NAME: AQSA KHAWAJA

GEOL 1022 ASSIGNMENT 5

Prof William Scott

UNIT EIGHT

1. a. What was the Tethys Seaway and where was it? (2)

During the Mesozoic era, from 250 to 60 million years ago, a sizable body of water called the

Tethys Seaway existed between the supercontinents of Laurasia and Gondwana. It was

surrounded by numerous island chains and archipelagos and supported a broad range of marine

life.

b. How was the Tethys Seaway involved in the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea? What

water bodies today are remnants of this seaway? (4)

The Tethys Seaway, which was created because of the rifting and separation of the land masses

that made up Pangea, played a role in the dissolution of the supercontinent Pangea. The Tethys

Seaway eventually developed as fresh oceanic crust emerged as Pangea started to split apart in

the area between the dividing land masses. The Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea

are three modern-day examples of the Tethys Seaway's remnants. The tectonic activity that

persisted in the area after Pangea's breakup is assumed to have contributed to the formation of

these bodies of water, which are situated in the same approximate area as the old Tethys

Seaway.

1c. What tectonic and sea level events resulted in flooding of the North American cratonic

interior to form the Western Interior Seaway and its thick terrigenous clastic stratigraphic

succession starting in the Jurassic? (5)

The Western Interior Seaway in North America was created because of numerous tectonic and

sea level changes that took place over millions of years.

The Pangea supercontinent started to disintegrate during the Jurassic period, and the North

American plate started to move westward. The Newark Basin in the east of the United States

and the Gulf of Mexico Basin to the south were two of the rift basins that were formed because

of this movement.

The Late Jurassic, approximately 150 million years ago, when the mid-Atlantic ridge widened,

resulted in the submergence of the Newark Basin and the formation of a shallow sea that

spanned from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. This body of water eventually took on the

moniker Western Interior Seaway after formerly going by the name Sundance Sea.

The Western Interior Seaway kept growing and getting deeper during the Cretaceous period,

which lasted from roughly 100 to 66 million years ago. This was due to the subsidence of the

cartonic interior and increased sea level rise. As well as tectonic activity along the continent's

western edge, this sinking was probably brought on by the weight of the sediments that were

dumped in the basin.

The Western Interior Seaway persisted until the end of the Cretaceous, when it started to

progressively regress because of tectonic upheaval and a decrease in sea level. The end-

Cretaceous mass extinction event, which resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs

and numerous other species, coincided with the final closure of the seaway around 66 million

years ago.
2a. What are index fossils? (2)

Index fossils are the remains of animals that were ubiquitous and lived for a brief time. They

can be used to correlate rock layers from various sites that contain the same index fossils, which

helps in dating rocks and figuring out the relative ages of various rock strata. It usually refers to

species that were geographically broad, plentiful, and had hard body components that could

easily fossilize. Ammonites, trilobites, and specific brachiopod species are a few examples.

2b. What attributes of ammonites make them good index fossils? (2)

Ammonites are exceptional index fossils because they had a brief lifespan, were numerous and

common in the ancient oceans, had a wide variety of shell sizes and shapes, and were

constructed of hard calcium carbonate, which survives well in sedimentary rocks.

2c. What major events in planktonic and benthic marine communities in the Mesozoic resulted

in the appearance of ‘modern style’ faunal assemblages? What Paleozoic benthic groups are

absent in the Mesozoic, and what possible explanation is there for their absence? (4)

Modern-style faunal assemblages first appeared in planktonic and benthic marine communities

during the Mesozoic era as a result of the diversification of marine reptiles, the development of

bony fish, the emergence of modern-style planktonic foraminifera, and the appearance of

modern-style benthic communities. Rugose and tabulate corals, trilobites, and crinoids are

examples of Paleozoic benthic groups that are absent in the Mesozoic. This might be because of

the end-Permian mass extinction event as well as environmental reasons such changing ocean

chemistry and temperature.

3a. List and describe the evidence for impact of an extraterrestrial body with Earth at the end of

the Cretaceous. (6)

The non-avian dinosaurs and many other species became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous

epoch, roughly 66 million years ago. There is evidence to support the theory that an alien body,

most likely a sizable asteroid or comet, collided with Earth and triggered this catastrophe. The

following is some supporting evidence for this effect:

The world's wide distribution of the K-Pg border, a thin layer of clay. Iridium is an uncommon

element on Earth but is more prevalent in asteroids and comets, where it is found in high

concentrations in this clay layer.

