GEOLOGY

Science that deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance, history and the
processes that act on it
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
• Branch of geology that deals with the present physical properties of earth
a. PETROLOGY
• Deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence,
and types of ROCKS
• Most important geology in Civil Engineering point of view

b. MINERALOGY
• Deals with the formation, composition, occurrence, types, properties and uses of
MINERALS
c. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
• Also known as GEOTECTONIC or TECTONIC geology
• The study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their
deformation history
• Deals with the internal structure of rocks which may result to the occurrence of
faults, joints and folds
d. GEOMORPHOLOGY
• The study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface and its relation to its
geological structure
• Deals with the development / transformation of its landforms
e. GEOPHYSICS
• The study of the physical properties of earth (e.g. Density, magnetism, texture, etc)
f. GEOCHEMISTRY
• Deals with the occurrence, distribution, mobility and abundance of elements in the
earth’s crust
2. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
• branch of geology that focuses on the preserved evidence of geological events
a. STRATIGRAPHY
• Concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to
geological time scale
• Used for study of archaeological remains
b. PALEONTOLOGY
• Deals with the study of life of geologic past.
• involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils preserved in rocks
c. OCEANOGRAPHY
• Deals with the study of all aspects of the ocean
• Includes marine life and ecosystem

** ALLIED BRANCHES
• applies knowledge of geology in other sciences and/or field
1. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY/ GEOLOGY ENGINEERING
• application of geology in Civil Engineering
2. MINING GEOLOGY
• application of geology in Mining Engineering
3. GEOHYDROLOGY / HYDROGEOLOGY
• deals with groundwater movement
Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering
• provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability, and other properties
• knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies helps in planning and
carrying out major civil engineering works
• knowledge about ground water quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation and many other civil
engineering works
• foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with
the geology of the area where they are to be built
• Helps greatly in interpreting drilling data for foundation works
• the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary in
tunneling, road construction, canals, docks and in determining stability of cuts
and slopes
• natural formation of soil materials is necessary in soil mechanics
• a detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared prior major engineering projects
• stability of civil engineering structure is considerably increased if the geological
feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc. in the
rock beds are properly located and suitably treated
• Planning and design, and cost and safety depends on soil conditions

EARTH STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
• The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be
categorized in two manners:

a. Chemical/ Elemental compositions

b. Mechanical/physicalproperties
 Figure 1. Layers of the Earth

COMPOSITIONAL (CHEMICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

• more commonly discussed layers of earth; layers are defined based on its chemical
or elemental composition

Figure 2. Compositional Layers of Earth

1. CRUST
• Consist of several elements
• 3 to 5 miles thick under the ocean and approximately 25 miles thick under the
continents
 Figure 2. Composition of Earth Crust

2 TYPES of CRUST
a. OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic) 71%
• Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flow;
or cools deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro
• Sediments coat the seafloor, thickest near the shore

b. CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic) 29%

• Made up of different types of rocks
• Average composition is granite which is less dense than mafic igneous rocks
oceanic crust
• Thicker part of the crust

2. MANTLE
• Layer under the crust, compromises 82% of Earth volume
• About 1, 800 miles deep
• Consist mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron
• Heat causes rocks to rise

**CONDUCTION
– heat transfer through rapid collision of atoms which only happens in solid –
heat flows from warmer to cooler places until it reaches same temperature
**CONVECTION
– process of material that can move and flow and develops convection currents

3. CORE
• Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel
a. Inner core
• Solid part of the core made of iron
• Has a radius of about 760 miles according to NASA
• Hottest layer of earth at 7000°C
b. Outer core
• Liquid part of the core composed of nickel-iron alloy
• About 1,355 miles thick
 • Temperature at 5000°C

MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

• layers of earth defined and divided based on the behaviors of the layers;
corresponds to the mechanical properties of the layers

a. LITHOSPHERE
• the solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle
and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure
• bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere
• sometimes called the Geosphere itself
b. ASTHENOSPHERE
• the soft upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, • relatively
low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur. c.
MESOSPHERE:
• layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core; essentially the lower
mantle.
• Despite high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the
movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high
temperature, thus making it extremely rigid.
d. OUTER CORE
• extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds
the inner core
• extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases •
the only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid
• Strong magnetic field is caused by convection
e. INNER CORE
• solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers
• Spins at different speed than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the
Earth’s magnetic field
 Figure 3. Mechanical Layers of Earth

