GEOLOGY

1 GEOLOGY
A basic knowledge of the Earth's geology is vital to a proper understanding of how oil, and
the reservoirs in which it is contained, were formed. This information will also serve to explain
why some particular exploration, drilling and production operations must be carried out to
optimise the recovery of hydrocarbons from different types of reservoir structures.

1.1 THE EARTH AND ITS CRUST

It is commonly held that the earth formed from a cloud of particles made up of all the
different elements which are recognisable today. It is estimated to have been formed between
4,000 and 5,000 million years ago, and was for millions of years a blazing, liquid mass. This
basic assumption applies to the other planets.
As gravity drew the particles together, they were compressed and heated. Dense metallic
elements such as iron and nickel collected in the centre of the mass and solidified to form the
Earth's inner core; See Figure 1. The outer core remains fluid. The effect of the solid inner
and fluid outer core is that of a giant electric generator and has created a magnetic field which
extends beyond the planets surface.
Gradually, the mass cooled and the lighter elements such as magnesium, aluminium and
silicon formed the outermost layers, the plastic mantle which supports the solid crust. Today,
the earth is considered to comprise five layers:
• An inner core extending
800 miles (1,300 km) from
the centre which is possibly
solid iron and nickel.
• An outer core, 1,400 miles
(2,250 km) thick, which is
possibly molten iron and
nickel.
• A mantle of solid rock
approximately 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) thick which is
sub-divided into the lower
mantle and the upper
mantle.
• The crust, which is also
sub-divided into oceanic
crust and continental crust.
Oceanic crust is
approximately 3 to 5 miles
thick, (5 to 8 km), and the
continental crust is between
35 and 50 miles (60 to 80
km) thick.
Figure 1- Cutaway View of Earth

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1.1.1 The Earth In Motion

Early geographers and geologists had evidence which hinted at a vastly different planetary
surface arrangement than we are familiar with today and in 1910 the theory of continental drift
was proposed. The evidence supporting this theory included structural trends which extended
across unconnected continents and fossil remains of extinct land animals found on two
continents on opposite sides of the ocean.
This could only be explained in two ways: either lengthy land bridges existed in early times and
then subsided or continents which had once been connected had drifted apart.

As with any system which has not achieved a state of equilibrium, the Earth with its vast
internal temperature variations and density differences, is in constant motion. The motion is
normally tiny and hard to detect but, occasionally, violent earthquakes and volcanic activity
occur reminding us of the fluid nature of the planet.
The driving force for the huge continental plates is the slowly diverging convection currents in
the semi-solid, deformable mantle. Thus, hot material rising from the lower reaches of the
mantle would force its way through weak parts of the crust and push it apart. The most well
known such rift is the mid-Atlantic ridge; See Figure 2. Although movement is extremely
small, since the Atlantic began opening approximately 200 million years ago, north and South
America have been moving from Europe and Africa at 1.25 inches per year.

Figure 2 - Continental Rifting and Seafloor Spreading

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1.1.2 Plate Tectonics

The modern science of plate tectonics suggests that the earth is made up of rigid plates,
possibly as few as six, slowly but constantly moving in relation to each other. Because of this
movement, the earth's surface features have altered considerably over the years. Mountain
ranges have been thrust up and ancient land masses have sunk to be covered by seas. Rock
strata have been bent, twisted, folded and displaced forming complex underground
formations. See Figure 3 for a very small selection of sub-surface structures.

Figure 3 – Sub-Surface Structures

It should be clear now that the earth is being acted upon by enormous forces and that our
'solid world' is constantly changing. The crust itself is made up of various types of rock, lying
beneath a thin, ragged layer of soil. The rocks are in turn made up of minerals, and since rocks
can provide vital clues about the earth's history, the geologist must be able to recognise their
constituents and age. It would therefore be helpful to give an indication of the time scales
involved in the world's development.

