Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184

www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Geochemistry of high-grade metamorphic rocks of the North Qaidam

mountains and their geological significance
Wan Yusheng a,b, Zhang Jianxin a,*, Yang Jingsui a, Xu Zhiqin a
a
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
b
Beijing SHRIMP centre, Beijing 100037, China
Received 25 December 2003; received in revised form 14 January 2005; accepted 14 September 2005

Abstract
The high-grade metamorphic basement in the North Qaidam mountains (NQD) is composed mainly of Jinning age metasedimentary rocks and
crustally-derived granites, possibly accompanied by minor Paleoproterozoic and Archaean material. Based on their geochemistry the
metasedimentary rocks are divided into two groups. Type I, which makes up the bulk of the high-grade metamorphic basement in the NQD, is
characterized by high K2O, low Na2O, relatively high total rare earth elements (TREEZ114–357 ppm), and weak fractionation of light (LREE)
and heavy (HREE) rare earth elements ((La/Yb)nZ8–27). These rocks also have strong negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*Z0.3–0.6). Type II rocks
crop out mainly in the Wulan area and are characterized by relatively high MgO (2.2–4.1 wt%), lower total REE and strong fractionation of LREE
and HREE (La/Yb)nZ29–48). Both types of metasedimentary rocks have similar Nd isotope compositions with tDMZ1.9–2.2 Ga and 3NdZK4.1
to K8.5. The granites are compositionally similar to the Type I metasedimentary rocks. The high-grade metamorphic basement of the NQD is
similar to that in the Qilian orogenic belt and the Yangtze Platform. The Central Qilian-NQD terrane was separated from the Dunhuang–Alxa
terrane before the Jinning Period, and the two terranes belong to the South China Block and North China Craton, respectively.
q 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Geochemistry; Nd isotope; Metasedimentary rocks; Granite; Orogenic belt; North Qaidam mountains

1. Introduction considered to be exposed Qaidam basement (BGMQ, 1991). The

The North Qaidam mountains (NQD) are bounded by the
Qaidam Basin to the southwest, the Altyn Tagh fault to the
northwest, and the Qilian orogenic belt to the northeast (Fig. 1).
The Qaidam Basin is a Cenozoic sedimentary feature underlain
mainly by Precambrian crystalline basement (BGMQ, 1991),
whereas the Qilian orogenic belt consists chiefly of early
Paleozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks deposited on
Precambrian metasedimentary rocks and crustally derived
granites (Wan et al., 2001). Recent geochronological data
indicate that the metamorphic basement of the Qilian orogenic
belt formed between 800 and 1000 Ma (Jinning Period) (Guo
et al., 1999; Wan et al., 2001).
The NQD are made up mainly of high-grade metamorphic
rocks including paragneiss, orthogneiss, schist, and marble,
thrust over lower Paleozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the
Tanjianshan Group. These metamorphic rocks have long been
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zjx66@yeah.net (Z. Jianxin).
1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.09.018
recent discovery of high-pressure garnet peridotite (Yang et al.,
1994) and eclogite (Yang et al., 1998) within the gneisses led to
the recognition of a new high-pressure/ultrahigh-pressure (HP/
UHP) metamorphic belt in the NQD (Yang et al., 2000).
In this paper, we investigate the geochemistry and Nd isotopic
composition of the high-grade metasedimentary rocks and
granites of the NQD, and attempt to correlate these rocks with
similar sequences elsewhere in the Qilian terrane. Our goal is to
investigate the nature and extent of the high-grade metamorphic
rocks of the NQD in order to determine whether they are
genetically related to other terranes within the Qilian orogenic
belt and to identify the geotectonic setting in which they formed.
Data from this study will also constrain tectonic models for the
formation of the HP/UHP metamorphic belt in the NQD.
2. Geological background
There are several major linear features within the Qilian
orogenic belt and its adjacent areas, such as the Altyn Tagh
left-lateral strike-slip fault, the northern Qilian ophiolite belt
 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184 175

Fig. 1. Sketch map of the Qilian orogenic belt and adjacent areas showing the distribution of Precambrian masses (modified after Wan et al., 2001). (1) North China
Craton: I1-Alxa terrane, I2-Hexi Corridor Caledonian transitional belt. II. Qilian Caledonian fold system. III. Qaidam terrane: the locations of the samples are also
marked in the map. Numbers with parentheses are the locations of samples for age determination in Table 1. Numbers without parentheses are the locations of
samples for element analyses in Table 2 and Nd isotopic analyzes in Table 3.

