Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Introduction

The objective of this course and accompanying text is to illustrate the major
sedimentological and stratigraphic characteristics of siliciclastic fluvial and
lacustrine reservoirs and to furnish practical guidelines to identify, correlate
and map them in the subsurface. It is assumed that the course participants
have a certain experience in subsurface geology and are familiar with well
log interpretation. The major focus is to furnish the elements for practical
applications of sedimentology for hydrocarbon exploration and
development, rather than to discuss the most recent ideas of sandstone
sedimentology. For this reason, the approach might appear relatively basic
to specialists in sedimentology, as the major focus will be on the general
features of the major types of sandstone reservoirs and depositional
environments. There is still considerable debate and controversy on specific
types of depositional systems and it is beyond the scope of this course to
discuss these in detail. Also, in many cases, because of the lack of data,
these debates can be relatively academic in terms of hydrocarbon
exploration.

Major bibliographic references are presented, in particular those including

descriptions of subsurface examples. Several recently published texts have
discussed in considerable detail most of the types of sandstones covered in
this course and anyone interested in a more detailed discussion of
siliciclastic sedimentology is referred to these publications.

This text is divided into 3 parts:

Part 1 - an outline of the mechanisms and processes of sediment transport

and the nature and significance of sedimentary structures

Part 2 - a general review of fluvial and non-marine depositional

environments, facies and reservoir geometry

Part 3 - discussion of the sequence stratigraphy of clastic deposits and a

practical methodology for reservoir correlation and mapping,

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Part 1

Review of Fundamentals of
Siliciclastic Sedimentary
Processes and Facies

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Chapter 1
Sediment Erosion and Transport
1.1
Erosion
The fundamental mechanism that controls the transport of sediment is the
turbulent flow of a fluid, either air or water. A fluid flowing over a solid
interface engenders a shear force on the interface proportional to the
velocity of the fluid. If the flow occurs on a bed of unconsolidated
sediment, when the shear force is greater than the frictional resistance
and inertia of the individual sediment grains, the sediment is entrained by
the fluids and erosion occurs. The force necessary to erode sediment is
generally expressed in terms of a critical current velocity at a specified
distance (usually 1 m) above the bottom.

For a given fluid the critical velocity required to erode a sediment depends
on two parameters:
1. sediment grain size
2. intergranular cohesion of the sediment.

Based on these two parameters, sediments can be subdivided into two

major classes:

1. Cohesive sediments consist of silt and clay with a grain size less than
0.1 – 0.2 mm. These sediments are characterised by a high degree of
cohesion between the grains, due to electrostatic charges on the grain
surface. In these sediments, the forces of intergranular cohesion
predominate over inertial forces and the sediments are difficult to erode
because the grains tend to stick together.

2. Non-cohesive sediments consist of sediments coarser than 0.1 – 0.2

mm and comprise sand and gravel. The hydrodynamic behaviour of
these sediments is controlled by grain inertia, and intergranular cohesion
is very weak so that they are easier to erode than cohesive sediments.

The Hjulstrom diagram (Fig.1.1) illustrates the erosion velocity as a

function of grain size. Fine-grained sediments less than 0.1 – 0.2 mm
require an increased erosion velocity with decreasing grain size, due to
the increasing cohesiveness with the proportion of clay. In non-cohesive
sandy sediments, however, the erosion velocity increases with decreasing
grain size, due to the increase of grain inertia with increasing grain size. A
minimum erosion velocity occurs for sediment in the 0.1 – 0.2 mm grain
size range. Fine to medium sands are therefore the most easily eroded
and mobile of all sediments, whereas clay can be as difficult to erode as
coarse gravel. The erosion velocity of a clay will also be proportional to its

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

degree of compaction: a compacted clay bed will require very high velocity
flows.
1.2
Sediment Transport

Once the sediment is eroded and the forces of inertia and cohesion are
overcome, a lower current velocity is required to maintain transport.
Hence, a critical sedimentation velocity can be defined (the velocity
required to maintain the sediment in motion). This velocity will be less than
the critical erosion velocity, particularly for silts and clays, which require
much less current velocity to maintain transport than sand and gravel
(Fig.1.1). The sedimentation velocity determines the conditions for which
sedimentation occurs, and is directly proportional to grain size—the lower
the grain size, the lower the velocity required to maintain transport.

In nature most flows are turbulent. Most naturally occurring flow velocities
(at 1 m from the bed) range from zero to several m/sec. The size of
particles that can be transported by most naturally occurring flows is
therefore limited to a few tens of centimetres. However when the density
and viscosity of the fluid is very high, much larger sediment particles, of up
to several decimetres in diameter, can be transported.

Sediment transport occurs in one or two mechanisms: (Fig. 1.2).

1. Bedload transport occurs when the sediment grains remain close to

the bed (a few cm), and movement is maintained by constant high
frequency collisions between grains (saltation) (Fig. 1.2). This near-bottom
transport will only be possible in granular or non-cohesive sediments such
as sand and gravel. Clay cannot be transported as bedload.

