Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287

www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Origin of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in Southeastern China:

implications for lithosphere subduction and
underplating of mafic magmas
X.M. Zhou *, W.X. Li
Department of Earth Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China

Received 6 May 1999; accepted for publication 12 May 2000

Abstract

On the basis of geological, geochemical and geophysical data of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE China, we
suggest that during the period from 180 to 80 Ma, the slab dip angle of Paleo-Pacific plate subduction underneath
SE China increased from a very low angle to a median angle. Consequently, magmatic activity of the SE China
continental margin migrated oceanward to the southeast. Initially, magmatism was concentrated in the region as far
as 800~1000 km northwest of the ocean–continent boundary zone, which is located in the eastern flank of the Central
Ranges, Taiwan. As the slab dip angle increased, this magmatic belt migrated rapidly to the region only 100–200 km
away from this boundary zone. During subduction process, various degrees of mantle wedge melting and basaltic
underplating provided the necessary heat to cause partial melting of lower- and middle- crust, and generation of
voluminous felsic magmas. A combination of these processes is responsible for the formation of the famous Yanshanian
granitoids, volcanic rocks and related ore deposits in SE China. Mantle input may have played an important role in
sustaining magma fractionation and eventually leads to release of magmatic fluids and formation of world class W,
Sn and other types of ore deposits in SE China. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Late Mesozoic igneous rocks; Southeastern China; subduction; underplating

1. Introduction For more than half a century, Chinese geologists

Late Mesozoic igneous rocks occur over a vast
area in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangdong
Provinces of Southeastern (SE ) China on the
western Pacific margin. The total outcrop area is
240 000 km2, amounting to 39% of the total area
of four provinces (613 000 km2). Among these
rocks, granites and rhyolites account for nearly
50% each, whereas gabbros and basalts are rare,
and diorites and andesites are even less common.
* Corresponding author. Fax: +86-25-3307965.
E-mail address: xzhou@nju.edu.cn ( X.M. Zhou)
have undertaken studies on the granitoids in SE
China, and a wealth of data were published. In
the middle of the 1940s, it was realized that the
granitoid occurrence was not limited to the Late
Mesozoic. They were also emplaced during other
geological times (Huang, 1945). Later, a multi-
cycle geological framework was established for the
granitoids ( Xu et al., 1960, 1963; Mai and Xie,
1980; Cheng, 1994). These studies also classified
the genetic types of granitoids, confirmed the exis-
tence of continental margin-type chain volcanoes,
and identified various associated ore deposits,
which has contributed significantly to the develop-