and the UHP metamorphic belt in the NQD (Fig. 1). These
features were formed during the Caledonian and later periods.
The NQD lie along the southern margin of the Qilian
orogenic belt, and the two terranes have many similarities.
Both have basement sequences composed of high-grade
metamorphic rock and granite, which in the NQD is termed
the Dakendaban Group. Recent studies have shown that the
gneissic granites can be easily distinguished from associated
high-grade metasedimentary rocks by their textures and
mineral assemblages. The granites are gneissic in structure
but homogeneous, and are composed mainly of plagioclase,
potassium feldspar, quartz, biotite and muscovite. Argillaceous
and arenaceous rocks are the most common protoliths of the
metasedimentary rocks, although some were derived from
marbles and mafic material. The metasedimentary rocks, most
of which belong to the amphibolite and granulite facies, consist
of various combinations of biotite, muscovite, sillimanite,
garnet, quartz, and feldspar with specific assemblages
reflecting the protolith compositions. Based on their textures
and mineral assemblages, the metasedimentary rocks are
divided into three types: (a) mica schist containing some
garnet and sillimanite and indicating an argillaceous protolith;
(b) biotiteGmuscovite gneiss derived from an arenaceous
protolith; and (c) quartzites and other siliceous rocks. The
different metamorphic rocks, some of which are composition-
ally similar to khondalite, form alternating layers or bands,
suggesting that the protolith was a series of interbedded,
relatively mature sandstones and shales (Dash et al., 1987;
Chacko et al., 1992; Condie et al., 1992).
The granitic gneiss in the NQD crops out in a belt along the
northern edge of the terrane, which extends approximately
300 km from Dulan in the southwest to Yuka in the northwest.
These rocks are mostly muscovite or muscoviteCbiotite
gneisses with granite protoliths. They enclose blocks of
eclogite, and underwent UHP metamorphism with them. The
two constitute a giant UHP metamorphic belt that stretches
across northwest China (Yang et al., 2000, 2001a; Zhang et al.,
2000, 2002). The gneisses also host many inclusions of
metasedimentary rocks very similar to those forming the
basement of the NQD. Gneissic kaligranite is widespread in the
NQD north of Wulan, and consists of flesh-colored to pink,
commonly porphyritic, augen gneiss, composed mainly of
microcline and quartz, accompanied by small amounts of
plagioclase and biotite.
The Altyn Tagh (Altun mountains) is bounded on the
southeast by the left-lateral, strike-slip Altyn Tagh fault. Major
176 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184

lithologic units within the Altyn Tagh, which include HP/UHP
eclogites and gneisses, basement sequences and ophiolites, can
be correlated with those in the NQD and Qilian mountains
(Zhang et al., 2001b; Yang et al., 2001b). The UHP
metamorphic belt within the Altyn Tagh has been considered
to be the western extension of the NQD (Zhang et al., 2001b).
3. Isotope chronology
Table 1 summarizes the available zircon ages of the high-
grade metamorphic basement of the NQD and adjacent areas.
The dated rocks include various granites and intermediate to
silicic metavolcanic rocks from the supracrustal rock series.
Zircons from the granitoids are mainly colorless, but some are
pale yellow, pink and light purple. Those from individual
samples are relatively homogeneous in color. Most of these
zircons are prismatic, with length to width ratios of 2.5–3.5.
Some grains show parallel growth zoning consistent with an
igneous origin. Zircons from the metavolcanic rocks are similar
in color and morphology to those of the granitoids, but
typically have smaller grain sizes. Therefore, the ages listed in
Table 1 should represent the formation times of the geological
bodies.
The available ages fall roughly into two groups. One group
ranges between 2.37 and 2.67 Ga, suggesting the presence of
blocks of Early Precambrian basement in the study area. The
other group has ages between 0.75 and 1.03 Ga, corresponding
to the aggregation and dispersal of the Rodinia supercontinent.
4. Geochemistry
Major elements were analyzed by XRF, and trace elements
by ICP-MS at the National Research Center of Geoanalysis of
China. Nineteen new whole-rock major and trace element
analyses are presented in Table 2. Based on their geochemistry,
two groups of metasedimentary rocks are recognized in the
metamorphic basement of the NQD. Type I rocks (samples 1–9
in Table 2) occur widely in the NQD, and are found in the
Dakendaban, Da Qaidam, and Xitieshan areas. These rock have
Table 1
Zircon ages of metamorphic basement rocks of the NQD and adjacent areas
widely variable SiO2 (62–74 wt%), relatively high K2O
(3.3–4.2 wt%), low Na2O (0.8–2.9 wt%) and low MgO
(0.8–2.1 wt%). Two samples in this group (4 and 6, Table 2)
have relatively high Al2O 3 contents (19 and 20 wt%,
respectively) and are similar in composition to khondalite.
The variation in total rare earth elements is relatively large
(TREEZ114–357 ppm), but the fractionation of LREE and
HREE is weak ((La/Yb)nZ7.8–27). All of the chondrite-
normalized REE patterns show well-developed negative
Eu-anomalies (Eu/Eu*Z0.3–0.6) (Table 2), and are similar
to those of post-Archaean Australian shale (Fig. 2 (a)–(f)).
Type II rocks (samples 10–13 in Table 2) are gneisses that
crop out principally in the Wulan area. They differ
geochemically from the metasedimentary rocks of Type I in
having higher MgO contents (2.2–4.1%) and, with one
exception, lower K2O (2.5–3.2 wt%). The variation in total
rare earth elements is relatively small (TREEZ129–178 ppm)
(Table 2). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns also show
marked negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*Z0.5–0.6), but are
characterized by strong fractionation of LREE and HREE ((La/
Yb)nZ29–48) (Fig. 2(g)). The higher LREE/HREE fraction-
ation of Type II rocks is due to their very low HREE contents.
Sample Q9875 is a mafic rock from the Wulan area,
geochemically distinct from the metasedimentary rocks (14
in Table 2, Fig. 2 (g) and (h)).
The granitic rocks (samples 15–17 in Table 2) are relatively
uniform in composition, characterized by having high SiO2 and
K2O/Na2O ratios O1. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns
show moderate enrichment of LREE (La/Yb)nZ8.1–18) and
well-developed negative Eu-anomalies (Eu/Eu*Z0.4–0.7)
(Table 2, Fig. 3(a) and (b)). Total rare earth element contents
range from 62–207 ppm. In general, the granites are
compositionally similar to the Type I metasedimentary rocks,
particularly in their REE contents.
A gneissic kaligranite (sample 18 in Table 2) from the
vicinity of Wulan, is characterized by strong enrichment in
K2O, relatively strong fractionation of LREE and HREE ((La/
Yb)nZ24), and a pronounced negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*Z
0.2) (Fig. 3(c) and (d)).