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1.2 GEOLOGICAL TIME

By studying the processes going on around them and by careful observation of physical
phenomena, scientists have been able to assemble accurate information concerning the age of
the Earth. For instance, early estimates could be made on the length of time it would take to
deposit a specific thickness of sediment and thus, by extrapolation, the age of the Earth. More
recent technology has allowed scientists to compare the rate of decay of radioactive elements
in rock. Knowing the rate of decay, the half-life, allows rocks to be dated with reasonable
accuracy, and these methods have indicated the formation of the Earth to be in the order of
4.6 billion years ago and that the oldest rocks found were formed after 800 million years had
passed.

1.2.1 Rock Classification by Age

The classification of geologic time periods is based largely upon the relative ages of rocks
using the radiometric tests, and is divided into Eras, Periods and Epochs.

The major areas are briefly described below:

• Precambrian: little is known of this era since there are only primitive life form fossils
to study and the rocks formed then have since been greatly altered. Sometime during
this period photosynthetic algae flourished and began the creation of the atmosphere by
using carbon dioxide to release oxygen.
• Paleozoic: Most early life forms developed in this era and plant life began to flourish
on land. The oldest deposits of petroleum were formed in this period.
• Mesozoic: It was in this era, when all land formed one great supercontinent, that more
than half of the world's petroleum accumulated.
• Cenozoic: This period saw the mysterious disappearance of the dinosaurs, the raising of
the Rockies, Alps, the Himalayas and the advance and retreat of a number of ice sheets
in North America and Europe.

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Figure 4 – Geological Timetable

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1.3 THE ROCK CYCLE

Some of the most important elements pertaining to the formation and accumulation of oil
have now been sketched out. The age when oil was formed, the environmental conditions
necessary for its formation and the structure and motion of the earth's crust enabling the oil to
be trapped, more of which will be seen later. Another important factor in the process of
hydrocarbon formation, accumulation and production is the nature of the rocks themselves.
Rock structures vary greatly and, like the different types of hydrocarbon molecule available,
they exhibit different properties under similar conditions. Consequently, the existence of oil
and the ease with which it can be recovered, depends greatly on the actual types of rock in
which it exists. The sort of equipment and techniques necessary for drilling and subsequent
production are also dependant to a great extent on the rock and structures which must be
penetrated to reach the oil deposit. To understand the significance of rock we must learn
about the basic properties of the major types of rock.

1.3.1 Types of Rock

Rocks are classified by origin of which there are three main groupings. Each of these
categories may be transformed, by natural processes, into a rock of another category with this
cycle occurring constantly. The three main classifications are igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.

Figure 5 - The Rock Cycle

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1.3.2 Igneous Rocks

These are formed by the solidification of molten matter (the magma), which originated within
the earth. Rocks which have reached the surface and have solidified there, are termed
‘extrusive’ rocks, while the far greater amounts of rock which have not reached the surface,
but have solidified under cover of existing rocks are called ’intrusive’. Many such intrusive
bodies are later exposed by erosion of the overlying strata and are then subject to erosion
themselves. The intrusive magma tends to cool slowly, allowing individual minerals to form
relatively large, visible crystals. Extrusive (volcanic) magma will cool more quickly and may
form tiny crystals or none at all. Because of the way in which the solidification occurs, igneous
rocks are usually crystalline and non porous though they can also be clastic in nature (made up
of grains) and porous, so the texture and composition of the two types differ greatly.
Examples of igneous rocks include granite, diorite and basalt.

1.3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

These are formed at the earth's surface in several ways: by the accumulation and cementation
of fragments of rocks, minerals and organisms, as precipitates from sea water and other
surface solutions, and by weathering processes which break down the structure of the rock by
chemical and physical means. Erosion by wind water and ice carries material far from its
source to its resting place in a sedimentary deposit. The heaviest particles are deposited
soonest and the finer clays and silts are carried furthest.
These eroded particles may eventually become consolidated as sedimentary rock. As
successive layers are built up, they are compressed by the overlying layers and can become
rock if the conditions are suitable. This type of sedimentary rock, consisting of transported
and cemented rock fragments and minerals, is called clastic or detrital rock and includes
sandstones and shales.
Other sedimentary rocks are made up of cemented shells, skeletons of marine life, coral and
sea water precipitates. Limestones and dolomites are examples of this type. As these types of
rock are porous and accumulate with dead organic material, petroleum originates and
accumulates in sedimentary rocks. Thus the petroleum geologist concentrates the search on
the great sedimentary basins of the world.