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

• developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by Alfred Wegener
• all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous, single landmass called
Pangaea, existed about 240 million years ago and began breaking up about 200
million years ago

Other supercontinents:
 Rodinia existed more than a billion years ago.
-oldest of the supercontinents, formed during the PRECAMBRIAN period

Pannotia formed about 600 million years ago

-formed at the end of the PRECAMBRIAN period
-Rodinia that came back together and was known as Pan-African
orogeny -also known as the Greater Gondwana

PLATE TECTONICS
• Scientific theory of the large-scale motion of seven(7) large plates and movements
of larger number of smaller plates
• Began between 3.3 to 3.5 B years ago
• Average tectonic plate thickness in the lithosphere is about 100 km

7. Major Tectonic Plates

• South American Plate (43, 600, 000 sq km)
• Indo-Australian Plate (58, 900,000 sq km)
• Antarctic Plate (60, 900, 000 sq km)
• African Plate (61, 300, 000sq km)
• Eurasian Plate (67, 800, 000 sq km)
• North American Plate (75, 900, 000 sq km)
• Pacific Plate (103, 300, 000 sq km)

TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. OCEANIC PLATES
• Made of oceanic crust; composed mostly of magnesium and silicon minerals
2. CONTINENTAL PLATES
• Made of continental crust; composed mainly of aluminum and silicon materials

BOUNDARIES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
• Occur between plates which move past each other by sliding
• Plates gets minimal damage
• Locations of these boundaries are called FAULTS
 2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
• Plates slide apart from each other
• Moves in opposite directions
• Often occurs in seafloors, resulting to a new one
• volcanic activity produces a mid ocean ridge and small earthquakes.

3. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
• Plates move against each other
• One plate goes underneath another plate
• Volcanoes and mountains are formed at these boundaries

MOVEMENT OF PLATES
Mantle convection drives plate tectonic

1. Hot mantle rises at the ridge axis, creating new ocean crust.
2. The top of convection cell moves horizontally away from the ridge crest ,as does the
new seafloor
3. The outer limbs of the convection cells plunge down into the deeper mantle,
dragging oceanic crust, at the deep-sea trenches
4. The material sinks to the core and move horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where It rise again.

PLATE TECTONICS

FORMATIONS DUE TO MOVEMENTS OF PLATE TECTONICS

• PACIFIC RING OF FIRE
Most ocean trenches circle the Pacific in the "Ring of Fire," which also includes
active volcanoes and earthquake zones.

• MARIANA TRENCH: result of convergent boundary between the Pacific and Mariana
Plates (Pacific moves underneath Mariana)

• PUERTO RICO TRENCH, the deepest spot in the Atlantic Ocean, is created where the
oceanic crust of the North American plate (carrying the western Atlantic Ocean) is
being subducted beneath the oceanic crust of the smaller Caribbean plate
• HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN RANGE: result of convergent boundary between the Eurasian
 and Indian Plates

• The ALPS in New Zealand are fold mountains created as the tiny Adriatic microplate
rotates clockwise against the Eurasian plate to the north.

• the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the South American plate, resulting in the
ANDES MOUNTAINS
 •
JUAN DE FUCA RIDGE: a mid-ocean spreading center and divergent plate boundary
that separates the Pacific Plate to the west and the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east.

• Iceland: where the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE separates the North American and
Eurasian plate
• The EAST PACIFIC RISE is a mid-oceanic ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary
located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean. It separates the Pacific Plate to the
west from (north to south) the North American Plate, the Rivera Plate, the Cocos
Plate, the Nazca Plate, and the Antarctic Plate.

• the Arabian, Indian, and African plates are drifting apart, forming the GREAT RIFT
VALLEY in Africa. The Dead Sea fills the rift with seawater

• the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS along the pacific is an island arc formed by overriding of the
North American plate on the Pacific plate.
• The Ryukyu Islands, also known as the Nansei Islands or the Ryukyu Arc. An island arc
formed by the Uruma fluctuation – earth’s crust movement that occurs along with
the formation of the Ryukyu Islands. Since its formation, the islands have repeated
uplifting and sinking.

LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES

EARTH PROCESS
- dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface
Constructive process: any process that builds earth material or landforms e.g.
erosion, transportation of sediments
Destructive process: any process that breaks down earth material or destroy
landforms
e.g. weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruption

WEATHERING
• breakdown of rocks at earth’s surface under the influence of certain physical and
chemical agencies
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTH PROCESSES:
• In general, no site is selected for any type of important work on the moving
dunes because such dunes are always a source of trouble
• moving dunes damage certain important works
• IF compelled to select such a site, special methods should be adopted to check
the motion of the moving dunes

FACTORS affecting Weathering:

1. nature of Rocks
2. length of time
3. climate
PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
1. DISINTEGRATION
• the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the mechanical
agencies of physical agents
2. DECOMPOSITION
• the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form new components by
the chemical actions of the physical agents
3. DENUDATION
• term used when the earth surface is worn away by the chemical and
mechanical actions of physical agents and the lower layers are
exposed

TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
• Physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain atmospheric
agents
• A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then
into particles smaller dimensions
• most active in cold, dry, and higher areas of the earth surface
• Temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical weathering

Exfoliation
• Curved plates of rock are stripped also known as onion-skin weathering •
Often results in dome-shaped hills or dome rocks
• Occurs along planes of parting called joints
• caused by unequal expansion and contraction, since some rocks are either
colder or warmer on the outer surface
** FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING
• Water enters cracks on rocks and freezes when temperature drops and melts
and seeps deeper in the crack. Process repeats until rock splits completely

2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
• The chemical decomposition of the rock
• internal structure of mineral is altered by addition or removal of elements due to
the chemical reaction between the atmosphere and the rocks
• takes place in the presence of water which dissolves many active gases from the
atmosphere
• conditions are defined primarily by chemical composition of the rocks humidity
and the environmental surrounding the rock under attack

Spheroidal Weathering
• a form of chemical weathering, caused by penetration of water at bounding
joints/ fractures, attacking from all sides
• concentric or spherical shells of decayed rock are successively loosened
and separated from a block of rock
3. THERMAL STRESS WEATHERING
• sometimes known as isolation weathering
• Contributes to both physical and chemical weathering
• Temperature change is important in arid and semi-arid regions • Rocks split
apart into fragments when expanding and contracting due to changes in
temperature (physical)
• Moisture alters composition of rock minerals (chemical)

2 MAIN TYPES
• thermal fatigue
• caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point
• happen when a surface is repeatedly heated and cooled
• thermal shock
 • failure occurs immediately during a single, rapidly applied thermal load

4. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
• Plants and animals can influence rocks
• Roots burrow into the rock, weakening the structure of the rock until it breaks
away

EARTH PROCESS BY WIND:

1. EROSION
a. DEFLATION
• Process of wind removing loose material from flat dry areas, uncemented
sediments
• Occurs in deserts, dry lake beds, floodplains, and glacial washout plains
b. ABRASION
• Scraping of rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles
 2. TRANSPORTATION
• The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided into two

a. Bed load
• larger and heavier particles such as sands or gravels
• moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the earth surface
b. Suspended load
• finer clay or dust particles which are lifted by the moving winds by a distance
of hundreds of meters above the earths surface

3. DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT
• sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits
a. Sand dunes
• huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind blown sand •
sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape
• often found to migrate from one place to another due to change in the
direction and velocity of wind

3 Types of Sand Dunes:

Barchans or Crescent-Shape dunes
• most common occurrence and triangular in section
• steep side:
• facing away from the direction of wind
• inclined at an angle of about 30°to 33°
• Gentle side
• lies on the windward side
• makes an angle about 10° to15°
 • maximum height: 335 meters; horn to horn width: 350 meters

Transverse Dunes
• similar to a barchan in section
• not curved in plan like barchans
• its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing winds

Longitudinal Dunes
• elongated ridges of sand with their longer axis broadly parallel to the
direction of the prevailing wind
• 3 m height and 200 m long in average

•
 b. Loess
• a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment of which
extensive deposits occur

BY WATER (COASTAL PROCESSES):

1. EROSION
• wearing away of rock along the coastline
• Caused by Destructive waves on the coastline
• occurs where waves have direct contact with the rock

a. Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they smash against the
cliff. Air becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with explosive
force causing the rock to break apart.

b. Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform or cliff base much like
sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.

c. Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They
break apart to become smaller and more rounded.

d. Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks. In the UK, chalk and
limestone cliffs (soft rock) are prone to this type of erosion.