3. Suspension transport occurs when the turbulence of the flow is

sufficiently strong so as to maintain the individual sedimentary particles
dispersed throughout the flow and above the bed. The velocity of flow
required to maintain sediment in suspension increases very rapidly with
sediment grain size, as shown in Figure 1.2. Hence, very high velocity
(or very dense and viscous) flows will be required to maintain coarse
sediment in suspension. Cohesive sediment however, (< 0.1 – 0.2 mm
grain size) will always be transported in suspension (Fig. 1.2).

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1.3
Naturally Occurring Flows

Two basic types of fluid flows occur in nature (Fig. 1.3):

1. Tractive currents occur whenever a fluid is subject to pressure

differences due to a hydraulic gradient. The most common example is
rivers, which flow because they occur on an inclined surface. Tides and
waves engender a current flow because the water surface is subject to
a slope. Hence, the driving mechanism of tractive flows will always be
a slope of the water surface, and current velocity will be proportional to
this slope.

2. Density currents are formed when two fluids of different densities are
superposed. Such a density difference can occur by salinity or
temperature gradients, or more importantly sedimentologically, by the
introduction of a layer of water with a very high concentration of
suspended sediment. This layer will then behave like a separate fluid
and if there is a slope, will flow downslope. Turbidity currents are the
most common form of density currents, and are formed when a high-
density layer of water is introduced, or formed within a body of normal
density water. The velocity of flow of a density current is proportional to
the density contrasts with the ambient fluid and the angle of slope.
These concepts will be discussed in more detail in a later chapter.

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Fig. 1.1 – Graph showing velocities at which different size grades of sediment
will be eroded, transported or deposited: plotted on double logarithmic scale.
After Hjulström (1935).

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Fig.1.2 – Sediment transport mechanisms
Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Fig. 1.3 – Schematic illustration of the two major types of

flows, tractive currents and density currents (see text).

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Chapter 2
Sedimentary Facies and Structures

Accumulation of non-cohesive sediment, either from bedload or

suspended load creates the characteristic features on the sediment
surface known as bedforms. These will then form characteristic bedding
patterns, or sedimentary structures, which are diagnostic of the flow
conditions at the time of deposition.

The analysis of sedimentary structures gives us insight into flow

velocity, and orientation and type of current, and is an important
feature of facies analysis.

Sedimentary structures can be subdivided into three types according to the

sediment transport mechanism:

1. bedload (or traction) structures

2. suspension structures
3. mixed traction - suspension structures.

2.1
Bedload Structures
Bedforms
Bedload structures are formed during bedload transport in granular (i.e.
non-cohesive) sediments. If an accelerating flow is acting on a bed of
medium sand, there will occur a succession of bedforms (Fig. 2.1).

Lower flow regime

At relatively low flow velocity, for example at the onset of bedload, (at 25 –
30 cm/sec 1m from the bed), the sediment surface takes on an undulating
shape, and current ripples are formed. These ripples are asymmetrical in
the direction of flow (Fig. 2.1), and migrate downstream by erosion on the
stoss side and by avalanching on the lee side (Fig. 2.2). The resulting
stratification will preserve only the foreset laminae of the lee side of the
ripples, which will form an angle of 10 – 30 degrees with the depositional
surface (Fig. 2.3 A). An important feature of ripples is the presence of a
backflown vortex in the troughs adjacent to the foreset face, where the
current is reversed with respect to the flow direction (Fig. 2.2). Frequently,
finer grained or lighter material (e.g. plant fragments) can accumulate in this
vortex zone in the ripple trough.

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In unconfined low-turbulence flows, the ripples exhibit relatively straight

crests, whereas in high turbulence, channelised flows, ripples are affected
by high-turbulence vortexes, which scour the inter-ripple trough, and create
a sinuous-crested geometry (Fig. 2.4).

With increasing current velocity, the size (amplitude and wavelength) of the
ripples increases. The bedforms are then called megaripples or dunes.
Megaripples (Fig. 2.1) in a medium-grained sand will form when current
velocity exceeds 40 – 50 cm/sec. The shape of megaripples is similar to that
of ripples, with an erosive stoss side, and a depositional lee side, which
accumulates at the angle of repose foresets. The stoss side of megaripples
is commonly covered with ripples that migrate up to the crest, whereupon
the sand avalanches down the foreset face. A pronounced vortex also forms
in the troughs between megaripples. Also, as in ripples, the crest of
megaripples can be either straight, or sinuous, inducing markedly different
types of stratifications (Fig. 2.4).

Ripples and megaripples characterise the flow conditions known

as lower flow regime (Froude number < 1). If the current velocity
increases, upper flow regime conditions will occur, accompanied
by totally different types of bed configurations (Fig. 2.1)

Upper flow regime

If a megaripple bed is subjected to a higher current velocity, the bed
becomes planar, with no bedforms. This type of configuration is known as a
plane bed. It is characterised by a lack of bedforms, and the resulting
bedding stratification is parallel (Fig. 2.4).