1.3.4 Metamorphic Rocks

Previously existing rocks which have acquired a new mineral composition or structure, due to
temperature, pressure, or other external phenomena. For instance, when shale, a common
sedimentary rock is acted upon by high temperature and pressure, individual mineral grains are
fused into a metamorphic rock called slate. Further metamorphosis produces schist. In the
same way, limestone can transform to marble.
Such rocks do not normally exhibit the characteristics of the original rock, and are normally
crystalline in nature with little or no porosity. Most types are banded and some contain a
proportion of flaky material, which will split easily. Examples of metamorphic rock are marble
and slate.

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1.4 SEDIMENTATION
A study of the processes by which sediments are produced, transported and deposited will
give the oil explorer, the geologist, vital evidence as to where the most likely oil bearing areas
are to be found. An analysis of sediments will help to show how rock is formed from loose
debris, how fluid can be held within a rock and how oil and gas can accumulate within it.
There are three important processes; Erosion, Transportation and Deposition.

1.4.1 Erosion
Erosion of rock occurs at varying paces and depends on the sort of erosional elements
available. These include:
• Physical Weathering: Rock expands and contracts due to temperature variations.
• Frost Wedging: Water can enter cracks and prise rock apart when it freezes.
• Leaching: Water can dissolve minerals from the rock.
• Chemical Weathering: Elements within the rock such as iron can oxidise and promote
the breakdown of the rock. Similar reactions take place between other appropriate
elements.

With all these mechanisms working slowly over vast lengths of time, huge volumes of rock
can be reduced to various particle sizes. They will mingle with particles of other types of rock,
dust and clay to form an aggregate of different sized particles. These particles are now much
lighter and easier to move and it is largely through transportation by different media that the
sediment will eventually build up into thicker layers.

1.4.2 Transportation
The most obvious reason for particles of rock to change their positions is when gravity can act
upon them and have an effect; See Figure 6. A landslide or rockfall are examples of the direct
effect of gravity. This is a relatively insignificant form of transport in global terms but
combined with frost wedging will result in large movements of material over time.
Gravity also acts indirectly by affecting the flow of streams and rivers. Where there is a high
gradient, the turbulence of the falling water can transport considerable amounts of rock
material of different shapes and sizes. A low gradient will allow only finer particles to be
carried any distance. The Grand Canyon is testimony to the amount of material which can be
removed over time. Water can also make clay particularly unstable causing slumping of
hillsides.
Wind and glacial activity have also, over the centuries, formed some of the most memorable
landscapes on our planet. Again though, the amount of material transported at one time is
relatively insignificant, over time considerable movement of material will occur. Sediments
shifted by these methods are normally subject to subsequent action by flowing water.

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Figure 6 – General Schematic of Sedimentary Environments

1.4.3 Deposition
The depositional activity associated with rivers and streams is quite complex and takes into
account the shape and direction of the river bed, the velocity of the water, the material which
is being carried and the changes in the river course made by material, too heavy to be carried,
filling the river bed; See Figure 7 and Figure 8. The meandering river creates overlaps,
changes of direction and variations in deposited material as the flow mechanics of the river
water change.

Figure 7 – Deposition in Altered River Bed

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In estuaries where there is sufficient tidal action, the sediment brought down by rivers may
not be able to accumulate. With inadequate tidal activity the sediment will create an extension
of the land into the sea as its sediments accumulate. This is known as a marine delta. It is
important to remember that with the silt and sediment come vast quantities of organic
material which also accumulates with the silt. This is important since under the right
conditions, the organic material will form part of the sedimentary layer and be subject to the
higher pressure and temperature as the layer sinks under successive layers of accumulating
sediment.

Figure 8 – Stream Meandering

This process is held to have been responsible for the development of the original oil/gas
reservoirs. It should be fairly obvious that the deeper a layer of sediment, the older it is and
that the layers become progressively younger as they approach the surface. Complications
arise in identification when severe folding has occurred.

