The fold

Lecture notes of B.Sc. (Hons.) 1st Semester

Vipin Kumar
Research Scholar, Geology
Structural Geology and Geotectonics
Banaras Hindu University
Email: vipin12181@gmail.com
vipin.geo@bhu.ac.in
Hello: 08009165090
The Fold
 Fold
Undulation or waves in the stratified rocks
of Earth's crust.
Folds are developed at deeper crustal layer
or level.
Folds are developed due to ductile
(permanent) deformation.
 Fold terminology
A line of maximum curvature of folded bed. It is characterised by
Hinge of fold:
orientation and position. It may be horizontal inclined and vertical.

An imaginary plane which contains all the hinges and divides the fold as
Axial plane:
symmetrically as possible. Axial plane may be incline, horizontal and vertical or even
curved surface.

The line of intersection of axial plane with upper and lower surface of
Axis of folds:
any of the constituent bed. It is parallel to the hinge and sometimes used as
synonymous with hinge.

Sides of fold are called limbs or flanks. Other terms also used such as legs,
Limbs:
shanks, branches, and slopes.

Crest is a line along the highest part of fold. There is separate crest for
Crest of fold:
each beds. A plane or surface formed by all crests is called crestal plane.
Continue………

Trough is the line occupying

Trough of fold:
lowest part of fold. Plane containing such
lines may be called the trough plane.

Difference between crest and hinge is not

important in many phase of geology.
Crest=hinge=synonyms

Wavelength represented
Wavelength of fold:
by λ. Its distance between two successive
crest or trough of a folded bed.

Arc length: It is length of one complete fold.

 Classification of fold

Classification based on crass sectional appearance:

It is generally convex upwards where limbs

Antiform :
dipping away from axial plane.
Synform:
It is a fold which convex downward and
commonly dipping towards axial plane.
When the stratigraphy is known (AGE:
OLDER/YOUNGER) the terms are used below…
Any upward convex structure is termed
Anticline fold:
syncline
as an anticline. The older rock generally found in
the centre of curvature. anticline
The fold which is converses at
Syncline fold :
downward direction and dipping towards each
other. The older rocks outside of fold curvature.
 Continue……..

Anticlinorium and synclinorium:

1. Anticlinorium is a large
anticlinal with a number of
secondary folds of smaller
size developed on it.
2. A synclinorium is synclinal
with a number of secondary
fold of smaller size
developed on it.
Classification based on
Interlimb angle (fluety 1964)

Interlimb angle
Gentle fold: 180-120⁰

120-70⁰
Open fold: 120-70⁰

Close fold: 70-30⁰

Tight fold: 30-10⁰

Isoclinal fold: 0-10⁰

70-30⁰
Classification based on shape of
hinge:
Chevron fold: A chevron fold is one in which hinge are
sharp and angular.
A box fold is one in which the crest is broad
Box fold: Chevron
and flat. Two hinge present on both sides of the flat
crest.
A fold with sharp hinge and with
Arrow head(flame fold):
distinctly curved limbs. Folds are often flame shaped
with sigmoidal curved limbs.
The folds formed have rounded outer and
Cuspate fold:
cusp like inner arcs. It is generally developed by fine
grained rock.
Rounded fold: A fold with broad hinge zone compare to
limbs.
Fan fold is one in which both limbs are
Fan fold:
overturned. An anticlinal fan fold, the two limbs dips
towards each other while in synclinal fan fold two
limbs dips away from each other.
Classification based on position
of axial plane:

A fold in
Symmetrical or upright fold:
which dip of two limbs are equal and
axial plane is vertical.

Asymmetrical fold:If dip of two limbs of

a fold are unequal in opposite
direction and axial plane is inclined,
fold is called asymmetrical fold.

A fold in which
Overturned or over fold:
axial plane inclined and limb of fold
dips in same direction at unequal
angle.
Recumbent fold:In recumbent fold the
axial plane is horizontal or sub
horizontal.
Classification based on hinge
line

A fold which can be

Cylindrical fold:
generated by moving a line
parallel to itself. The hinge line is
straight and parallel to the fold
axis.