0040-1951/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 0 4 0- 1 9 51 ( 0 0 ) 0 01 2 0 -7
270 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
ment of Chinese mining industry ( The Institute of
Geochemistry Academia Sinica, 1979; The
Geological Department of Nanjing University,
1981; The Granitoid Research Group of the
Nanling Project Ministry of Geology and Mineral
Rersource, 1989; Xie et al., 1996). Since the 1970s
a number of geochemical and isotopic studies were
carried out, with emphasis on the nature of the
deep crust and the origin of igneous rocks (Jahn
et al., 1976, 1990; Huang et al., 1986; Shen et al.,
1989; Yuan and Zhang, 1992; Martin et al., 1994;
Lapierre et al., 1997; Chen and Jahn, 1998; Hong
et al., 1998). Despite the above detailed studies,
many uncertainties and controversies still remain
on the origin and petrogenesis of the igneous rocks
and their tectonic implications. In this paper we
review the existing basic data regarding the Late
Mesozoic geology, petrology, geochemistry and
geophysics in SE China, and propose a comprehen-
sive model for the Mesozoic tectono-magmatic
evolution in the region. We consider that a combi-
nation of lithosphere subduction and underplating
of mafic magmas is the major mechanism responsi-
ble for the origin of Late Mesozoic granitoids in
SE China.
2. Some basic observations
In the following, we will summarize and com-
ment on some basic observations on Late Mesozoic
igneous rocks in SE China.
(1) Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE China
spread across a 600 km wide zone, parallel to the
coastline of SE China. Volcanic rocks occur only
in the eastern part of this belt ( Fig. 1), and the
western border of this volcanic belt is located at
about 450 km away from the coastline. This west-
ern border line is named the ‘volcanic line’ in
Fig. 2.
(2) Igneous rocks in SE China fall into two
main age groups, namely, Early Yanshanian (180–
140 Ma; J –J ) and Late Yanshanian (140–97 Ma;
2 3
K ). In some areas, the Late Yanshanian group
1
may also include rocks as young as ca. 79 Ma
(Martin et al., 1994; Lan et al., 1995b). Three
magmatic provinces corresponding to the early
stage of Early Yanshanian (180–160 Ma), late
stage of Early Yanshanian (160–140), and Late
Yanshanian (140–90 Ma), respectively, can be
established (Fig. 2). A clear younging trend
toward the coast can be seen in Fig. 1. In other
words, magmatic activity was migrating south-
eastward (oceanward) at a rate of 150–200 km in
20 Ma or 0.75–1 cm per year. It is also likely that
the migration was episodic rather than continuous.
(3) The Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE
China consist predominantly of granite and rhyo-
lite with an outcrop area of more than 95% of
igneous rocks of this age. The proportion of vol-
canic rocks increases oceanward. The rock assem-
blages can be summarized as follows:
$ Based on aluminum saturation indices (ASI ),
molar ratio of Al O /(CaO+Na O+K O), for
2 3 2 2
108 granitoid bodies ( Table 1, based on 357
samples), Mesozoic granitoids in SE China fall
mainly into moderately peraluminous (ASI=
1.0–1.1) and metaluminous (ASI=1.0–0.9)
groups, accounting for 78% of the felsic rocks.
These two types of rocks occur all over the
region, but appear to be more widespread in
the coastal region. They are predominantly of
calc-alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline series.
Strongly peraluminous (ASI>1.1) granitoids
consist of muscovite granite and two-mica gran-
ites, which occur mainly in the inland area,
especially in the west of Wuyi Mountain Ranges,
e.g. on both sides of Luoxiao and Zhuguang
Mountains (Fig. 2 ). Rocks of this type were
formed during early Yanshanian as small spo-
radic and isolated plutons. They commonly
contain Fe and Mn-rich garnet instead of cordi-
erite. Chemically, they are high in SiO and
2
Na O, with K O>Na O. Their volcanic equiva-
2 2 2
lents are rare. These peraluminous granites are
entirely different from the cordierite-bearing
S-type granites in the Lachlan Fold Belt,
Australia, but somewhat similar to the peralumi-
nous granites in west United states ( White et al.,
1986; Barbarin, 1996).
$ Small amounts of gabbros and basalts were
found to coexist with both early and late
Yanshanian metaluminous granites or rhyolites.
Early Yanshanian granite-gabbro or rhyolite-
basalt assemblages are distributed mainly in the
Nanling Mountains ( Figs. 1 and 2), whereas
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
those of the Late Yanshanian, mainly in the
coastal region, occurring as calc-alkaline–
high-K calc-alkaline complexes or composite
lava flows on large scales. They were considered
to be derived by mixing between an underplated
basaltic magma and a granitic magma (Zhou
et al., 1994a,b,c; Dong et al., 1997).
$ A small number of late-stage A-type granites
(including riebeckite/aegirine-bearing alkali
granites, garnet-bearing, moderately peralumi-
nous granite, Wang et al., 1995; Hong et al.,
1998), and F- and Cl-rich granites (Liu et al.,
1995) were also found to be associated with
calc-alkaline granitoid complexes. They are
mainly metaluminous to moderately peralumi-
nous. The intimate spatial and temporal rela-
tionships between the minor A-type and the
major calc-alkaline suites suggest that they could
be genetically related (Collins et al., 1991; Wang
and Wu, 1999; Li and Zhou, in press). The
latest-stage Yanshanian magmatic activity is
characterized by the scattered intrusion of
diabase/lamprophyre dikes (Lan et al., 1995a).
(4) There are several occurrences of basalts and
mafic dykes in rift basin. These mafic rocks have
high TiO contents and Nb/La close to 1.0, con-
2
siderably higher than subduction-related mafic
rocks, suggesting that they were generated in an
intraplate environment. However, they are com-
monly enriched in elements (Ba, K, Rb, Th, U,
etc.), which are enriched in subduction related
rocks, suggesting mantle sources previously modi-
fied by subduction processes. These rocks are likely
to occur in an intraplate rift and/or in a back-arc
environment (Li et al., 1997; Li, 1999, in press).
(5) Two types of sedimentological sequences
occur in the study area:
$ The sedimentary rocks occur as interlayers
within volcanic formations. Their thickness is
variable, usually making less than one-fifth of
the total thickness. They include varicolored
mudstones, sandstones with rare thin coal mea-
sures, illustrating terrigeneous sedimentary
environments
$ Sedimentary rocks formed in isolated deposi-
tional basins on relatively large scales. These
basins show an eastward younging trend from
J to E, with most of them essentially developing
3
271
in K . They occur basically west of the volcanic
2