Figure 9 – Marine Barrier Sands

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1.4.4 Transformation To Rock (Lithofaction)

Before a sediment will transform to a rock it must first undergo considerable changes. There
must be great pressure to compact the particles and some mechanism of cementation to bind
the particles together.
• Compaction: As the amount of sediment builds up over many, many years the weight
of the overlying layers (the overburden) squeezes the particles of the lower sedimentary
layers into the tightest possible arrangement. The particles are compacted and most of
the water in the spaces between the particles is squeezed out; See Figure 10.
• Cementation: The process of lithification, begun with compaction, will be completed
with cementation, whereby mineral solutions will dehydrate and crystallise around the
rock particles binding them together. The coatings may fill the pore spaces completely
and a clean sand may be transformed into limy sandstone, losing most of its original
porosity.

Figure 10 – Compaction of Sand and Clay

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1.4.5 Rock Characteristics

Two of the most important properties of an oil-bearing reservoir rock are porosity and
permeability. These terms have been mentioned previously but their significance has not yet
been made clear. Subsurface reservoirs of oil, gas or water are not simply vast pools of fluid
buried deep within the Earth. These reservoirs comprise porous, permeable rock strata into
which oil or gas has migrated or in which water has remained from deposition. The
characteristics of the reservoir rock have a great bearing on the amount and speed of recovery
of oil, so we should look closely at them.
• Porosity: It is defined as the percentage of void space in a rock. The spaces occur
between individual rock particles where they can not be forced closer together due to
their shape. Without space in a rock, fluid cannot accumulate within it. Porosity is
expressed as a percentage of total rock volume; See Figure 11.
• Permeability: This is the degree of interconnection between the pores, and therefore a
measure of how easily a fluid can pass through the rock. Vertical and horizontal
permeability can also differ according to the arrangement of the rock particles. The unit
of permeability is the Darcy or, more commonly, the millidarcy (md). Permeabilities of
less than 1 md are considered poor, 1 - 10 md fair, 10 - 100 md good and 100 - 1000 md
very good; See Figure 12.
• Effective Porosity: Since only those pores which are interconnected can transmit fluid,
effective porosity is the ratio of the volume of all the interconnected pores to the total
volume of a rock unit.
• Effective Permeability: This is the permeability of a rock to one fluid, when another is
present.

Without these characteristics there is no likelihood of the existence of an oil bearing reservoir.
Therefore in our search for oil we must look to sedimentary basins, porous permeable rock
types and strata of an appropriate age.

Figure 11 – Porosity

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Figure 12 - Permeability

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1.5 STRATIGRAPHY
As we have shown, sediments are transported to depositional areas where they come to rest. It
should also be clear now that when one rock structure has been eroded to its limit, the
surrounding rock structures will then be eroded to create a new sediment type. Thus a layering
effect is created on the depositional bed. See 'D', 'E' and 'F' on Figure 13. The thickness of
each layer (stratum) depends on how much material is deposited before deposition stops.
The main characteristic of sediments is that they are laid down in primarily horizontal strata.
This allows the geologist to identify individual beds from cores taken or by studying exposed
outcrops. However, as we have seen, because the Earth's crust has been subjected to erosion
and the huge forces connected with plate tectonics, the strata have often been displaced
producing what are known as Unconformities, Folds, Faults and various combinations. A
fault is significant in that it interrupts the continuity of the rock strata, whereby a rock
structure becomes faulted and a porous bed may be moved opposite a non-porous bed which
can then act as a seal preventing movement of fluid through the stratum. If oil was in the
porous bed it might now be trapped.
So far we have looked at the way sediments are created, the forces which transport sediment
to form layers and beds, and how the sediments are transformed to rock, trapping fluid and
organic material within pore spaces. It is now time to examine how oil itself is formed, how it
reaches a trap and why it remains there.