No. Sample Name of rock Location Zircon age (Ga) Data source
1 N-32-2 Gneissic Muscovite Granite NQD 1.03G0.04 Wan et al., (2001)
2 97A-6-7 Gneissic Muscovite Granite NQD 1.02G0.04 Wan et al., (2001)
3 Y019 Plagioclase Amphibolite NQD 2.41G0.01 Lu et al., (2002)
4 Y020 Adamellite Gneiss NQD 2.37G0.01 Lu et al., (2002)
5 Q9739 Biotite–Granulitite–Gneiss Maxianshan 0.94G0.03 Wan et al., (2001)
6 Q9753 Gneissic Adamellite Maxianshan 0.93G0.07 Wan et al., (2000)
7 Q9742 Gneissic granodiorite Maxianshan 0.93G0.07 Wan et al., (2000)
8 Q98100 Gneissic Kaligranite South of Hualong 0.75G0.03 Wan et al., (2000)
9 BQ97354 Granite East of Huangyuan 0.92G0.01 Guo et al., (1999)
10 AQ97062 Amphibole East of Huangyuan 0.91G0.00 Guo et al., (1999)
11 215 Gneissic granodiorite Liuyuan, Beishan 0.88G0.03 Mei et al., (1999)
12 307 Gneissic tonalite Shuixiakou 2.67G0.01 Mei et al., (1998)

Notes: (1) samples 1–4 were collected from NQD, 5–10 from the Qilian orogenic belt, and 11–12 from the northern Altyn Tagh–Dunhuang–Alxa terrane. (2)
Locations of samples are show in Fig. 1. The exact locations of some samples from the NQD are not shown in Fig. 1 because they were not given in the original
paper.
Table 2
Major and trace element compositions of high-grade metamorphic basement rocks from the NQD
Type I meta- Type II meta- Granitic
sedimentary sedimentary rocks
rocks rocks
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sample no. Q99166 Q99170 Q99171 Q99154 Q99163 Q99186 Q99196 Q99200 Q99208 Q9920 Q9939 Q9966 Q9989 Q9875 Q9933 Q99158-1 Q99207 Q9926
SiO2 69.17 73.08 74.34 65.57 64.23 62.23 63.30 70.84 68.56 68.22 67.21 71.48 67.23 60.08 73.39 75.27 69.68 73.89
TiO2 0.62 0.32 0.23 0.95 0.84 0.98 0.78 0.46 0.83 0.59 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.96 0.29 0.16 0.79 0.22
Al2O3 13.58 12.90 13.91 19.09 17.95 20.48 16.87 15.19 15.50 14.26 15.37 10.89 16.22 14.85 13.17 13.99 15.50 12.67
Fe2O3 0.68 0.63 0.01 0.73 1.29 0.82 1.28 0.18 4.54 0.13 0.74 1.32 0.76 0.78 0.45 0.03 0.75 0.81
FeO 4.29 2.98 2.23 5.05 5.51 5.53 4.76 3.22 1.60 4.33 4.47 3.52 3.36 6.32 2.10 1.17 4.29 0.88
MnO 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.06 0.15 0.12 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.10 0.02
MgO 2.11 2.06 1.10 1.38 1.59 1.71 2.02 0.77 1.48 4.14 3.49 2.58 2.22 5.21 0.66 0.48 1.40 0.30
CaO 1.58 1.64 1.13 0.16 0.28 0.55 2.05 1.28 0.81 0.87 0.77 1.62 1.31 5.88 1.18 0.68 1.09 0.76