zone of the coastal region in SE China and
cover more than 40 000 km2 in total area. Thus,
they can yield the characteristics of a back-arc
basin. These basins are composed of red clastic
rocks with layers of marl, gypsum, and evapo-
rites, sometimes interlayered with basalts.
(6) The oldest basement complex, which is com-
posed of metamorphic rocks of greenschist and
amphibolite facies in SE China, was formed during
the Early–Middle Proterozoic. Plagioclase amphib-
olites and granitic gneisses within the complex
were dated at 1.80.2 Ga, based on single-grain
zircon U–Pb and Sm–Nd whole-rock isochron
methods. These rocks occur in Xingzi group of
Lushan Mountain in Jiangxi Province (Li et al.,
1998), Badu Group of Longquan and Jingning,
Zhejiang Province (Gan et al., 1995) and Jianou
Group of Jianyang, Fujiang Province ( Yuan et al.,
1991). Nd depleted-mantle model ages for the Late
Mesozoic granitoids and rhyolites vary dramati-
cally in the range of 1.0–2.0 Ga, peaking at
1.60.3 Ga (Shen et al., 2000), suggesting a complex
history in the magmatic source. The Nd model
ages for 143 granite and volcanic rock samples
from Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangxi provinces (Shen
et al., 2000), appear to define several isolated low
T regions or bands ( Fig. 2). The low T bands
DM DM
are concentrated in the Zhejiang–Fujian coastal
area, eastern section of the Nanling Mountains,
the Lean-Hangzhou Line, and the northern section
of Wuyi Mountain Ranges. Both low T regions
DM
and low T bands are unrelated to either ages of
DM
rocks or tectonic zones. A possible explanation for
the origin of the parental magma of the granitoid
and rhyolite with low T involves not only partial
DM
melting of Proterozoic crust but also mixing of
mantle-derived basaltic magmas. Mixing of
mantle-derived magmas can be responsible for a
lower average T . Our study discussed in
DM
a previous section tends to support this
interpretation.
(7) The lithosphere profile of the four provinces,
as revealed by artificial seismic profiles, micro-
seismic records, magnetotelluric sounding profiles
(MT ) and geothermal flux measurements, can be
briefly summarized as follows ( Fig. 3. Yuan et al.,
1989; Bian et al., 1993; Wang et al., 1993).
272 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
$ The depth of Moho varies from 28 to 34 km,
and the crust thins oceanward.
$ The thickness of the lithosphere in the south
Jiangxi province and north Guangdong prov-
ince is approximately 100 km. It decreases east-
ward to 60 km, especially in the Yongan-Dehua
area, and then rapidly increases to over 180 km
along the coast of Fuzhou to Xiamen. In this
thickened region, a high-conductivity layer
showing an asthenospheric property and anom-
alously low electric resistivity (8–50 Vm) was
found to be sandwiched between solid-phase,
high-resistance lithospheric mantle layers. The
geotectonic interpretation of this observation is
controversial. One explanation is that the high
conductivity layer represents the suture of
ancient plates, whereas the upper and lower
high-resistance layers are the relics of obducted
and subducted plates, respectively. An alterna-
tive model considers that this phenomenon is
related to mantle delamination in the Cenozoic.
Other independent geological and geochemical
observations, especially the oceanwardly zonal
migration of igneous rocks with time in the Late
Mesozoic, appear to be more consistent with
underplating of the subducted oceanic litho-
sphere in the Mesozoic followed by lithospheric
delamination in more reccent times. In addition,
the thickened lithosphere in the Fuzhou–
Xiamen coastal district is also verified by a low
geothermal flux (40.6–54 mW/m2, significantly
lower than the global average value of
61.6 mW/m2) and seismic profiles of Fujian and
Taiwan ( Yuan et al., 1989; Wang et al., 1993).
$ On the eastern side of the Wuhan-Guangzhou
railway line, a low-velocity zone of 3–5 km in
thickness was found to exist in the middle crust
at a depth of 10–15/20 km, with a V value of
P
only 5.5–6.1 km/s, lower than that of overlying
sequence ( Yuan et al., 1989; Wang et al., 1993).
Its Q value is also low, about 40–100. This
P
low-velocity zone, which is associated with the
hot-spring field zone on the surface, is probably
a ductile shear zone. The heat energy of the
hot-water field may be derived from the low-
velocity zone within the crust, namely the high
heat conductivity body. It seems to be unrelated
to Mesozoic magmatic activity.
3. Model
No geological evidence exists for a Late
Mesozoic mantle plume in SE China. There is no
evidence for the eruption of voluminous flood
basalts or existence of large mafic dyke swarm,
rift-forming and associated topographic uplift by
1–2 km over a large area on a scale of ca. 1000–
2000 km in diameter (Sleep, 1990; Hill et al., 1992;
Parsons et al., 1994). Therefore, a mantle plume
model is not feasible for the origin of igneous
rocks in SE China. The lack of large-scale crust
thickening, as in the case in Tibet, also precludes
a model involving delamination of the lithospheric
mantle following continental collision ( Kay and
Kay, 1993).
A model of continental rifting and basin forma-
tion caused by collision between Indochina and
South China during the Early Mesozoic has been
proposed for the generation of Late Mesozoic
felsic igneous activities in SE China (Gilder et al.,
1991; Li, 1999, in press). It is necessary to point
out that without the involvement of water or a
high-temperature mantle plume, the lithosphere of
the rifted basins needs to be stretched really thin
to allow a large amount of basaltic magma to be
generated at a lower pressure from the asthenosph-
ere and lithosphere mantle. In the absence of a
large amount of heat input from the basaltic
magma, crustal melting has to be induced by a
raised geotherm through thinning and/or delami-
nation of the lithospheric mantle and heat gener-
ated in the crust. It is interesting to note that
Cenozoic intraplate basaltic volcanism in eastern
China has not induced the formation of a large
amount of felsic igneous rocks. Similarly, the colli-
sion between India and Eurasia about 50 Ma ago
has resulted in a large tectonic movement in SE
China, Indochina and basin formation in China.
There is not much associated felsic volcanic activity
either. Thus, one can reasonably argue that even
if rifting is an important tectonic process during
the Mesozoic in SE China, without the help of
dehydration of the subducted lithosphere, it is
unlikely to generate the huge amount of Late
Mesozoic felsic igneous rocks in SE China. Wet
melting in the mantle wedge may be the key factor
responsible for generating the huge amount of
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287 273

