SUBJECT NAME :

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

SUBJECT CODE :
GEO 151S

MODULE WEIGHT:
7 CREDITS

Presenter: Dr. OL Ayodele (PhD)

 Study unit outcomes:
 The Earth,

 Surface, Structure, and the

 Chemical composition etc.

 Early History of the Earth.
The Earth: Geologically, the Earth age and origin with the rest of the Solar
System are believed to have been formed about 4.57 billion years ago from an
enormous cloud of fragments of both icy and rocky materials, dust, which was
produced from the explosions of one or more large stars.

 The proportions of elements in this material generally similar to those shown in

the diagram below.
 Early History of the Earth (cont.)
 Although most of the cloud was made of hydrogen (H) and helium (He), the
material that accumulated to form the earth also included a significant amount of
heavier elements, particularly elements like carbon, oxygen, iron, alumium,
magnesium and silicon

 As the cloud started to contract, most of the mass accumulated towards the centre
to become the sun.

 Once a critical mass had been reached the sun started to heat up through nuclear
fusion of hydrogen into helium.

 In the region relatively to the sun-within the orbit of what is now Mars – the heat
was sufficient for most of the lighter elements to evaporate, and these were driven
outward by the solar wind to the area of the orbits of Jupiter and other gaseous
planets.

 As a result, the four inner planets-Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are “rocky”
with metallic centres in their composition, these elements called terrestrial planets
because they are “Earthlike.” In contrast, the four major outer planets, Jupiter,
Saturn, Neptune and Uranus are called the Jovian planets and are composed
primarily of liquids and gases with small rocky and metallic cores.
The Solar System Planets:

Note; the asteroids are small rocky bodies moving round the sun.
The Solar System Planets:

Asteroid is a small rocky body

orbiting round the sun, i.e. A
space rock.
 It has three types such as; C-
type know as Chondrite;
consist of clay and silicate.
 S-type made up of silicate
materials and Nickel-Iron
 The M-type are metallic
asteroid of Nickel-iron
 Study unit outcome cont.
The Earth’s surface;
 People experience with Earth is limited to
its surface.

 But, Earth has a complicated interior.

 Earth is characterized by….

… An internally generated magnetic field.

…A layered interior (Solid and liquid layers)

…A gaseous envelope i.e. atmosphere.

 Study unit outcome cont; The Earth’s Structure
The Earth’s surface;
Layers of the earth
The Earth’s surface continue. Study unit outcome cont.
 Five Key Characteristics About Earth’s Structure:

1. Earth has a dipole magnetic field that deflects solar wind and protects earth’s
surface from solar radiation.

2. Earth has a stratified atmosphere, mainly composed of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen
(O2).

3. Earth is made of a variety of minerals, glasses, melts, fluids and volatiles, all left
behind during birth of the solar system.

4. The Earth has layers: a thin silicate crust, a thick iron- & magnesium silicate
mantle, and a thick metallic core.

5. Physically, the earth can be divided into a rigid outer lithosphere and a
plastic/ductile asthenosphere.
The Earth’s surface continue. Study unit outcome cont.
Earth’s Magnetic Field  The Earth’s magnetic field is produced by the geodynamo i.e.
Flow in the liquid iron outer core creates a magnetic field.

 Characteristic of Magnetic Field.

1. Magnetic field region affected by force emanating from a
magnetic.

2. Magnetic field grows stronger a separating distance

decreases.

3. Magnetic field attracts or repels magnetically charged or

moving electrically charged objects.

4. It compasses work because Earth is a large magnet.

5. Like a bar magnet, Earth’s magnetic field is a dipole,(has both

a N and S pole).

6. Solar wind contains electromagnetic particles that are

deflected by earth’s field. These particles distort the shape of
earth’s magnetic field in space.

7. Van Allen belts – two belts in the inner magnetic field where
high energy cosmic rays area trapped. Protects us from solar
radiation!
 Study unit outcome cont.
The Earth’s surface;
 Layers of the earth: Using the science and seismology, scientists have established that the
Earth consists of three basic layers, namely the large iron rich “CORE”, the “MANTLE”,
and a thin “CRUST” at the surface each with its own characteristics.

 Geophysical data (studies from seismic) indicate that the earth’s interior is zoned also
provides information on the different densities of the different layers. Other kinds of data
indicate that the earth layers are of different composition.