W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184

Na2O 2.89 1.35 1.64 0.78 1.06 1.47 2.57 2.18 0.84 1.41 1.15 2.08 3.89 2.45 2.24 4.68 1.88 2.71
K2O 3.56 3.75 3.73 3.23 3.62 4.12 3.68 3.84 4.22 2.46 4.55 2.34 3.22 1.96 4.94 2.12 2.34 6.11
P2O5 0.10 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.17 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.14 0.10 0.19 0.15 0.18 0.10 0.10
H2O 0.82 0.80 1.16 2.50 2.86 1.64 1.46 1.88 1.60 2.88 0.58 1.90 1.18 0.78 0.72 0.92 1.98 0.66
CO2 0.46 0.19 0.46 0.27 0.18 0.09 0.37 0.40 0.18 0.27 0.15 1.28 0.22 0.09 0.28 0.27 0.33 0.55
Total 100.0 99.9 100.0 99.8 99.6 99.8 99.4 100.5 100.4 99.7 99.3 99.9 100.4 99.70 99.6 100.0 100.2 99.7
Cr 60 34 11 66 61 66 65 24 60 28 43 112 124 138 13 5 54 5
Ni 31 17 5 5 29 25 15 10 21 14 20 39 51 23 7 6 15 7
Co 9 42 5 9 15 13 38 8 13 10 10 11 12 19 46 5 12 5
Sc 0 3 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 3 0 0 0
V 86 33 20 132 94 117 90 41 94 58 65 91 94 109 13 9 78 10
Rb 122 151 142 158 156 199 214 163 119 129 176 80 92 138 247 89 115 322
Ba 542 1002 1351 468 561 694 1151 591 678 696 397 514 1123 556 392 232 474 330
Sr 152 151 261 81 60 141 231 191 83 128 55 74 230 228 71 69 112 76
Nb 16.0 40.0 19.0 20.0 16.0 20.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 15.0 16.0 14.0 14.0 13 6.0 11.0 18.0 12.0
Zr 192 403 155 249 155 179 160 111 190 192 190 192 177 160 108 48 218 117
Y 15 52 12 16 17 28 23 32 28 6 7 9 8 29 33 7 25 16
Th 10.00 35.00 18.00 16.00 7.00 13.00 14.00 14.00 10.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 12.00 12 16.00 5.00 8.00 23.00
La 30.01 91.50 37.26 59.75 46.29 40.51 42.03 45.25 50.53 33.48 37.27 33.19 47.42 37.25 31.22 15.55 47.12 40.26
Ce 46.62 150.20 63.54 104.80 80.04 70.21 75.93 82.72 90.38 60.46 66.99 55.19 80.73 62.11 56.39 26.71 85.85 70.14
Pr 4.26 13.88 6.09 9.79 7.99 7.00 7.38 8.24 9.10 5.73 6.00 5.19 7.19 6.63 5.37 2.24 8.32 6.70
Nd 17.82 54.32 23.74 38.35 33.65 30.22 31.81 35.50 38.79 22.51 24.02 21.39 28.10 28.47 24.78 8.74 36.56 26.73
Sm 3.18 10.39 4.41 6.46 6.54 5.57 6.34 7.51 7.12 3.77 4.05 3.87 4.60 5.86 5.56 1.96 6.91 5.73
Eu 0.68 0.94 0.47 1.17 1.26 1.15 1.23 1.20 1.08 0.81 0.63 0.80 0.90 1.20 0.73 0.47 1.41 0.48
Gd 3.85 10.79 4.35 5.96 6.58 6.46 6.48 8.73 7.93 4.29 3.81 4.08 4.49 5.97 5.99 2.26 7.55 6.42
Tb 0.49 1.78 0.52 0.72 0.74 0.86 0.85 1.27 1.10 0.46 0.41 0.51 0.49 0.93 0.96 0.30 1.05 0.82
Dy 2.94 9.34 2.73 3.95 4.30 5.33 4.86 7.09 5.84 1.63 2.01 2.40 2.07 5.25 6.03 1.75 5.69 4.05
Ho 0.58 1.94 0.52 0.73 0.79 1.30 0.89 1.40 1.21 0.32 0.33 0.38 0.38 1.09 1.08 0.28 1.10 0.69
Er 1.66 4.97 1.24 1.96 2.04 3.62 2.31 3.09 2.96 0.77 0.83 1.09 1.08 3.00 2.98 0.78 2.81 1.66
Tm 0.22 0.75 0.17 0.24 0.26 0.50 0.33 0.40 0.42 0.11 0.10 0.14 0.11 0.44 0.42 0.10 0.37 0.20
Yb 1.48 5.02 1.10 1.48 1.64 3.40 2.13 2.40 2.74 0.53 0.58 0.76 0.65 2.84 2.54 0.56 2.34 1.11
Lu 0.20 0.77 0.14 0.14 0.24 0.42 0.30 0.38 0.40 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.48 0.39 0.10 0.28 0.15
TREE 114.0 356.6 146.3 235.5 192.4 176.5 182.9 205.2 219.6 135.0 147.1 129.1 178.3 161.5 144.4 61.8 207.4 165.1
(La/Yb)n 13.36 12.01 22.31 26.59 18.59 7.85 13.00 12.42 12.15 41.61 42.33 28.77 48.06 8.6 8.10 18.29 13.26 23.89
Eu/Eu* 0.60 0.27 0.33 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.46 0.44 0.62 0.49 0.62 0.60 0.62 0.39 0.69 0.60 0.24

Notes: (1) analyses were carried out at the National Research Center of Geoanalysis of China by using AAS and NAA techniques. (2) Data sources: samples 2, 7, 14 and 18 are from Wan et al. (2001). (3) Major elements in weight
percent, REE and trace elements in ppm. (4) Eu/Eu* means Eu anomaly; (5) See Table 3 for the names and locations of the samples, sample locations are show in Fig. 1.

177
178 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184

Fig. 2. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element patterns and MORB-normalized trace element spider diagrams for the metasedimentary rocks of the high-grade
metamorphic basement in the NQD. Normalization values for the rare earth elements and MORB are after Masuda (1975) and Pearce (1983), respectively. a and b:
Dakendaban, (c) and (d): southwest of Da Qaidam, (e) and (f): Xitieshan, (g) and (h): Wulan.

5. Nd isotopes
The Nd isotopic compositions of 45 high-grade meta-
morphic basement samples of the NQD and adjacent areas are
listed in Table 3. Twenty two of these are newly analysed
samples—the others are from Mei et al. (1998) and (1999)
(samples 40–41) and Wan et al. (2003) (samples 2, 7, 14–15,
20–32 and 35–38). Samples 1–19, 20–35, 36–41 and 42–45 are
from the NQD, Qilian terrane, Dunhuang–Alxa terrane and
Altyn Tagh, respectively. The Nd isotopic compositions of the
 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184 179

Fig. 3. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element patterns and MORB-normalized trace element spider diagrams for the granitic rocks of the high-grade metamorphic
basement in the NQD. Normalization values for the rare earth elements and MORB are after Masuda (1975) and Pearce (1983), respectively. a and b: muscovite
(muscovite-and-biotite) granite of granite belt; c and d: gneissic kaligranite from the northern part of Wulan.