The finding of the Chicxulub crater, a huge impact crater buried under sediment in Mexico's

Yucatan Peninsula. This crater, which has a diameter of roughly 180 kilometres, was formed at

the same period as the K-Pg boundary.

Rocks from the K-Pg boundary contain shocked quartz grains and other impact-related minerals,

indicating that they were shaped by the high pressures and temperatures associated with an

impact.

Fossil evidence indicates that many species, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs,

ammonites, and many others, went extinct abruptly at the K-Pg boundary. These extinctions

occur at the same time as the impact event.

Due to the vast volumes of dust and debris that were pushed into the atmosphere, the impact

would have triggered a "nuclear winter" effect that would have disrupted the food chain and

caused massive wildfires, tsunamis, and other natural disasters.

All the evidence points to a major alien impact as the cause of the end-Cretaceous extinction

event.

3b. Does the fossil record support the impact hypothesis? (3)

Certainly, the fossil record is consistent with the impact theory, according to which the

Cretaceous period's great extinction was brought on by a significant asteroid impact. This

concept is supported by evidence such as a worldwide coating of iridium and the Chicxulub

impact crater, while there is some scientific disagreement regarding the relative significance of

the impact against other elements in the extinction event.

3c. Oceans cover 70% of Earth’s surface, yet impact craters are seldom documented. Why? (2)

The impact craters are less frequent in the oceans than on land because the deep ocean, which

makes up the majority of the planet's surface under water, has few geological features that

might preserve impact crater data. Also, plate tectonics' ongoing recycling of the marine crust

increases the likelihood that any impact craters that do emerge will be rapidly obliterated.

Finally, since they are frequently buried by silt and have been altered by the impacts of water

pressure and other variables, impact craters on the ocean floor are more challenging to locate

and investigate.
UNIT NINE

4. a. What are the Milankovitch cycles? (2)

The predictable oscillations in the Earth's orbit around the sun that take place over a long

period of time are referred to as Milankovitch cycles. Changes in the Earth's orbit's eccentricity

(how elliptical it is), tilt, and precession of its axis are the three variables that produce them (the

wobbling motion). These cycles have been connected to ice ages and other long-term climatic

shifts and have the potential to significantly affect Earth's climate.

4b. Describe how the Milankovitch cycles (three cycles) cause sea level changes and the onset

and termination of the glacial and interglacial stages that characterized the Pleistocene

northern hemisphere. (6)

precession of Earth's orbit around the sun. Throughout Earth's history, these cycles have been

connected to climatic shifts as well as the beginning and end of glacial and interglacial periods.

The following are the three primary Milankovitch cycles:

Eccentricity: This describes shifts in the elliptical to more circular nature of Earth's orbit around

the sun. The amount of solar radiation that Earth receives depends on its proximity to the sun

when its orbit is more elliptical. This may have an impact on the quantity of energy that is

absorbed and reflected back into space, which may lead to long-term fluctuations in climate.

Milankovitch cycle:The Earth's orbit around the Sun is subject to fluctuations known as

Milankovitch cycles. This speaks to changes in the angular relationship between the Earth's axis

of rotation and its orbit around the sun. Different areas of the earth receive varying amounts of
solar radiation depending on the season due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. The difference in solar

energy between summer and winter is more dramatic when the tilt is larger, which may help

explain why ice sheets grow in high latitudes.

Precession: This describes changes in how the Earth's axis of rotation is oriented in relation to

the stars. The timing of the seasons and the amount of solar energy that certain regions of the

earth get at various periods of the year are both impacted by this cycle. In high latitudes, the

production of ice sheets may be aided by the axis being angled so that the northern hemisphere

is closer to the sun during the summer.

4c. How did plate tectonic events and ocean circulation patterns contribute to glaciation of

Antarctica?