 The inner core and crust are solid, but the outer core is liquid and mantle layers are semi-
liquid.

 The core is made up of mostly iron and nickel.

 The upper mantle made up of minerals such as olivine and pyroxene.

 The continental crust consists of granitic rocks that enriched with Silicon and Aluminium
elements referred to as –SIAL.

 The oceanic crust consists mainly of basaltic rocks that enriched in Silicon and Magnesium
elements – SIMA.

 The summary of the nature and composition of the Earth will be shown in the diagram and
table, next slides below.
 Study unit outcome cont.
The Earth’s Structure

 Note the
external
layers of the
Earth are;
Hydrosphere
and
Atmosphere.
The Earth’s Structure Study unit outcome cont.

 Note the external

layers of the Earth
are; Hydrosphere
and Atmosphere.
 Study unit outcome cont.
The Earth’s Structure
 The External layers of the Earth’s Structure

1. Earth’s Atmosphere:

 Is a distinct layers of gas surround the solid

part of the earth.

• Composition is uniform regardless of altitude

78% N2, 21% O2, All others ~ 1% such as Ar,
CO2, CH4, H2O, Ne, CO, SO2
 Some other Planets have atmospheres too!
But, none have N2 & O2 as dominant gasses

 Earth was oxygen-free until ~2.5 Ga.

The Earth’s Structure (cont.) Study unit outcome cont.
 The External layers of the Earth’s
Structure

1. Earth’s Atmosphere:
• The atmospheric pressure decreases with
increasing altitude
 Reflects# of molecules / volume
 Lower pressure = less molecules /
volume

• Pressure is caused by the weight of

overlying material
 Upper atmosphere has less material
above it, thus, pressure is lower.
 99% of atmosphere is below 50km, the
rest is between 50 and 500km.
The Earth’s Structure (cont.) Study unit outcome cont.
 The External layers of the Earth’s
Structure
1. Earth’s Atmosphere:

 Earth’s Atmosphere is divide into

distinct layers based on altitude.

 Exosphere (very thin ~ 500 km)

atmosphere merges with space.

 Thermosphere (> 90km) where space

shuttles orbit.

 Mesosphere (50 -90km) Meteors burn up

here.

 Stratosphere (12 -50km) stable air; good

for jets.

 Tropopause (11 -12 km)

 Troposphere (0 -11km), mixing layer, all
weather is limited to this layer.
 “Tropo” = Greek for “turning”
The Earth’s Structure (cont.) Study unit outcome cont.
 The External layers of the Earth’s
Structure

2. Earth’s Hydrosphere :
• Earth’s surface = 30% land, ~70% water
unlike other known planet.

• Hydrosphere = The hydrosphere refers to

the most important resource which is
water includes oceans, lakes, seas, river
and groundwater, snow and glaciers. It
known as all forms of water in the Earth’s
environment. Plants and animals
organisms rely on the hydrosphere for
their survival as water is essential.

3. Biosphere = The biosphere is composed

of all living organisms, including plants and
animals. Most of the living organisms are
found up to 3m below ground to 30m above
it and also into 200m of the ocean and seas.
 Study unit outcome cont.
The Earth’s Structure (cont.)
 The External layers of the Earth’s
Structure
4. Earth’s Lithosphere:
 The lithosphere refers to the solid, rocky
crust that covers the entire planets.

 This solid rocky crust is composed of

different rocks that have been grouped
into three categories based on processed
of formation. These three groups include:
Metamorphic rocks, Igneous rock and
Sedimentary rocks.

 Lithosphere includes various number of

different landforms such as mountains,
valleys, rocks, minerals and soil.
Earth’s surface is composed into two types of
 Lithosphere is constantly changing lithospheres, known as the oceanic and
during to the forces and pressure such as continental lithospheres.
the sun, wind, ice, water and chemical
changes.
 Study unit outcome cont.
 Earth’s Interior Layers
The Earth have layered interiors.
1. Crust;
o Continental crust
o Oceanic crust

2. Mantle;
o Upper Mantle
o Lower Mantle

3 Core
o Outer – liquid
o Inner – solid.
 Study unit outcome cont.
The nature and composition of the Earth’s interior.
 Earth is comprised of layers:
1. The crust

2. The Mantle

3. The Core:

but the Core is divided into;

(a) Outer Core

(b) Inner Core.