metasedimentary rocks and granitoids of the Qilian and
Dunhuang–Alxa terranes have been discussed elsewhere
(Wan et al., 2001, 2003).
Sm–Nd isotope analyses of the samples in this paper and
reference from Wan et al. (2003) were carried out at the
Institute of Geology, CAS. Operation and data processing are
referred to Wan et al. (2001).
Despite the wide geographic distribution and variable
chemical composition of the metasedimentary rocks in the
NQD, they have very similar Nd isotopic compositions.
Twelve of the 14 analyzed samples have 147Sm/144Nd of
0.1052–0.1281 and 143Nd/144Nd of 0.51170–0.51200. The tDM
and 3Nd (0.9 Ga) of these samples are 1.9–2.2 Ga and K4.1 to
K8.5, respectively. Although these samples cluster relatively
closely on a 147Sm/144Nd vs. 143Nd/144Nd diagram they do not
show a good linear relationship (Fig. 4). Two metasedimentary
samples (3 and 13 in Table 3) have somewhat different isotopic
compositions, with 147Sm/144Nd ratios of 0.1076–0.1163 and
143
Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.51120–0.51150. The tDM and 3Nd
(0.9 Ga) are 2.57–2.79 Ga and K13 to K18, respectively,
significantly different from the other metasedimentary samples
(Fig. 4).
Four granite samples (15–17 and 19 in Table 3) from the
NQD have 147Sm/144Nd and 143Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.1209–
0.1408 and 0.51193–0.51209, respectively. Some of these
samples have relatively high 147Sm/144Nd and 143Nd/144Nd
ratios (Fig. 4). However, their tDM ranges from 2.0–2.4 Ga and
3Nd (0.9 Ga) from K4.2 to K5.9 (Table 3), values close to
those of the metasedimentary rocks in the same terrane.
The isotopic composition of the kaligranite (sample 18 in
Table 3) falls within the same range as the other granitic
samples (Table 3).
Two of 4 metasedimentary samples from the Altyn Tagh (43
and 45 in Table 3) have 147Sm/144Nd of 0.1084–0.1259 and
143
Nd/144Nd of 0.51171–0.51193, with tDM and 3Nd (0.9 Ga) of
2.08–2.12 Ga and K5.8 to K8.0, respectively. Again, these are
similar to the metasedimentary rocks in the NQD. However,
the other two samples (42 and 44 in Table 3) show somewhat
different Nd isotopic compositions, with tDM ranging from
1.68–1.69 Ga and 3Nd (0.9 Ga) from K1.7 to K2.0.
6. Discussion and conclusions
6.1. Age of the NQD basement rocks
The most precise age data for the basement rocks of the
NQD available prior to this study are single-crystal zircon dates
obtained by the U–Pb dilution method. Two dates of 1.03G
0.04 Ga and 1.04G0.03 Ga were obtained on gneissic granites
(Table 1), and these are taken as the age of the granitic
intrusions. The age of the metasedimentary rocks is more
difficult to determine but because they commonly occur as
inclusions in the granites, they must be older than 1 Ga. Sm–Nd
isotopic systematics of early Archaean rocks may have been
disturbed by later geological processes (Vervoort et al., 1996;
Wan, 2000; Caro et al., 2003). However, for many sedimentary
and low-grade metamorphic rocks without a complex
evolutional history, Nd isotopes can be used to place some
 180
Table 3
Nd isotope compositions and calculation parameters for metamorphic basement rocks of the NQD and adjacent areas
147
Sample no. Rock name Location Sm/144Nd 143
Nd/144Nd 2s tDM 2Nd (0) 2Nd (0.9)
1 Q99166 Garnet-bearing Biotite Granulite Dakendaban, Northwest of Da 0.1052 0.511807 9 1.88 K16.21 K5.73
Qaidam
2 Q99170 Sillimanite Biotite Granulite Dakendaban, Northwest of Da 0.1173 0.511855 9 2.04 K15.27 K6.20
Qaidam
3 Q99171 Sillimanite Biotite Granulite Dakendaban, Northwest of Da 0.1163 0.511500 8 2.57 K22.20 K13.08
Qaidam
4 Q99154 Garnet Muscovite Quartz Schist Southwest of Da Qaidam 0.1109 0.511701 8 2.14 K18.28 K8.49
5 Q99163 Garnet-bearing Muscovite Quartz Southwest of Da Qaidam 0.1210 0.511929 7 2.00 K13.83 K5.17
Schist
6 Q99186 Sillimanite Garnet Two Mica Xitieshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1131 0.511871 6 1.93 K14.96 K5.39
Quartz Schist