A change in Earth's orbit is referred to as the Milankovitch cycles. Ocean circulation patterns

and plate tectonic events are thought to have had an impact on Antarctica's glaciation. Due to

tectonic action, Antarctica split from South America and Australia around 34 million years ago,

isolating Antarctica from warmer ocean currents by forming a circumpolar ocean current. As a

result, sea ice could accumulate and the Southern Ocean could cool, which finally caused

Antarctica to become glaciated.

The quantity of heat delivered to the continent was decreased thanks to the circumpolar

current's assistance in keeping the warmer water from the tropics away from the Antarctic

shore. As a result, the continent got colder and started to accumulate snow and ice, which

eventually led to the creation of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Ocean circulation patterns and tectonic isolation both contributed to Antarctica's glaciation.

One of the largest carbon dioxides sinks in the oceans is the Southern Ocean, which surrounds

Antarctica. Carbon dioxide is transported to the ocean's bottom by cold water from the polar

regions, which lowers the atmospheric CO2 concentrations. It's possible that this cooling impact

helped Antarctica's ice sheets expand. Ultimately, a special set of circumstances that led to the

glaciation of Antarctica were produced by the interaction of tectonic isolation, the circumpolar

current, and ocean circulation patterns.

4d. Describe the variety of geological evidence left behind by Recent glaciation. (5)

The Quaternary glaciation, usually referred to as recent glacial, has left behind a range of

geological data that enables us to comprehend its scope and effects on the Earth's surface. The

following are some of the primary indicators:

1. Glacier Landforms: Moraines (ridges of sediment and rock), drumlins (long, elongated

hills), eskers (long, ridges of gravel), and kames are examples of glacial landforms

(mounds of sediment). We can retrace the amount and direction of ice migration using

these landforms.

2. Glacial sediments: large quantities of sediment, including as boulders, gravel, sand, and

clay, are carried by and deposited by glaciers. These sediments can aid in the

reconstruction of a region's glacial history and offer hints about previous climatic

conditions.
 3. Sea level changes: Depending on how much water is trapped in ice sheets during

glaciation, sea level may rise or fall. Sea levels drop during glacial periods because

glaciers store water. Sea level rises once more because of glacier melting.

In general, the range of geological evidence left behind by recent glaciation offers insightful

information about the background and significance of this time in Earth's history.

5.a. How has climate change affected terrestrial vegetation since the end of the Mesozoic? (4)

Since the close of the Cretaceous era, climate change has had a substantial impact on terrestrial

vegetation. Global temperatures began to fall during the Paleogene epoch, which prompted the

development of grasslands and the extinction of forests. A drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide

and changes in ocean currents, which in turn were impacted by tectonic activity and the

disintegration of the supercontinent Pangea, were the main contributors to the cooling.

The Earth's climate started to fluctuate between colder and

warmer periods, known as glacial and interglacial periods, during the Neogene epoch, some 23

million years ago. These cycles of climatic change had a significant impact on terrestrial

vegetation, causing different biomes to expand and decrease. For instance, much of North

America was covered in ice during the last glacial maximum, roughly 20,000 years ago, while

grasslands grew in other regions of the world.

More recently, the Earth's temperature and the vegetation that lives there have seen

considerable changes because of human activities including deforestation, agriculture, and the

combustion of fossil fuels. Future changes in the abundance and distribution of various plant
species are anticipated to have a significant impact on terrestrial vegetation, altering the way

ecosystems operate all over the planet.

5b. How has the history of primate evolution been affected by climate? (3

The evolution of primates has been significantly impacted by climatic change. Primates had to

adapt to new locations and food sources as the temperature of the planet changed over time,

which resulted in the emergence of numerous species, each with distinct traits.

5c. How did the formation of the Isthmus of Panama affect: i) terrestrial animal populations (2)

and ii) global climate? (2)

The creation of the Isthmus of Panama, which served as a land bridge for animals to travel

between North and South America, had a huge impact on the populations of terrestrial species.

Due to the mingling of formerly distinct faunas and the demise of some species, this caused the

Great American Interchange.

By altering ocean currents and atmospheric circulation patterns, the construction of the Isthmus

of Panama also had a profound effect on the climate of the entire planet. The Atlantic and

Pacific Oceans were split apart because of the Central American Seaway's closure, which had an

impact on ocean circulation and heat transfer. The worldwide climate patterns were

subsequently impacted, which led to the beginning of the Pleistocene cold ages.