Figure 13 – Stratigraphic Correlation

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1.6 ORIGIN AND ACCUMULATION OF PETROLEUM

1.6.1 'Organic' Theory

There are many theories explaining the origin of petroleum, but the one which is generally
accepted by scientists is the ‘Organic Theory’. This theory presumes that the hydrogen and
carbon which make up petroleum, came from plants and animals living many millions of years
ago. It also presumes that the plants and animals were minute swamp and sea organisms rather
than larger, true land life forms. Over vast timescales, organic material collected in
sedimentary basins together with transported mineral particles. The increasing pressure of
successive layers of sediment and rock, together with the temperature increase due to the
compression, somehow transformed this organic material into the hydrocarbon deposits
which then migrated to reservoirs which trapped them. This process has never been fully
explained but is highly probable.

1.6.2 'Inorganic' Theory

This theory holds that hydrogen and carbon deep in the earth were forced together under
conditions of high temperature and pressure to form petroleum. The weight of scientific
evidence, however, supports the previous theory.

1.6.3 Transformation Of Biomass Into Petroleum

The sedimentary rocks in which oil and gas are found, as we have seen, were formed by the
accumulation and cementation of rock fragments which were eroded from the earth's surface
and deposited at the mouths of ancient rivers, and by the cemented fragments of shells, etc.
deposited in the sea.
Along with the mineral deposits was an immense volume of plant and animal life plus great
volumes of tiny marine life which had died and sunk to the seabed. As this material had been
organic (alive) in nature it is in effect a store of solar energy in the same way as coal is. The
simple organisms which formed the 'biomass' of raw material, were all part of a food chain
which produced waste matter. Those organisms which were not consumed by others, died and
decomposed along with the waste matter, but in a specific way.
Decomposition is largely aided by a large variety of bacteria but there are two main types:
• Aerobic: those that live in oxygenated environments deriving their energy from
oxidising (adding oxygen) matter. These bacteria would eventually convert the organic
matter into heat, water and carbon dioxide from which no useful energy could be
gained.
• Anaerobic: these are 'reducing' bacteria which remove oxygen from matter to produce
hydrocarbons and compounds such as Hydrogen Sulphide, a deadly gas which can be
found in hydrocarbon reservoirs and can also be produced in drains, sewers and similar
environments. This type of bacteria is more significant in oil formation and it is
important for the organic material to be isolated from an oxygen supply for the process
to take place.

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Therefore, the vast quantity of dead organic matter which went to form the known petroleum
reservoirs was prevented from decaying normally, due to the lack of oxygen and was subject
to pressure caused by the ever-increasing overburden of successive rock layers. The
temperature increased gradually by compression and by heating from the earth's interior by
approximately 1.5°F per 100 ft of depth. This pressure, together with increased temperature
promoted the processes which converted the organic matter into petroleum.
Figure 14 illustrates the process of Secondary Migration. Figure 15 illustrates the process of
Differential Entrapment.

Figure 14 – Secondary Migration

1.6.4 Source Rocks

The rocks in which hydrocarbons form are known as 'source rocks'. The best such source
rocks would obviously be those shales rich in organic matter which have been deposited in an
anaerobic marine environment, although source beds have originated from fresh water
sediment beds. As it takes a considerable length of time for petroleum to form, source beds
will normally be over one million years old.

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1.6.5 Migration
Migration is defined as a movement from one location to another. If the source rocks display
the correct characteristics of porosity and permeability then the fluid in the rock pores would
be free to move under any appropriate influence such as gravity or outside force. However
migration can be further defined as primary migration and secondary migration.
• Primary Migration: The movement of petroleum from its source rock which may be a
journey of fractions of an inch to several feet. This is normally due to the fact that the
increasing overburden pressure does not compress the mineral grains of the rock, but
the pore spaces between them. Since there is usually water present within the pores
(Connate water) as well as the oil, the water tends to be squeezed out carrying droplets
of oil in suspension. The oil and water will accumulate in rock whose porosity and
permeability has not been affected so much by the increased overburden pressure.
However, it may not have a path to another rock layer and so remain under pressure in
its source rock.
• Secondary Migration: This occurs when the hydrocarbons move from the source rock
to some other location. If the oil cannot move further due to the presence of an
impermeable barrier or 'cap' rock it will form a reservoir but still be under pressure from
the advancing water. Water is again the prime cause of movement of oil but in several
ways. The supply of water is from surrounding water-filled rock layers (aquifers) either
above or below the oil layer and will displace the oil due to its greater density or
pressure. Also, since water is denser than oil, an oil/water mixture will tend to separate
out with the oil gathering on the top and the water below. Similarly if gas is present, the
result will be three layers of gas, oil then water separated according to density.