W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184

7 Q99196 Garnet Two Mica Gneiss Xitieshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1147 0.511926 14 1.88 K13.89 K4.49
8 Q99200 Muscovite Two Feldspar Gneiss Xitieshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1281 0.511997 11 2.05 K12.50 K4.65
9 Q99208 Garnet Two Mica Granulite Luliangshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1138 0.511815 7 2.03 K16.05 K6.58
10 Q9920 Garnet Two Mica Granulite Northwest of Wulan 0.1155 0.511922 15 1.90 K13.97 K4.67
11 Q9939 Sillimanite Biotite Gneiss Chahanhe, North of Wulan 0.1133 0.511716 9 2.17 K17.99 K8.47
12 Q9966 Two Mica Gneiss South of Wulan 0.1217 0.511859 8 2.13 K15.20 K6.63
13 Q9989 Two Mica Gneiss East of Delingha 0.1076 0.511199 11 2.79 K28.07 K18.00
14 Q9875 Biotite Granulite Chahanruo, Wulan 0.1247 0.512005 8 1.95 K12.35 K4.10
15 Q9933 Gneissic Two Mica Granite Shaliuhe, South of Wulan 0.1408 0.512011 9 2.37 K12.23 K5.86
16 Q99158-1 Gneissic Muscovite Granite Southwest of Da Qaidam 0.1397 0.512090 15 2.17 K10.69 K4.17
17 Q99207 Gneissic Sillimanite-bearing Two Xitieshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1209 0.511929 6 2.00 K13.83 K5.16
Mica Granite
18 Q9926 Pink Augen Gneiss Chahanhe, North of Wulan 0.1333 0.512047 13 2.08 K11.53 K4.27
19 Q19-3-1 Gneissic Muscovite Granite Xitieshan, South of Da Qaidam 0.1225 0.511932 8 2.03 K13.77 K5.28
20 Q99211 Mica Quartz Schist Dangjinshankou 0.1257 0.511841 6 2.26 K15.55 K7.45
21 YE-2 Biotite Plagioclase Gneiss Yu’erhong, Qilian 0.1232 0.511851 8 2.18 K15.35 K6.96
22 YE-3 Biotite Plagioclase Gneiss Yu’erhong, Qilian 0.1220 0.511942 7 2.00 K13.58 K5.03
23 Q9862 Two Mica Quartz Schist Niuxinshan, Qilian 0.1049 0.511672 7 2.06 K18.84 K8.36
24 Q9885 Hornblende Biotite Plagioclase Dongkesi, Huangyuan 0.1136 0.511683 7 2.22 K18.63 K9.16
Gneiss
25 Q9887 Biotite Plagioclase Gneiss Dongkesi, Huangyuan 0.1171 0.511719 8 2.25 K17.93 K8.85
26 Q9894 Garnet-bearing Two Mica Quartz East of Huangyuan 0.1179 0.511755 7 2.21 K17.22 K8.24
Schist
27 Q9864 Biotite Granulite-Gneiss Haiyan 0.1133 0.511658 5 2.26 K19.12 K9.61
28 Q9869 Two Mica Quartz Schist Haiyan 0.1115 0.511727 6 2.11 K17.77 K8.04
29 Q98109 Biotite Plagioclase Gneiss Yunling 0.1189 0.512170 7 1.57 K9.13 K0.17
30 Q9745a Mica Quartz Schist Maxianshan 0.1176 0.511787 7 2.15 K16.60 K7.57
31 Q9739 Biotite Granulitite-Gneiss Maxianshan 0.1001 0.511749 9 1.87 K17.34 K6.28
32 Q9753 Gneissic Adamellite Maxianshan 0.1096 0.511859 7 1.88 K15.20 K5.22
33 Q9904-1 Gneissic Biotite Granite Haiyan 0.1162 0.511902 6 1.94 K14.36 K5.14
34 Q9906 Gneissic Biotite Granite Haiyan 0.1192 0.511953 6 1.92 K13.36 K4.48
35 Q98100 Gneissic Kaligranite South of Hualong 0.1121 0.512169 9 1.47 K9.15 0.60
36 Q9709 Garnet Mica Quartz Schist Honghusi, Yongchang 0.1134 0.511495 10 2.50 K22.30 K12.84
37 Q9834 Muscovite Quartz Schist Dunzigou, Jinchang 0.1151 0.511562 7 2.44 K20.99 K11.72
38 Q9835 Muscovite Quartz Schist Dunzigou, Jinchang 0.1029 0.511191 6 2.68 K28.23 K17.61
39 Q9746 Gneissic granodiorite Huayuangou, Jinchang 0.0916 0.511747 7 1.75 K17.38 K5.34
40 215 Gneissic granodiorite Liuyuan, Beishan, Dunhuang 0.1116 0.512126 50 1.53 K9.99 K0.19
 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184 181

constraints on their formation age (Nelson and DePaolo, 1988;

samples 42–45 taken from Altyn Tagh terrane, northwest of Dunhuang. (2) Sample analyses were carried out at the Institute of Geology, CAS. (3) Data sources: samples 21–22 and 40–41 are from Mao et al. (1998)
Notes: (1) samples 1–19, 20–35, 36–41 and 42–45 are from the NQD, Qilian terrane, Dunhuang–Alxa terrane and Altyn Tagh terrane, respectively. The locations of the samples are shown in Fig. 1 with exception of

and Mei et al. (1998) and (1999), respectively. (4) Sm and Nd contents are given in ppm, and the ages in Ga. The model ages and 3Nd values were calculated from the equations given as follows: tDM Z(1/l)
Chen et al., 1990). All of the analyzed metasedimentary rocks
K21.28
K1.68

K5.80

K2.04

K8.00
from the NQD are fresh and most have tDM between 1.9 and
2.2 Ga, with an average of 2.0 Ga. These rocks have Sm/Nd
ratios similar to those of continental material and they have
relatively uniform Sm–Nd isotopic compositions. They show
no obvious evidence of REE migration due either to
K33.81
K10.81

K13.89

K11.39

K18.08

metamorphism or weathering. In addition, there are very few

basaltic rocks in the NQD, so addition of mantle material to the
sequence can be discounted. The depleted mantle model ages
derived from the Nd isotopes should approximately reflect the
age of formation of the parent rocks from which the sediments
2.66
1.68

2.12

1.69

2.08

were originally derived. The age of formation (sedimentation

age) of the metamorphic protoliths would be much younger.
Based on the oldest intrusion age of the granites (1.0 Ga) and
the youngest tDM age of the sedimentary rocks (1.9 Ga), the
formation age of the supracrustal rocks of the high-grade
4
7

metamorphic basement should lie between 1.0 and 1.9 Ga. It is

very possible that these rocks formed in the early Jinning
Period because; (1) there is no evidence to suggest that there
0.510905
0.512084

0.511926

0.512054

0.511711

were strong tectonothermal events between the Jinning and

ln(((143Nd/144Nd)sK0.51315)/((147Sm/144Nd)sK0.2137)C1(, and 3Nd(0)Z((143Nd/144Nd)s/0.51264K1(!104, where s means sample.