2. TRANSPORTATION
a. Solution - when minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea
water and then carried in solution. The load is not visible.
b. Suspension - small particles such as silts and clays are suspended in the flow of
the water.
c. Saltation - where small pieces of shingle or large sand grains are bounced along
the seabed.
d. Traction - where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the seabed.
 3. MASS MOVEMENT
a. Rockfall – bits of rock fall off the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering
b. Mudflow – saturated soil flows down a slope
c. Landslide – large blocks of rock slide downhill
d. Rotational slip – saturated soil slumps down a curved surface

4. DEPOSITION
• When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying •
occur on coastlines that have constructive waves
Factors leading to deposition include:

• waves starting to slow down and lose energy

• shallow water
• sheltered areas, eg bays
• little or no wind
GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
the science of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the surface
of the earth
GROUND WATER
• Also called subsurface water
• Water that occurs below the surface of Earth
• Occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata •
an important source of water supply throughout the world
• 0.58% of the total water resources available in nature, 22.21% fresh water part
and 2.6% of reservoirs
• Located at 4km depth in earth’s surface
 • used in irrigation, industries, urban and rural home continues to increase •
Regulated by

• quantum and speed of rains

• extent of vaporization during rain
• Temperature
• slope of land
• dryness of air
• porosity and permeability of rocks
• vegetative cover
• water absorbing capacity of soil

ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER

1. Meteoric water:
• Main source of groundwater
• Received in the form of rain and snow through infiltration of pores, fissures and
joints
2. Connate Water:
• Exists in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks of seas and lakes •
Also called sedimentary water
3. Magmatic Water:
• Converts water after condensation of vapor as result of volcanic action at time
of entering hot rocks

GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE
• Groundwater occurrence is controlled by geology
• Groundwater occurs when water recharges the subsurface through cracks and
pores in soil and rock

1. Zone of Aeration (unsaturated)

• Consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by air •
Soil Water zone
• Sub-soil zone
• Capillary zone
2. Zone of Saturation (saturated)
• All interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure
• Extends from the upper surface of saturation down to the underlying
impermeable rock
• Water table (Phreatic surface) occurs if there is no overlying impermeable
strata
• Forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation

4 Types of Geological Formations

1. Aquifers
• A saturated formation of earth material
• Stores water and yield sufficient quantity
• Transmits water relatively easily due to high permeability
• Sand and gravel form good aquifers
TYPES OF AQUIFERS
a. Unconfined Aquifer
• Also called water table
• Upper water surface is at atmospheric pressure
• Able to rise and fall
• Usually closer to earth's surface

b. Confined Aquifer
• Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers
• Below the land surface saturated with water
• Bound by impermeable layers above and below
• Under pressure
• If penetrated by a well, water rises above the top of aquifer

c. Leaky Aquifers
• Also called semi-confined aquifers
• both of Upper and lower boundaries are aquitards
• Or one boundary is an aquitard and the other is an aquiclude

2. Aquitard
• Formation through which seepage is possible
• Yield significant compared to an aquifer
• Partly permeable
• Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it
3. Aquiclude
• A porous but not permeable geological formation
• May bear water but do not yield
• Argillaceous rocks, clay and shale are typical examples

4. Aquifuge
• Neither a porous nor permeable geological formation
• No interconnected openings
• Cannot transmit or absorb water
• Suitable for ground water occurrence
• Massive granites and quartzite are typical examples
 EARTHQUAKE
• any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through
Earth’s rocks; occur most often along geologic faults
• the release of sudden and extreme energy that is caused by shifting in the Earth's
crust

SEISMOLOGY
• the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth
FAULTS
• narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another • a planar or
gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where compression or
tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of
the fracture
• may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTHQUAKE

• time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted
• Remedy is to provide additional factors in the design of structure to minimize the
losses due to shocks of an earthquake
• collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area •
assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to earthquake
shocks
• provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to sever earth
shocks

PRECAUTIONS to make building earthquake resilient

 • foundation should rest on a firm rock bed
• Grillage foundations preferably be provided
• Excavation of foundation must be up to same level throughout the building •
concrete should be laid in rich mortar and continuous
• Masonry must be in max 1:4 cement mortar ratio
• R.C slab, cantilevers, projections, parapets, domes should be provided •
All parts of building must be tied firmly with each other
• Building should be uniform height
• Best materials should be used.