Table 1
Compilation of isotopic ages of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks from SE Chinaa

Peraluminous Metaluminous Totals of Numbers of

bodies samples
>1.1 1.1~1.0 1.0~0.9

S-type I-type

Early-Yenshanian (180~160 Ma) Numbers of bodies 10 12 3 25 118

Percentages 40% 48% 12%
(160~140 Ma) Numbers of bodies 8 14 14 36 110
Percentages 22% 39% 39%
Late-Yenshanian (140~90 Ma) Numbers of bodies 7 18 22 47 129
Percentages 15% 38% 47%
22% 42% 36% 108 357

a The aluminum saturation index is A/CNK=Al O /(CaO+Na O+K O) (mole).

2 3 2 2

Late Mesozoic felsic igneous rocks in SE China.
It is conceivable that the rifting process caused by
the collision between Indochina and South China
has complemented the subduction process, which
we consider to be the main cause for generating
widespread Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE
China.
Besides, unless there is a yet described mecha-
nism none of the mantle plume, lithosphere delami-
nation and continent rifting models can explain
the temporal distribution and the migration of
Late Mesozoic magmatism and the widespread
coexistence of peraluminous and metaluminous
granitoids. We propose that the origin of Late
Mesozoic igneous rocks can be best explained in
terms of interplay between slab subduction and
underplating of mantle-derived magma. This integ-
rated model is illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5. They
show subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate, called
the Kuala plate ( Uyeda and Miyashiro, 1974),
underneath the continental plate of China during
the Mid-late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous,
accompanied by underplating of basaltic magmas,
partial melting of the lower crust and generation
of voluminous felsic magmas. Three key issues will
be discussed below.
3.1. Location of paleo-suture
Prior to discussion about lithosphere subduc-
tion and underplating of mafic magmas, it is
necessary to identify the location of the paleo-
suture zone. One group of researchers proposes
that the palaeo-suture is located in the vicinity of
Zhejiang and Fujian coastline at a water depth of
40–60 m (Guo et al., 1980; Wang et al., 1993).
This is based on the presence in the area of a
hypothetical thick-skin thrust zone down to mantle
depths, and the occurrence of 10 strong historical
earthquakes recorded at 5–8 on the Richter scale.
The other group, consisting mainly of geologists
in Taiwan, claims that the ocean–continent suture
is represented by the Yuli belt of Tananao
Basement Complex in the east flank of Central
Ranges in Taiwan ( Yen, 1963; Biq, 1971). The
sedimentary environment of the original rocks was
mainly of the trench type for the Yuli belt (Biq,
1971). Blue schists and ophiolite complexes were
found in this high-pressure, low-temperature belt.
Amphibole and omphacite separated from glauco-
phane schists and the omphacite-bearing rocks
yield 40Ar/39Ar ages of 110–100 Ma (Lo and Yui,
1996). It was found that there are 92–79 Ma old
granites (Jahn et al., 1986; Lan et al., 1990, 1995b)
in the west of the Yuli belt, and these granites and
the low-grade metamorphic rocks constitute a low-
pressure, high-temperature metamorphic belt,
namely the Tailuge belt. Also, there is a low-
pressure, high-temperature metamorphic belt con-
sisting of andalusite schist and sillimanite schist
with metamorphic ages of 118 the 107 Ma
(40Ar/39Ar ages of muscovite, biotite and amphi-
bole, five samples: Wang and Lu, 1997) in the
Changle-Nanao belt of the SE China coastal area.
274 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287

Fig. 1. Distribution of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in SE China (compiled after 1:200 000 geological map series for four provinces
and isotopic dating data selected from publications over the last 20 years).

It is not clear whether or not these two low-
pressure, high-temperature metamorphic zones
mentioned above belonged to the same zone before
the Taiwan Strait was formed. All the above-
mentioned tectonomagmatic and metamorphic
events in Taiwan are contemporaneous with those
of SE China in the Late Mesozoic. We would
support the idea that the paleo-suture is located
in the east flank of the Central Range, Taiwan.
3.2. Change of subduction angle
The fact that magmatic belts in SE China
migrated progressively oceanward from J to K
2 1
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287 275

Fig. 2. Provincial distribution and temporal migration of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks and Nd T contours in SE China [age
DM
provinces and T contours after Fig. 1 and Shen et al. (2000)].
DM