Luliang Periods in the study area, and (2) during Precambrian

period, sedimentation of supracrustal rocks, metamorphism,
deformation, and emplacement of different kinds of granitoids
were often related to each other, reflecting different stages of a
single geological process. The lower limit of the supracrustal
0.0860
0.1173

0.1259

0.1153

0.1084

rocks can be further constrained by determining the youngest

age of the detrital zircons from the sedimentary rocks.
Most of the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the NQD are
believed to have formed in the Jinning Period, however, a few
dates from metamorphic rocks suggest that some Paleoproter-
Shuixiakou, Dunhuang

ozoic, and perhaps even Archaean, rocks are also present. For
example, zircon ages of 2.41 and 2.37 Ga have been reported
for biotite granulite in the region (Lu et al., 2002). Although the
Altyn Tagh

Altyn Tagh

Altyn Tagh

Altyn Tagh

geological significance of these ages needs to be investigated

further, they strongly suggest the presence of older tecto-
nothermal events. Zhang et al. (2001a) reported a Sm–Nd
whole rock-mineral isochron age of 1.79 Ga for basic granulite
from the Wulan area, which may represent the metamorphic
Biotite

Biotite

Biotite

Biotite

age of the rocks. In addition, the Nd depleted mantle model

ages of two metasedimentary rocks obtained during this study
Garnet-bearing Sillimanite

Garnet-bearing Sillimanite

Garnet-bearing Sillimanite

Garnet-bearing Sillimanite

are 2.57 and 2.79 Ga. In one of these samples (13 in Table 3)
the REE show strong fractionation ((La/Yb)nZ48), a feature
Gneissic tonalite

typical of Archaean TTG (tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite)

granitic rocks.
Gneiss

Gneiss

Gneiss

Gneiss

6.2. The nature of the high-grade metamorphic basement

and its tectonic environment of formation

As discussed above, there are two types of high-grade

97A20-4-2

metasedimentary rocks in the NQD. Type I, which consists

97A20-8

97A21-3

mostly of schist, granulite and gneiss, is the most abundant and

97A20
307

occurs widely in the Dakendaban, Da Qaidam, and Xitieshan

areas (Fig. 2). Argillaceous metasedimentary rocks contain
abundant biotite, muscovite, garnet and sillimanite in addition
to plagioclase, potassium feldspar and quartz. In contrast,
41
42