 Study unit outcome cont.
 Earth’s Interior Layers
The Crust;
o The outermost “Skin” of the Earth
with variable thickness. divided into
Continental crust
Oceanic crust

Thickest under mountain ranges (70km -

40 miles)
Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (3km -
2 miles)

o The Mohorovicic discontinuity or

“Moho” is the lower boundary.
---Separates the crust from the upper
mantle.
The surface boundary between the
earth's crust and the mantle, lying at a
depth of about 7–12 km under the ocean
bed and 40–50 km under the continents.

---Discovered in 1909 by Andrija

Mohorovicic.
 Study unit outcome cont.
 Earth’s Interior Layers
The Crust;
o Continental crust: Underlies the
continents.
-- Average rock density about 2.7 g/cm3
-- Average thickness 35 -40km
-- Felsic composition(silicate minerals,
magma, and rock that enriched in lighter
elements such as silicon, oxygen,
aluminium, sodium and potassium) .
Average rock type is Granite.
--Less dense: “floats higher”

o Oceanic crust: Underlies the ocean

basins.
-- Density about 3.0 g/cm3
-- Average thickness 7 – 10 km
--Mafic composition (rock reach in
magnesium and iron). Average rock type
is Basalt / Gabbro
--More dense: “floats lower”
 Study unit outcome cont.
 Earth’s Interior Layers
The Mantle;
o Solid rock layer between the crust
and the core.

o 2,885 km thick, the mantle is 82% of

Earth’s volume.

o Mantle composition = ultramafic rock

called peridotite

o Below ~100 – 150km, the rock is hot

enough to flow.

o It convects: hot mantle rises, cold

mantle sinks.

o Three subdivisions : upper,

transitional and lower.
The structure and Study unit outcome cont.
composition of the
Earth’s interior

The Mantle:

Diagram showing
the structure and
composition of the
Earth’s interior.
The Earth’s surface; Layers of the earth The structure and composition of the
Earth’s interior
 Earth’s Interior Layers Study unit outcome cont.
The Mantle
 The earth’s surface
compose into two
types of
lithospheres.
The oceanic &
continental
lithospheres. These
two lithospheres are
found in the upper
mantle.

o The oceanic lithosphere found at the uppermost layers

of the mantle which is topped with a thin heavy oceanic
crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere
meet.

o The continental lithosphere also located at the

uppermost layers of mantle that is topped with a thick
light continental crust. Is the place where the atmosphere,
biosphere and hydrosphere meet with lithosphere.
The Earth’s surface and Interior Study unit outcome cont.
Layers.
The Earth’s surface; Layers of the earth
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere of the mantle .
 Starting at a depth about 100
km below the earth’s surface,
rock in the mantle usually reach
high temperatures and they tend
to lose much of their strength.

 This region of the upper mantle

where rocks become easily
deformed is called the
Asthenosphere (or weak sphere).

 In the approximate outer 100

km of the earth, is a region
where rocks are harder and
more rigid than those in the
asthenosphere. This hard outer
layer of the earth crust is called
Lithosphere( or rock sphere),
which is rigid, cool and brittle.

Diagram showing the structural relationship of Lithosphere and Asthenosphere.

The Earth’s surface and Interior Study unit outcome cont.
Layers.

 The Core:
o An iron-rich sphere with a radius of
3,471 km

o Outer core
--- Liquid iron – nickel- sulfur
--- 2,255km thick
----Density – 10 -12 g/cm3

o Inner Core
--- Solid iron-nickel alloy
--- Radius of 1,22okm
--- Density – 13 g/cm3
The flow in the outer core generates the
magnetic field.
  Chemical composition of the earth
 Bulk Earth composition are:
 Chemical composition of the earth
  Chemical composition of the earth
The average chemical composition of the Earth’s crust (Crustal Composition).

From the table, It can be seen that silicon

and oxygen are the most abundant elements
in the Earth’s crust.

 It is for this reason that the most

abundant minerals of the earth’s crust are
the silicate minerals– which consisting
essentially of silicon-oxygen tetrahedral,
that are linked in a variety of ways.