(Figs. 1 and 2) is consistent with the idea of wedge, generally occurs at depths of around 110–
increasing subduction angles. It is because slab 200 km ( Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995). The width of
dehydration involving amphibole, chlorite and the dehydration zone corresponds with the width
phlogopite, which trigger melting in the mantle of magmatism zone. Thus, in this model, we
276 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
Fig. 3. Integrated geophysical section for Taiwan–Fujian–Southern Jiangxi Provinces of China (A–A∞ trace in Fig. 1; M: MOHO; L:
base of lithosphere; compiled after Yuan et al., 1989; Bian et al., 1993; Wang et al., 1993; Lo and Yui, 1996).
postulate that a low subduction angle was responsi-
ble for a broad magmatic arc of SE China in the
mid-Jurassic. With the passage of time, the dip
angle of subduction increased. This point is consis-
tent with decreasing width and south-eastward
migration from J to K of the magmatic arcs with
2 1
time. Until the Cretaceous, the subduction angle,
as indicated by geophysical data, had increased to
the normal values (Fig. 3). This situation is similar
to the situation of the Western United States from
40 to 20 Ma (Lipman et al., 1971; Coney and
Reynolds, 1977; Lipman, 1992). During that
period of time, the initially horizontal subduction,
which resulted in magmatism ~1000 km away
from the trench in Basins and Ranges Province,
shifted to become a more normal one (Parsons
et al., 1994).
3.3. Basalt underplating and generation of
voluminous felsic magmas
A basic fact in SE China during the Yanshanian
is that the voluminous granitoids, including mon-
zogranites, granodiorites, and rhyolites (and ignim-
brites and tuffs that may construct giant calderas
of >400 km2) always coexist with a small amount
of gabbros and basalts. For example, K basalts
1
in at least 20 localities in Zhejiang and Fujian
provinces were found to coexist with rhyolites, but
the thickness for the basaltic layers is usually less
than one-tenth of the total thickness of volcanic
sequences. In the calc-alkaline complexes, the gab-
broic stocks, syn-plutonic dikes and enclaves were
also found to coexist with large granitoid bodies,
showing evidence of magma mixing (Dong et al.,
1998). During magma mixing, isotopic composi-
tions (e.g. Nd, Sr) are more likely to be homoge-
nized than the major elements (Lesher, 1990),
leading to similar e (T ) values within the two
Nd
rock types. For example, e (T ) values of granit-
Nd
oids and basalts for the calc-alkaline complexes of
Pintan and Zhangzhou in the Fujian Province are
−1.52 and −1.28, (Pintan: Dong et al., 1997),
and −4.20 and −3.12 ( Zhangzhou: Zhou et al.,
1994c), respectively. The situation is also the same
for the coexisting basalts and rhyolites. The e
Nd
(T ) values for Xinchang and Ningbo in Zhejiang
province, and Yongtai in Fujian province are
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
Fig. 4. Sketches illustrating Late Mesozoic subduction in SE China (references: Uyeda and Miyashiro, 1974; Parsons et al., 1994;
Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995).
−5.56 and −5.54 ( Xinchang: Zhou et al., 1994),
−4.86 and −5.10 (Ningbo: Yu et al., 1993), and
−2.70 and −3.23 ( Yongtai: Fong et al., 1991),
respectively. Of course, the negative e (T ) values
Nd
of mafic rocks in active continental margin can be
generally explained in that the mafic rocks origi-
nate from enriched mantle wedge and/or the lith-
ospheric mantle, which is metsomatized by the
H O fluid from subducted oceanic crust ( Wilson,
2
1989). This case is probably suitable for mafic
rocks of the Late Mesozoic in SE China.
Volumetrically large felsic magmas were pre-
dominantly being produced by means of partial
melting of the continental crust. There are two
main approaches for inducing partial melting of
crustal materials, i.e. anatexis and the partial melt-
ing induced by underplating of basalt magma with
sufficient heat energy. A study of tectonic stress
field in subduction zones by Nakamura and Uyeda
277
(1980) shows that the stress field in the volcanic
arc (magma arc) is dominated by compressional-
shear stress (strike slip fault), whereas in the fore-
arc and back-arc areas, it is dominated by compres-
sional stress (thrust) and tensional stress (normal
fault), respectively. The compressional-shear stress
regime favors anatexis in mid-crustal depths and
formation of two-mica granite (Barbarin, 1996).
Early Yanshanian garnet-bearing muscovite/two-
mica granites in the inland area might have been
produced by this process. They are not related to
any metamorphic core complex nor to any regional
migmatites. This type of granite is rare in the Late
Yanshanian.
In terms of this subduction model, underplated
basaltic magmas were derived from the mantle
wedge ( Fig. 5). Huppert and Sparks (1988) sug-
gested that more than 90% of such magmas were
repeatedly emplaced in the form of sills or were
278 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
Fig. 5. Model illustration of felsic magma production induced by Late Mesozoic subduction and underplating in SE China (references:
Hildreth, 1981; Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995).
kept in the lower crust (Bergantz, 1989). Only a
small amount erupted to the earth surface (Cull
et al., 1991). This can explain the origin of compos-
ite lavas and the scarcity of mafic rocks in SE
China. The basaltic magma retained in lower
crustal levels was hotter, and its temperature
(approximately 1200°C ) was 600–700°C above the
ambient temperature in the lower crust and there-
fore became the main heat source for partial
melting of the crust. A quantitative model pro-
posed by Huppert and Sparks (1988) predicts that
basalt sills of 10–1500 m in thickness require only
1–270 years to solidify and would release sufficient
heat to partially melt the overlying layer to gener-
ate porphyritic (with restite crystals, xenocrysts)
magmas. A 500 m thick sill at 1200°C can heat
metamorphic rocks up to 850°C, generating a felsic
magma layer of 300–1000 m in thickness. Thus,
they conclude that generation of voluminous gra-
nitic magmas can be induced by underplating of
basaltic magmas. Metaluminous calc-alkaline and
high-K calc-alkaline felsic magmas may be formed
if metamorphic rocks originally of calc-alkaline to
high-K calc-alkaline andesitic–basaltic composi-
tion were heated at lower crustal levels by the
underplating basaltic magmas (Beard and Lofgren,
1991; Roberts and Clemens, 1993). This case coin-
cides with the lithology of igneous rocks in the
coastal area of SE China. In case the anatexis
occurs spontaneously at mid-crustal levels as men-
tioned above, or at the same time the pelitic rocks
were heated by underplating basalts, the peralumi-
nous and metaluminous magmas can coexist. This
case coincides with the situation in the hinterland,
namely in the west area of the Wuyi Mts.
Apart from the occurrences of the granite–
gabbro complexes and the rhyolite–basalt compos-
ite lavas with similar Sr–Nd isotopic signatures,
there are also three other pieces of evidence to
justify the occurrence of basaltic underplating
during Late Mesozoic:
(1) A crust–mantle mixing zone was identified
in Fujian and Jiangxi provinces in the geophysical
profiles ( Fig. 3). Within this zone, the variation
trend of V with depths is reversed ( Wang et al.,
P
1993).
(2) Late Mesozoic gabbroic granulites were rec-
ognized in Qiling of Puning County, Guangdong
Province and Zhangjiakou in the Hebei Province.
They yield a Sm–Nd whole-rock-mineral isochron
age of 112.3±17.8 Ma ( Xu et al., 1999) and single
zircon U–Pb ages of 140–120 Ma (Fan et al.,
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
1998). It is quite possible that they were the
products of basaltic magma underplating and were
brought to the earth surface as xenoliths by the
Cenozoic alkali basalts.
(3) It is confirmed that the geotherm of SE
China is approximately 100°C higher than SE
Australia, based on P–T data derived from 29
analyses of garnet-bearing mafic xenoliths ( Xu
et al., 1996).
All the evidence described above indicates that
basaltic underplating did occur widely in SE China
during Late Mesozoic. This geological process
provided sufficient heat energy for the generation
of voluminous felsic magmas. The process of high-
temperature mafic magma feeding into a layer
fractionating magma chamber may lead to prolong
and extensive magmatic differentiation of the felsic
magma. This process may eventually lead to the
release of magmatic fluids and formation of world-
class W, Sn and other deposits ( U, REE etc.) in
SE China. If this model is applicable, we would
expect the felsic magmas responsible for minerali-
zation to have higher initial e values and younger
Nd
Nd model ages than non-mineralized felsic rocks
in the region (e.g. Sun and Higgins, 1996).
4. Discussion
So far, no reasonable explanation has been
available for the provincial distribution and tempo-
ral migration of Late Mesozoic granitoids and
rhyolites in SE China, and the lack of andesitic
rocks in the sequence. Here, we propose a model,
involving interactions between subduction and
underplating, which appear to be consistent with
most of the factual evidence.
During J –J , along the eastern flank of the
2 3
Central Range, Taiwan, the Paleo-Pacific plate was
subducted underneath the Chinese continent at a
very low angle. Dehydration and partial melting
of the subduction slab caused metasomatism and
partial melting of the mantle wedge at a depth of
110–200 km and generation of basaltic magmas.
A large proportion of these basaltic magmas were
underplated underneath the lower crust, providing
an enormous heat source to partially melt the
metamorphic rocks to generate voluminous felsic
magmas. These massive felsic magmas, together
279
with a small amount of basaltic magmas, were
then intruded into upper crust or erupted to earth
surface, forming granitoid–gabbro complexes and
rhyolite–basalt composite lavas in the Nanling
Mountains during the Early Yanshanian. In the
mean time, sedimentary materials at mid-lower
crustal levels on both sides of the Luoxiao-
Zhuguang Mountains were also partially melted
as a result of the compressional shearing, generat-
ing the muscovite/two-mica garnet-bearing
granites. At this time, a small back-arc basin
represented by a series of continental and oceanic–
continental deposits was formed at the current
location of Hunan Province. The important feature
of magmatism in this period is its great distance
from subduction zone, ranging from 400 to
800~1000 km.
Since the beginning of K , the dip angle of the
1
subduction slab increased, resulting in oceanward
migration of the magmatic zone to the coastal
area of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, and to
Taiwan in K . The corresponding back-arc basin
2
migrated to the Jiangxi province and part of
western Zhejiang, northern Guangdong and the
eastern Hunan provinces, and was split into
numerous small basins where intraplate basalt can
occur. These small basins are represented strati-
graphically by a series of red continental clastic
rocks with an outcrop area of more than
40 000 km2 and a thickness of 9 km. Comparing
with those in Mid-Late Jurassic, basaltic
underplating was more vigorous in the Cretaceous,
producing a large amount of felsic magmas.
Magma mixing between basaltic and felsic end-
members was also widespread in the coastal district
of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. In contrast,
granitic magmas generated purely by anatexis are
much rarer. All the above features are temporally
and spatially correlated with uplift and extension
of the lithosphere mantle in SE China, and the
formation of the Taiwan Strait.
The process of high-temperature mafic magma
feeding into a layered, fractionating magma cham-
ber may lead to prolonged and extensive magmatic
differentiation of the felsic magma and eventually
lead to release of magmatic fluid and ore forma-
tion. Since this mafic magma underplating model
potentially has important implications for ore gen-
esis of some Late Mesozoic super-giant ore depos-
280 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287