Knowing that most rock has some degree of effective permeability, it is easy to see how
difficult it would be to actually prevent fluid or gas under high pressure from moving through
rock layers. This has already happened in many instances, with the oil and gas migrating all the
way to surface and being lost. Many examples of these surface seepages can be found, such as
the Trinidad Asphalt Lake and the Eternal Fire of Baku.

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1.6.6 Accumulation
Like any fluid, oil will accumulate in structures if it cannot easily flow from them. Also oil will
separate from water due to density differences and normally rise to the top of a reservoir
depending on conditions.
We already know that porosity and permeability are extremely important characteristics of
rock and these properties control very much the propensity of oil and water to form
productive reservoirs. For instance, ‘Relative Permeability' is the rock's permeability to one
fluid when another is also present, and the ability of water to cling to the surfaces surrounding
a pore space is seven times that of oil. It follows that a rock saturated with water may not
allow oil to flow through it at all and the oil will again form a reservoir.
The oil accumulations, then, depend upon: the shape of the trap, the 'flow' and presence of
aquifer water and the rock characteristics already mentioned.

Figure 15 – Secondary Migration and Accumulation (Differential Entrapment)

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1.7 RESERVOIR TRAPS

There are many different shapes, sizes and types of geological structures which form traps
under which petroleum may accumulate in a reservoir. They were formed by folding and
cracking of the sedimentary rock strata due to the continuous movement of the earth's crust.
Traps are divided broadly into two main groups: Structural and Stratigraphic. There are also
Hydrodynamic traps where the trapping mechanism is the force of moving water within the
rock. The following are a few of the basic traps classified according to the conditions causing
their occurrence.

1.7.1 Structural Traps

A structural trap has a convex (when viewed from above) roof caused by the local
deformation of the reservoir rock and the impervious roof rock. In this case the intersection
of the oil-water contact and the roof rock determines the edges of the reservoir; See Figure 16.
• Anticlines: If the rock strata were folded, but not to the point of fracture, then the
resultant trap shape would be a dome or an anticline.
• Fault Trap: Reservoirs of the fault trap type were formed by the rock layers breaking or
shearing. The upward migration of petroleum was halted by an impervious rock having
moved into a position opposite the reservoir rock. The fluid is confined in this type of
trap because of tilting and faulting.
• Faulted Anticline: The upper parts of anticlines are often faulted as well, and while the
overall volume of the reservoir is not changed, such faulting serves to compartmentalise
it. Such traps will require wells to be drilled in each reservoir in order to recover most
oil from the structure.

1.7.2 Stratigraphic Traps

In a stratigraphic trap, variations in the porosity and permeability of the rock strata
themselves, or the kinds of rock laid down or simply the termination of the reservoir rock
plays the important role. Since they are normally unrelated to surface features, unlike structural
traps, they are much more difficult to locate and require more sophisticated methods of
discovery. They account for only a minor part of known global reserves.
• Unconformities: The unconformity traps were created when new impermeable layers
of rock were laid down over the cut off or eroded layers of lower rock.
• Salt Plug Trap: Accumulations of petroleum are found adjacent to great masses or
plugs of salt or serpentine rock which have pierced, deformed or lifted the overlying
strata. This type of reservoir is common in the Southern North Sea.

Combinations of the above trap types may occur and it is also possible to have two or more
reservoirs lying above each other. Some stratigraphic traps have been discovered while drilling
for a structural trap.

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1.7.3 Hydrodynamic Traps

Most of the subsurface rock structures will contain fluid of one kind or another. It will
normally be water but if lucky it might be oil and gas. If the rock exhibits suitable porosity and
permeability, and if the structure is suitable the fluid is likely to move in the direction of a
downward gradient. this has the effect of displacing an oil accumulation or maintaining an oil
accumulation in a position it would not normally maintain due to its buoyancy.