43

44

45

arenaceous varieties generally have abundant quartz,

182 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184
Fig. 4. Nd isotope compositions of metamorphic basement rocks from the
NQM and adjacent areas. 143Nd/144Nd values are present day ratios. Filled
triangles: metasedimentary rocks of the NQD; open triangles: granitoids of the
NQD; filled squares: metasedimentary rocks of the Qilian terrane; open
squares: granitoids of the Qilian orogenic belt; !: metasedimentary rocks of
the northern Altyn Tagh–Dunhuang–Alxa terrane; *: granitoids of the northern
Altyn Tagh–Dunhuang–Alxa terrane; C: metasedimentary rocks of the Altyn
Tagh terrane.
plagioclase and potassium feldspar and contain little, if any,
garnet or sillimanite. The bulk-rock geochemistry of the
metasedimentary rocks is quite variable, even for samples
taken from the same section. However, most are relatively high
in Al2O3, FeOT and MgO and relatively low in SiO2, CaO and
Na2O, indicating differentiation during weathering and
sedimentary transport and deposition. K2O is relatively high
in all these rocks, occurring in either micas or orthoclase
feldspar.
Despite their variable major oxide compositions, these
rocks have relatively uniform REE contents and patterns. The
total REE contents are relatively high (TREEZ114–357 ppm)
and fractionation of LREE and HREE is weak ((La/Yb)nZ
7.8–27). All of the samples display pronounced negative Eu
anomalies (Eu/Eu*Z0.3–0.6). The similarity in trace element
distribution patterns of the rocks suggests that their major
oxide variability is due to sedimentary transport and
depositional processes rather than variations in the original
source rocks. The trace element contents, especially REE
contents, of fine-grained sediments can reflect the compo-
sitions of their source rocks (Nance and Taylor, 1976; Taylor
and McLennan, 1985). The REE compositions of Type I
metasedimentary rock are quite similar that of average granite
rich in K and Al (Sylvester, 1994; Wu et al., 1998), suggesting
that granites or mature sediments were important sources for
the protoliths.
Type II metasedimentary rocks, which occur mostly in the
Wulan area, are similar to those of Type I, but have higher
MgO contents and a greater fractionation of LREE and HREE.
Four analyzed samples have (La/Yb)n ratios between 29 and
48. These compositional differences may reflect different
source materials or different sedimentary processes or both.
In addition, the very low HREE contents in Type II rocks
suggest derivation from a TTG terrane.
Despite the bulk-rock compositional differences among the
metasedimentary rocks, they have very similar Nd isotope
compositions. The depletion mantle model ages (tDM) of the
metasedimentary rocks vary mainly between 1.9 and 2.2 Ga
with two of them being 2.57 and 2.79 Ga, suggesting that their
original source terranes consisted predominantly of Paleopro-
terozoic and possibly Archaean crustal material. Metabasalts
are rare in the NQD, suggesting very little contribution from
the mantle. Thus, both the rock assemblage and geochemistry
of the metasedimentary rocks indicate that the original
sedimentary material was derived chiefly from early con-
tinental basement and probably deposited in a passive
continental margin environment.
Muscovite and biotite granite crop out widely in the NQD.
These rocks are characterized by having high K2O, low Na2O,
weak fractionation of LREE and HREE and marked negative
Eu anomalies. Thus, they are chemically very similar to the
Type I metasedimentary rocks. The tDM (2.0–2.4 Ga) and 3Nd
(0.9Ga) (K4.2 to K5.9) are also very similar to those of the
Type I metasedimentary rocks (Table 3, Fig. 4). Based on this
compositional similarity, we suggest that the granitic rocks
were derived by partial melting of the continental crust,
particularly the Type I metasedimentary material into, which
the granitoids intruded. There is little or no evidence of a
mantle component in these rocks, thus it is likely that they were
formed during continent–continent collision in the Jinning
Period; probably during formation of the Rodinia super-
continent (Rast, 2002). The gneissic kaligranite with an age of
0.75 Ga from the Wulan area is also believed to have been
formed by remelting of crustal materials, being probably
relating to the breakup of Rodinia.
6.3. Regional correlation
The high-grade metamorphic basement of the NQD is very
similar in age and composition to that of the adjacent Qilian
orogenic belt. Both of them were formed mainly during the
Jinning Period, and both contain metamorphic and granitic
rocks with high K2O and low Na2O, generally with low
fractionation of LREE and HREE and with marked negative Eu
anomalies. Most of the analyzed samples plot in the same area
in 147Sm/144Nd vs. 143Nd/144Nd diagram (Fig. 4) and have
similar tDM and 3Nd (0.9 Ga) values (Table 3). These data
suggest that the two regions underwent a similar geotectonic
evolution. From the standpoint of the metamorphic basement,
the NQM and the Qilian orogenic belt form one integrated
terrane, which can be termed the Qilian–North Qaidam
mountains terrane or simply the Qilian terrane.
The origin and tectonic evolution of the Qilian orogenic belt
and its surrounding Precambrian basement have been discussed
extensively. Some workers argued that the Qilian terrane is a
fragment split off from the North China Craton and thus, that it
is distinct from the NQD (Liu et al., 1995; Feng and He, 1996;
Ge and Liu, 2000). Our work shows that the two terranes have
an integrated metamorphic basement and are part of one
 W. Yusheng et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 28 (2006) 174–184
coherent block. Hong et al. (1999) and Che and Sun (1996)
have shown that most of the basement rocks of the South China
Block formed in the Luliang Period and thus are similar in the
formation age to the early continental crust of the NQD.
Probably, both the Qilian orogenic belt and the NQM are part
of the South China Block.
Our data also show that the metamorphic basement in the
Altyn Tagh has similar Nd isotope compositions to those in the
NQD. In combination with the presence of similar UHP rocks
and ophiolites in both the Altyn Tagh and Qilian–North
Qaidam mountains, this suggests that the Altyn Tagh is part of
the same orogenic belt as the Qilian–North Qaidam mountains.
It was subsequently displaced by the Altyn Tagh fault.
On the other hand, Archaean basement is known from the
Dunhuang–Alxa Terrane north of the Qilian orogenic belt. For
instance, granulites in the Dunhuang terrane have a whole-rock
Sm–Nd isochron age of 2.8 Ga (Chen et al., 1990) and zircon
ages of 2.59 Ga (Wang and Chen, 1987) and O3.6 Ga (Lu,
2002). In addition, gneissic tonalite in the Dunhuang region has
a U–Pb zircon age of 2.67 Ga (Table 1, Mei et al., 1998) and
depletion mantle model ages of 3 metasedimentary samples
from the Alxa terrane range from 2.4–2.7 Ga (36–38 in
Table 3). Obviously, the Dunhuang-Alxa terrane differs
significantly in age and composition from the Qilian-NQD
terrane, but is similar to the North China Craton, which formed
mainly during the Archaean (Wu et al., 1998). We infer that the
Qilian–NQD and Dunhuang–Alxa terranes were distinct and
separate bodies in the Jinning Period, and that they are
fragments of the South China Block and North China Craton,
respectively.
6.4. Conclusions
High-grade metamorphic rocks in the NQD and Qilian
orogenic belt are similar in lithology, age, composition, and Nd
isotope geochemistry and are here considered to be part of the
same terrane. The NQD–Qilian basement terrane can be
correlated with similar rocks in the South China Block and are
considered to belong to it. The age and composition of the
high-grade metamorphic basement rocks of the Dunhuang-
Alxa terrane suggest that they belong to the North China
Craton. Thus, the Qilian–NQD and Dunhuang–Alxa terranes
were separated prior to the Jinning Period, and represent
separate and distinct tectonic systems.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr Kuo-an Tung of Taiwan Cheng Kung
University for assistance with the fieldwork and Qiao
Guangsheng, Zhang Renfu and Chu Zhuyin for Sm–Nd isotope
analyses. Special thanks are due to Paul Robinson for his
careful editing and continuing support. We also highly
appreciate the critical review by an anonymous referee. The
research was financially supported by Projects 200313000058
and 200413000031 of the China Geological Survey.
183
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