its in SE China, further research to evaluate its
validity is highly desirable.
Acknowledgements
X.M.Z. acknowledges the support of five
research grants from the National Natural Science
Foundation (NNSF ) of China since 1985. The
authors also wish to thank Dr. S.S. Sun for his
long-term support, and numerous discussions, sug-
gestions, criticism and encouragement. Finally, we
are grateful to Dr. Jian-Xin Zhao at the University
of Queensland and Dr. Sun for their help in
English improvement. Review comments made by
Prof. B. Bonin and Prof. J.-F. Chen are very
helpful in revising the manuscript. We very much
appreciate their effort.

Appendix A
The isotopic ages of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks from SE China are shown in Table A1.
Table A1
Compilation of isotopic ages of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks from SE Chinaa

No. Location Lithology Age (Ma) Method References

Anhui province
1 Kunshan Syenite 133 Rb–Sr Zhai (1989)
2 Yueshan Quartz diorite 136 40Ar/39Ar Zhou et al. (1988)
3 Qingyang Granodiorite 137 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1985)
4 Jiuhuashan Granite 123 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1985)
5 Yellow Mountain Granite 125 40Ar/39Ar Zhou et al. (1988)
6 Taiping Granodiorite 137 40Ar/39Ar Zhou et al. (1988)
7 Jingde Granodiorite 139 40Ar/39Ar Zhou et al. (1988)
8 Qianxian Granodiorite 140 40Ar/39Ar Zhou et al. (1988)
9 Tanshan Granite 123 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1993)
Zhejiang province
10 Honggong Quartz syenite 124 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1991)
11 Longwangtan Granite 110 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1991)
12 Shantouzheng Quartz diorite 108 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1991)
13 Lianglong Quartz diorite 101 40Ar/39Ar Chen et al. (1991)
14 Qingtian Alkaline granite 101 U–Pb Qiu et al. (1999)
15 Qingtian Granite 115 K–Ar Peng and Dong (1991)
16 Taohuadao Alkaline granite 93 U–Pb Qiu et al. (1999)
17 Putuoshan Granite 94 U–Pb Qiu et al. (1999)
18 Putuoshan Quartz diorite 110 U–Pb Qiu et al. (1999)
19 Tonglu Rhyolite 135 U–Pb Chen et al. (1999)
20 Tonglu Quartz monzonite 134 U–Pb Chen et al. (1999)
21 Jinade Rhyolite 129 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1988)
22 Jiande Rhyolite 128 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1988)
23 Jiande Rhyolite 122 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1988)
24 Tiantai Volcanic rock 122 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
25 Tiantai Volcanic rock 122 40Ar/39Ar Li et al. (1989)
26 Tiantai Volcanic rock 111 K–Ar Li et al. (1989)
27 Tiantai Rhyolite 103 K–Ar Li et al. (1989)
28 Cangkuoshan Rhyolite 132 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
29 Furongshan Rhyolite 127 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
30 Xuantandi Rhyolite 97 Rb–Sr Yu et al. (1991)
31 Xinchang Basalt 96 Rb–Sr Wang et al. (1994)
32 Fenghua Volcanic rock 110 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
33 Yangbin Granite 102 Rb–Sr Shen et al. (1995)
34 Wuyi Rhyolite 135 Rb–Sr Han et al. (1992)
35 Wuyi Basalt 111 K–Ar Han et al. (1992)
36 Wuyi Dacite 97 Rb–Sr Han et al. (1992)
37 Shiqingqiao Syenite 124 Rb–Sr Lapierre et al. (1997)
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287 281