Figure 16 – Reservoir Traps

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1.8 DRIVE MECHANISMS

Fluid flow within reservoirs and rock strata is extremely important to the production of oil. If
oil or gas is not subject to some sort of internal or external pressure then it will not flow to
surface and artificial means must be employed to recover it.
Water trapped in underground porous and permeable strata is subject to the same overburden
pressure as the rock it is within and the water will often play a part in the support of the
overall structure due to its relative incompressibility. This pressurised fluid will try to escape in
any direction should the rock permit it. If the water impinges upon a trapped oil accumulation
it will exert this pressure upon the oil. If trapped with a well, the oil will be driven out by the
water pushing upon it. This process is known as a drive mechanism.
There are several types of drive mechanism which is the means by which oil and gas are
forced from the reservoir. The oil company relies heavily on a strong initial drive to produce
most of the recoverable hydrocarbons, but can initiate its own drive by pumping in fluid
(liquid or gas) to maintain the original reservoir pressure.

1.8.1 Water Drive

This is normally the most productive mechanism resulting in higher overall recovery than
other drives. It can be seen that the oil accumulations lie on top of water. This water is trying
to displace the oil but because of the trap shape, it is impossible. The oil and gas however is
under pressure from the water and if a well was drilled at a suitable point for instance at the
apex of the dome or anticline, the oil would be forced to surface (assuming the pressure of the
water is sufficient); See Figure 17.

1.8.2 Gas Cap Drive

Rarely will oil form without some associated hydrocarbon gas. Remembering the chain
structure of many hydrocarbon molecules it would seem likely that at least some molecules of
each type would form at the same time. This gas, if it remained, being less dense than oil
would migrate to the highest point of any trap. Also since gas is highly compressible it can
absorb a huge amount of pressure energy as its volume reduces. If a well is drilled through the
gas cap and into the oil bearing zone, the compressed gas will try to expand forcing the oil to
the lower pressure wellbore; See Figure 18.
As the oil volume reduces, the gas expands, and the pressure in the formation will drop until
gas, which is dissolved in the oil starts to come out of solution. Very soon the pressure in the
reservoir depletes and can no longer force oil to the surface. This is the least productive drive
mechanism.

1.8.3 Dissolved Gas Drive

Many reservoirs are pressurised to such an extent that the lighter hydrocarbons which form
gas are fully dissolved in the liquid oil in the same way as carbon dioxide is dissolved in soda
water. When the soda siphon tap is opened, initiating a sudden pressure drop in the siphon,
gas immediately comes out of solution, expands into bubbles and forces the liquid out. This is
analogous to dissolved gas drive. (The behaviour of hydrocarbons under extreme levels of
pressure and temperature is very complex and beyond the remit of this course.); See Figure 19.

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Figure 17 – Water Drive Reservoir

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Figure 18 – Gas Cap Drive Reservoir

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Figure 19 – Solution Gas Drive Reservoir

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It is important to note some of the significant points of these phenomena:

• Pressure has a fundamental effect on the performance of a reservoir.
• The type of drive available will dictate the placement and number of wells used to
produce the reservoir.
• Some drives will require artificial help sooner than others so that investment may be
greater.
• Reservoirs will usually have combinations of the above drive mechanisms.

1.9 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, it can be seen that in order for an oil and gas field to exist, four basic
conditions must be satisfied:
1. A source of hydrocarbons must have existed, and there must have been suitable
environmental conditions which changed the source material into petroleum.
2. A porous rock bed must have been laid down with the organic raw material, through
which the petroleum could migrate to its reservoir rock.
3. A suitably shaped trap must have been formed under which the petroleum could
accumulate.
4. The trap must have been overlaid by an impervious cap rock, to prevent the escape of
petroleum to the surface.

It is clear then that the Earth, its oceans, rivers, basins deserts and its rock contain all of the
secrets an oil company must unlock if it is to have any measure of success in finding
hydrocarbon deposits. The information required is considerable and extremely difficult to
interpret without precise and laborious scientific analyses and techniques. The following
section deals with such methods.

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