magma rises up from
the mantle to form new crust.
Geographical features at divergent plate boundaries;
1. On land ; rift valleys (linear shaped lowland between several
highlands )
2. Under the sea; mid- oceanic ridge
Transform plate boundaries
• When two plates slide past each other, crust is neither created nor
destroyed.
• The relative motion of plates are horizontal. It can occur under water
or on land. Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past
each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates and when it
exceeds the threshold of rocks, the energy is released causing
earthquake.
Mountain building process(orogeny)
• Orogeny is the process of mountain-building. It takes place when two tectonic
plates come together. Orogens develop while a continental plate is crumpled and
thickened to form mountain ranges, and involve a great range of
geological processes collectively called orogenesis.
• The Himalaya range began to form between 40-50 million years ago when the
Indian plate moving northwards collided with the Eurasian plate.
• The Eurasian plate was partly crumpled and bucked up above the Indian plate but
due to their low density/high buoyancy, neither continental plate could be sub
ducted below the other.
• In this cause continental crust to thicken up due to folding and faulting by
compressional forces.
• Around 20 million years ago, the Tethys sea disappeared and the sediment rising
from its seabed led to the formation of Himalayas. The Himalayas are still rising
by more than 1 cm per year.
Types of mountains
Fold mountains
• Mountain ranges mainly consisting of uplifted folded sedimentary rocks are
called Fold Mountains.
• They are formed due to the force of compression arising from
the endogenic or internal forces.
• Synclines (trough) and anticlines (crest) are part of Fold Mountains.
• The Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies in North America,
and the Andes in South America are the most prominent fold mountains of
the world.
• Since these mountain ranges were formed during the most recent
mountain building period, they are also known as Young Fold Mountains.
Fault block mountain
• Block Mountains are also formed by the internal or endogenic earth
movements which cause the force of tension and faulting.
• The down-lifting or uplifting of land in between two parallel faults
results in the formation of Block Mountains.
• A block mountain is also called as Horst and the rift valley formed as a
result of faulting is called Graben.
• Examples: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest
Mountains in Germany etc. are typical examples of Block Mountains.
Volcanic mountains or accumulated mountains
• The mountains formed by the accumulation of volcanic materials are
called as Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of accumulation.
• Examples: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Island, Mount Popa in
Myanmar, Fuji Yama in Japan are some example.
Dome mountains

• These mountains are formed when a great amount of melted

rock(magma) pushes its way up under the earth´s crust, but it never
actually reaches the surface and erupts.
• Without actually erupting the surface, the magma pushes up the
overlying rock layers. Once the magma cools, it creates a large dome
of harder rock under the surface.
Assignment
1. Define plate tectonics. Define features of the earth surface.
2. Describe plate boundary. How is mountain formed?
3. Mention any three evidence of plate tectonic.
4. Explain the process of formation of fault block mountain.
5. Define plateau and its classification.
6. Describe briefly the internal structure of the earth.
7. Write short notes on:
a. Nebular hypothesis
b. Gaseous tidal hypothesis
c. Radiometric dating
d. Shield
e. Oceanic feature
8. Difference between convergent plate boundary and divergent plate boundary.
9. Mountain building process.