Appendix A Table A1(continued )

No. Location Lithology Age (Ma) Method References

38 Yandangshan Rhyolitic andesite 97 Rb–Sr Lapierre et al. (1997)

Jiangxi province
39 Yanbei Granite 114 Rb–Sr Shen et al. (1995)
40 Tongkengzhang Granite 125 Rb–Sr Shen et al. (1995)
41 Xihuashan Granite 139 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
42 Dajishan Granite 159 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
43 Zengjialong Granite 105 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
44 Damaoshan Granite 146 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
45 Tongchang Granodiorite 93 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
46 Wushan Granodiorite 140 Rb–Sr Gu (1987)
47 Yangchuling Monzogranite 139 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1985)
48 Baoshan Monzogranite 111 Rb–Sr Shen (1988)
49 Nanqiao Granite 131 U–Pb Wu et al. (1992)
50 Nanqiao Quartz syenite 96 U–Pb Wu et al. (1992)
51 Zudong Granite 148 Rb–Sr Huang et al. (1989)
52 Guanxi Granite 176 Rb–Sr Huang et al. (1989)
53 Yashan Granite 181 Rb–Sr Yin et al. (1995)
54 Yashan Granite 178 Rb–Sr Yin et al. (1995)
55 Zhaibei Granite 177 Rb–Sr Chen (1998)
56 Dongkeng Basalt 179 Rb–Sr Chen (1998)
57 Danguanzhang Monzogranite 125 Rb–Sr Chen (1998)
58 Baimianshi Basalt 173 Rb–Sr Chen (1998)
59 Baimianshi Rhyolite 165 Rb–Sr Chen (1998)
60 Yuanling Granite 169 U–Pb Regional Geological Research Party of Jiangxi
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (1984)
61 Pitou Granite 180 K–Ar The Granitoid Research Group of the Nanling
Project Ministry of Geology and Mineral Rersource
(1989)
62 Dajishan Granite 160 Rb–Sr Sun et al. (1989)
63 Dajishan Granite 161 Rb–Sr Sun et al. (1989)
64 Dajishan Monzogranite 167 Rb–Sr Sun et al. (1989)
65 Dakengwei Monzogranite 144 Rb–Sr Regional Geological Research Party of Jiangxi
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (1995)
66 Jiuqu Granite 136 Rb–Sr Regional Geological Research Party of Jiangxi
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (1984)
67 Dongkeng Basalt 176 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
68 Changpu Basalt 176 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
69 Zhongzhai Basalt 160 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
70 Heling Rhyolite 148 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
71 Caifang Rhyolite 154 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
72 Dabatou Rhyolite 140 Rb–Sr Lai and Wang (1996)
73 Yanbei Granite 123 Rb–Sr Mei et al. (1994)
74 Yanbei Granite 104 Rb–Sr Mei et al. (1994)
75 Xiangshan Rhyolite 141 40Ar/39Ar Li et al. (1989)
76 Xiangshan Rhyolite 132 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
77 Yinshan Rhyolitic dacite 132 Rb–Sr Chen et al. (1989)
78 Yinshan Rhyolite 126 Rb–Sr Chen et al. (1989)
79 Xiangshan Rhyolite 136 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
80 Xiangshna Rhyolite 140 U–Pb Chen et al. (1999)
81 Xiangshan Granite 135 U–Pb Chen et al. (1999)
82 Shangqing Volcanic rock 128 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
83 Xinjiang basin Volcanic rock 142 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1991)
84 Xinjiang basin Volcanic rock 148 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1991)
85 Xinjiang basin Volcanic rock 128 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1991)
86 Xinjiang basin Volcanic rock 133 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1991)
282 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287

Appendix A Table A1(continued )