A fold which
Non-cylindrical fold:
cannot be generated by moving a
line parallel to itself. The hinge
line is curved.
Based on plunge of fold
axis:

Plunge of fold is the angle

between fold axis with horizontal
line laying in a common vertical
plane.

fold: A
Horizontal or non-plunging
fold whose axis is horizontal.
Plunging fold: A fold whose axis is
inclined.
Vertical fold: A fold with vertical
axis.
Classification of plunging fold based on
plunge angle

plunge angle
 Sub horizontal fold 0-10⁰
 Gentle fold 10-30⁰
 moderately plunging fold 30-60⁰
 Steeply plunging fold 60-80⁰
 Sub vertical fold 80-90⁰
Classification based on
thickness of layer and depth

Concentric or parallel fold: The bed

thickness is uniform during folding
and anticline become sharper with
depth but broader and more open
upward. Similarly syncline become
broader with depth but sharper
upward.
Similar fold: The thickness of the
fold layer at hinge is larger than
its limbs and always parallel to
the axial plane. This is developed
by plastic movement of material
from limb toward hinge during
folding by flowage in the
incompetent beds.
Based on geometric
relationship among
neighbouring structure

A train of fold with

Periodic fold:
more or less same geometry
between alternate point of
inflection.
Non periodic fold: A fold which are
not periodic.
A group of fold
Polyclinal fold:
with non parallel a axial plane
but with sub parallel hinge line.
A group of fold
Disharmonic fold:
in which the folds of one layer
differ strongly in size or style
from fold of an overlying and
underlying layer.
Continue…..
decollement
Decollement:
A process which gives
rise to a train of fold in a layer
which become detached from the
adjacent layer. The adjacent layer
remain more or less unfolded.

En echelon fold:
A minor fold developed
during strike-slip movement and
fold arrange in a step like or en
echelon fashion.
Classification based on fold curvature (Ramsay’s
classification)
Dip isogon: It is the line having equal angle on folded
limb. It can be obtain by drawing a line tangent to the
limb where both line represents equal angle with
horizontal. Line PQ in fig. is dip isogon.
Class 1: Fold with convergent dip isogons. The radius of
curvature of outer arc at hinge is larger than the inner
arc.
Sub classes:
1A: Fold in which the orthogonal thickness is minimum
at hinge. Such geometry implies that dip isogons are
strongly convergent.
1B: Fold in which orthogonal thickness constant along
the layer. i.e. parallel or concentric fold. In this case dip
isogons moderately convergent.
1C: Fold with orthogonal thickness at hinge is more than
its limbs. In this case the dip isogons weakly convergent.
Continue….

Class 2: A fold in which the dip isogons are

parallel. This geometry developed when
inner arc and outer arc have exactly same
shape. i.e. similar fold.

Class 3: Fold in which the dip isogons are

diverge towards fold core. In such fold the
radius of curvature of outer are is smaller
than inner arc. Orthogonal thickness also
maximum at fold.
Genetic classification
 Flexural fold
 Shear fold
 Flow fold
Flexural fold
It is sometimes referred to as true folding. For the purpose of analysis
the behaviour of flat bed compressive force acting parallel to the
bedding may be consider. If sheet is bent the convex side is subjected to
tension where as concave side is compression. The intermediate surface
of no strain. Convex side will lengthen and thin where as the concave
side will shorten and thicken.
The folding is analogous the bending thick package of paper and a very
important factor is sliding of bed pass one another. Of two adjacent beds
upper one moves towards anticlinal axis relative to the lower bed.
Shear fold
Shear fold also known as slip folding result from minute displacement
along closely spaced fracture.
Shear fold takes place by vertical slip along vertical slip plane.
 Flow fold
Flow fold similar to the shear fold except the slip plane are
infinitesimally close.
Flow fold develop when a layer of soft and hard rock subjected to
compressive force as result softer material flow like laminar flow of
water from limbs to the hinge. The thickness at hinge is more than its
limbs.
 Drag fold
When a competent (strong) bed slides past an incompetent (weak). Such
minor fold may form on the limbs of layer larger fold because of sliding of
beds past each other or they may develop beneath over thrust block.
The axial planes of drag fold are incline to the competent strata.
Some special type of fold:

Dome: An anticline uplift

structure with quaquaverasal dip,
i.e. beds dips in all direction
away from central region.
Basin: A large synclinal
depression with centroversal dip,
i.e. bed dips from all direction to
the central region.
A large basin in thousands of
square km. in area filled with
thousands of meter thick piles of
sediments known as geosyncline.
Geanticline is source area of
geosyncline sediments.
Causes of folding

Tectonic causes: Caused by

movement of earth’s crest.
1. Horizontal compression and coupling
2. Intrusion of magma
3. Intrusion of salt dome
4. Vertical force of unspecified causes.
Penetration of molten material into country
rocks.

Non tectonic causes: By

land slides and other superficial causes.
5. Hill creeping
6. Collapse structure
7. Glaciation
8. Contemporaneous deformation.
Fold developed movement of soft and hard layer.
Recognition of fold on field and geological map: repetition of beds.
End