If the current velocity is still increased, antidunes form (Fig. 2.1). Antidunes
migrate upstream. Both plane beds and antidune configuration occur in very
high velocity flows. Plane beds stratification is frequently formed in high-
energy deposits such as fluvial, beaches, or turbidites. However, antidune
deposits are rarely preserved

Sedimentary structures
The sedimentary structures preserved by bedforms are easily recognisable.
Both ripples and megaripples form cross-stratification whereas plane beds
form parallel stratification.

Current ripple cross-stratification consists of foreset laminations

downlapping onto the depositional surface (Fig. 2.3). By definition the
amplitude of a single ripple set will be < 5cm. If the ripples are straight-
crested, the cross-stratification will be tabular and the set boundaries will be
non-erosional. If the ripples have sinuous crests, a trough-shaped cross-
stratification will occur, with foreset laminae accumulating on erosional
concave-up surfaces (Fig. 2.4). In the case of current ripples, foreset

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laminae are unidirectional within a single set, and oriented downstream. In

the case of wave ripples, the rapidly oscillating wave orbital currents will
create bidirectional foreset laminae (Fig. 2.5).

Megaripple (or dune) cross-stratification resembles ripple cross-

stratification, but on a larger scale (Fig. 2.5). The set size can range from 5
– 10 centimetres up to several metres. As for ripples, both tabular and
trough cross-stratification occurs (Fig. 2.4). The latter is characterised by
concave upward erosional surfaces on which the inclined foreset bedding
accumulates. Megaripple cross-stratification is very common in high-energy
sand deposits such as fluvial and tidal channels and bars. Specific features
of the internal bedding can be utilised to distinguish between fluvial and tidal
settings, and will be discussed later.

Parallel stratification is formed by plane bed conditions and occurs as

parallel laminations, either horizontal or inclined.

To distinguish between cross-stratification and inclined parallel

stratification remember that in parallel lamination the laminations
are always parallel to the bedding surface, whereas in cross
strata, they are always at an angle to the bedding surface
(Fig.2.6).

It is always necessary to examine several planes of orientation to be sure of

the type of stratification.

Hummocky cross-stratification is a particular type of parallel stratification

formed by a combination of storm currents and waves, and will be
discussed in the next chapter.

Antidune cross-stratification is at present poorly known and very few

examples have been described.

The type of cross strata is a function of flow velocity, but will also vary with
grain size. For example megaripples will not form in very fine sand, and
ripples will not form in very coarse sand, as shown on Figure 2.7.

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Fig. 2.1 – Variation of bedforms in non-cohesive sediment subject to

increasing flow velocity.

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Fig. 2.2 – Currents transport patterns and stratification patterns associated with ripple
and megaripple bedforms.

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Fig. 2.3 – Relationship between traction and suspension in ripple bedding.

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2.2
Suspension and Mixed Structures
The deposition of granular sediment from turbulent suspension will typically
form a graded bed, representing the decrease of turbulence in the absence
of any simultaneous bedload transport. Sediments will form a massive
graded bed without any internal stratification (Fig. 2.8 C). Graded bedding is
a common feature in several different types of deposits: turbidites, storm
deposits, and crevasse splays. The thickness of graded beds can be
extremely variable, ranging from a few millimetres to several tens of
centimetres.

Deposition of sand from suspension is frequently accompanied by

simultaneous bedload transport, since the sediment-laden flow exhibits a
high velocity and bed shear. The structures which will then be formed,
suspension + bedload structures, are diagnostic of rapidly decelerating
flows containing large quantities of sediment in suspension. The typical
structures are shown in Figure 2.8. A bed accumulated under such
conditions will form an upward-fining unit, with a graded bed at the base,
representing very rapid deposition from suspension, and as the flow
decelerates, parallel stratification and climbing ripples. Climbing ripples
are diagnostic of suspension deposition and bedload occurring
simultaneously. They form by vertical aggradation at the same time as the
foreset laminae prograde (Fig. 2.6). Depending on the ratio between
deposition from suspension and bedload, the angle of climb of the ripples
will vary (Fig.2.3).

Sedimentary structures result from particular hydrodynamic

conditions, and can be utilised only to interpret flow conditions.
Sedimentary structures alone cannot determine the specific
depositional environment. For example, analysis of cross strata
can determine if a deposit results from fluvial or tidal currents, but
cannot determine if the setting was fluvial plain, deltaic or shelf.

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Fig. 2.4 – Bed form geometry and sedimentary structures.

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Fig.2.5 – Cross bedding scale

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Fig. 2.6 – Difference between cross stratification and parallel stratification.

note that in parallel stratification, the laminae are not necessarily horizontal,
but are always parallel to the depositional surface.

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Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

Fig. 2.7 – Observable bedforms vs. grain size

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 Chapters 1 & 2 – Fundamentals of Siliciclastic Sedimentology

TRACTION

INCREASING CURRENT VELOCITY

TRACTION + SUSPENSION

SUSPENSION

Fig. 2.8 – Depositional structures in sandstone.

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