No. Location Lithology Age (Ma) Method References

87 Xinjiang basin Basalt 100 K–Ar Zhang (1991)

Fujian province
88 Jinglong Granite 178 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
89 Donggongxia Granite 121 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
90 Chilu Granite 115 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
91 Xingluokeng Granite 135 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
92 Xingluokeng Granite 146 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
93 Xingluokeng Granite 157 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
94 Xingluokeng Granite 147 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
95 Xingluokeng Granite 143 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
96 Makeng Granite 162 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
97 Tangyang Monzogranite 148 Rb–Sr Li and Lin (1988)
98 Zhongcun Granite 154 Rb–Sr Li and Lin (1988)
99 Wucun Granite 141 Rb–Sr Li and Lin (1988)
100 Xiamen Granite 116 Rb–Sr Li and Lin (1988)
101 Danyang Monzogranite 103 Rb–Sr Martin et al. (1994)
102 Fuzhou Syenite 104 Rb–Sr Martin et al. (1994)
103 Kuiqi Alkaline granite 93 Rb–Sr Martin et al. (1994)
104 Bijiashan Alkaline granite 92 Rb–Sr Martin et al. (1994)
105 Shangfang Gabbro 123 Rb–Sr Zhou et al. (1994c)
106 Changtai Granodiorite 123 Rb–Sr Zhou et al. (1994c)
107 Xincun Granite 97 Rb–Sr Zhou et al. (1994c)
108 Taohuashan Gabbro 107 U–Pb Li et al. (1995)
109 Pingtan Gabbro 115 U–Pb Dong et al. (1997)
110 Pingtan Granite 125 U–Pb Dong et al. (1997)
111 Dongshan Granite 122 U–Pb Tong and Tobisch (1996)
112 Jinmen Granite 101–109 Rb–Sr Jahn et al. (1976)
113 Puchang Volcanic rock 127 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
114 Fuding Volcanic rock 116 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1989)
115 Fengji Rhyolite 104 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
116 Fengji Rhyolite 127 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
117 Yongan Rhyolite 128 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
118 Jianweishan ( lower) Volcanic rock 139 Rb–Sr Wu et al. (1989)
119 Jianweishan (upper) Volcanic rock 110 Rb–Sr Wu et al. (1989)
120 Jianweishan (most upper) Volcanic rock 97 Rb–Sr Wu et al. (1989)
121 Shiniushan (upper) Rhyolite 88 Rb–Sr Feng et al. (1989)
122 Shiniushan Rhyolite 91 Rb–Sr Feng et al. (1989)
123 Shiniushan Granite 88 Rb–Sr Feng et al. (1989)
124 Maoping Rhyolite 130 Rb–Sr Li and Wang et al. (1993)
125 Haoju Dacite 131 Rb–Sr Li and Wang et al. (1993)
126 Shiyuanlong Rhyolite 128 Rb–Sr Li and Wang et al. (1993)
127 Shiyuanlong Trachyte 142 Rb–Sr Li and Wang et al. (1993)
128 Wuyishan Rhyolite 113 Rb–Sr Li and Wang et al. (1993)
129 Chongan basin Volcanic rock 125 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1997)
130 Chongan basin Volcanic rock 122 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1997)
131 Chongan basin Volcanic rock 114 40Ar/39Ar Zhang (1997)
Guangdong province
132 Jiufeng Monzogranite 159 Sm–Nd Ye et al. (1986)
133 Changjiang-Maguqiu Granite 171 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
134 Longwozhen Monzogranite 104 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
135 Qingxi Granite 145 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
136 Qingxi Granite 147 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
137 Luogang Granite 126 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
138 Huangtian Granite 139 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
139 Meilong Granite 180 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287 283

Appendix A Table A1(continued )

No. Location Lithology Age (Ma) Method References

140 Xinjiu Granite 128 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)

141 Xiling Dacite 161 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
142 Xiling Rhyolite 170 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
143 Xiling Rhyolite 132 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
144 Xiling Granite-porphyry 147 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
145 Xiaonanshan Granite 82 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
146 Shilu Granodiorite 122 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
147 Hongling Granite 137 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
148 Hongling Granite 148 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
149 Hongling granite 170 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
150 Lianhuashan Quartz porphyry 136 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
151 Lianhuashan Grantie 137 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
152 shatian Granite 149 Rb–Sr Strange (1997)
153 Jiulong Granite 139 Rb–Sr Strange (1997)
154 Chizhu/Shiao Granite 138 Rb–Sr Strange (1997)
155 Binashan Granite 136 Rb–Sr Strange (1997)
156 Changtan Rhyolite 90 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
157 Liangtian Rhyolite 127 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
158 Guishan Rhyolite 124 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
159 Dajiaoyuan Rhyolite 174 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
160 Jimuchao Rhyolite 174 Rb–Sr Xue et al. (1996)
161 Mashanba Rhyolite 174 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
162 Mashanba Granite-porphyry 164 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
163 Lianhuashan Rhyolite 175 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
164 Guishan Rhyolite 170 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
165 Qincaiyang Rhyolite 158 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
166 Zhongxincun Rhyolite 147 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
167 Huidong Rhyolite 154 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
168 Huoshiao Andesite 149 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
169 Lianhuashan Dacitic rhyolite 136 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
170 Emianliao Rhyolitic dacite 137 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
171 Xiahuangnitan Rhyolite 87 U–Pb Xie et al. (1996)
172 Shenaobei Rhyolite 94 U–Pb Xie et al. (1996)
173 Tanshuxia Rhyolite 94 Rb–Sr Xie et al. (1996)
174 Huangsheqi Granite-porphyry 87 K–Ar Xie et al. (1996)
Hunan province
175 Mingyuefeng Granite 163 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
176 Mingyuefeng Granite 181 U–Th–Pb Ye et al. (1986)
177 Shangbao Granite 92 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
178 Shangbao Granite 85 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
179 Qianlishan (inner facies) Granite 141 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
180 Qianlishan (border facies) Monzogranite 162 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
181 Qianlishan (additional facies) Granite 138 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
182 Huangshaping Granite-porphyry 148 Rb–Sr Ye et al. (1986)
183 Xishan in Jiuyishan Granite-porphyry 146 Rb–Sr Chen et al. (1986)
184 Jinjiling in Jiuyishan Granite 142 Rb–Sr Chen et al. (1986)
185 Jinjiling in Jiuyishan Granite 154 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1986)
186 Shaziling in Jiuyishan Monzogranite 170 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1986)
187 Shaziling in Jiuyishan Granodiorite 168 Rb–Sr Chen et al. (1986)
188 Tianezhai in Jiuyishan Granite 150 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1986)
Taiwan
189 Tailugo Granite 90 U–Pb Jahn et al. (1986)
190 Nanao Granite 86 U–Pb Jahn et al. (1986)

a To save space, a location map for the igneous bodies is not provided herewith. Please contact the authors for detailed information.
284 X.M. Zhou, W.X. Li / Tectonophysics 326 (2000) 269–287
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