CLASSIFICATION:
1. Normal Slip
• the crust is being pulled apart, the overlying (hanging-wall) block moves down
with respect to the lower (foot wall) block
2. Reverse Slip
• the crust is being compressed, the hanging-wall block moves up and over the
footwall block – slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting 3.
Strike Slip
• Crustal blocks move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical
faults
i.Sinistral Strike Slip
• far side moves to the left
ii. Dextral Strike Slip
• far side moves to the right
b. Oblique Slip
• involves various combinations of these basic movements

FOCUS
• exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates
EPICENTER
• the part of the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
INTENSITY
• severity of earthquake shaking
• based on actual effects produced by the quakes on the earth
MAGNITUDE
• quantitative measure of the size of the earthquake at its source •
based on the total energy released
MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE
• measures the intensity of an earthquake by observing its effect on people, the
environment and the earth’s surface
• labels an earthquake from I to XII depending on the effects of the earthquake
RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE
• measures the energy released by an earthquake using a seismograph • assigns
earthquakes a number between 1 and 10 in order of increasing intensity

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
1. DUE TO SUPERFICIAL MOVEMENTS:
 • feeble earthquakes are caused due to superficial movements
• dashing waves cause vibrations along the seashore
• Water descending along high waterfalls, impinges the valley floor and causes
vibrations along the neighboring areas
• At high altitudes the snow falling is an avalanche
2. DUE TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:
• Volcanic eruptions cause feeble tremors in the surface of the earth • cause a
severe vibration on the adjoining area and have really disastrous effects 3. DUE TO
FOLDING OR FAULTING:
• caused due to folding of the layers of the earth’s crust
• are more disastrous and are known as tectonic earthquakes
• directly or indirectly change the structural features of the earth crust

CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE
a. BASED ON DEPTH OF FOCUS:
• SHALLOW
• Lies anywhere up to 50 km below surface
• INTERMEDIATE
• Originates 50km to 300 km below the surface
• DEEP SEATED
b. BASED ON CAUSE OF ORIGIN
• TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
• Due to relative movements of crystal block on faulting
• NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
• Due to volcanic eruptions or landslides

c. BASED ON INTENSITY
• Initially given by Rossi and Ferel (Scale 1-10)
• Based on the sensation of people and damage caused
Later modified by Mercalli and later by Wood and Neumann
EARTHQUAKE FAULTS
• Sierra Nevada Fault in California,
United Statescasued 1872 Lone
Pine Earthquake of M 7.4 – 8.3

• Sparta Fault in Greece caused M7.2

Sparta Earthquake in 464BC

• Independence Valley Fault system

in Nevada United States caused
2008 Wells earthquake – M6.0

• Glarust Thrust in Switzerland exist

during Cenozoic Period.
• Kern Canyon Fault in Sierra
Nevada, California is a thrust
fault
• Seattle Fault in Washington is an
active thrust Fault
• San Andreas Fault, had a maximum
movement of 6 metres (20 feet)
during the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake is a 1300km Dextral
strike-slip fault
• North Anatolian Fault, during the
İzmit earthquake of 1999, moved
more than 2.5 metres (8.1 feet) is
a Dextral Strike Slip Fault
• Palu-Koro Fault in Indonesia is a
500km Sinistral strike-slip fault
caused M7.5 Sulawesi
Earthquake in 2018
• Septentrional-Orient Fault Zone is an
active Sinistral strike-slip fault in
the Caribbean. 1842 Earthquake
in Cap Haitien(M8.1)
• Marikina Valley Fault System :
Dextral Strike Slip

• 1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture,

combination of reverse and
dextral movement.